Barriers to Employment: Prison Time
by John Pawasarat, Employment and Training Institute, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2007

Introduction
This paper was prepared at the request of Legal Action of Wisconsin and the Private Industry
Council of Milwaukee County to assess the legal and employment needs of prisoners released
from Wisconsin correctional facilities. Released prisoners are a rapidly growing population in
the City of Milwaukee, one which is seldom acknowledged except for media reports on the
residences of sexual assault offenders. The sheer numbers and dramatic increases of the
population make it one which merits attention. Previous Employment and Training Institute
reports have examined the transportation, child care, and educational barriers to employment for
low-income Milwaukee County residents. This analysis details barriers facing adults released
from or currently in Wisconsin Department of Corrections (DOC) facilities.
Released prisoners are one of the most difficult populations to serve and least likely to be
successfully engaged in sustained employment due to persistent legal problems, low education
attainment levels, high recidivism rates, and driver’s license suspension and revocation
problems. The stigma of being an ex-inmate alone and the limitations it places on those released
and expected to become gainfully employed are compounded by further legal sanctions placed
on those who have spent time in correctional facilities. Parents and non-parents released from
DOC facilities face major barriers which impact their chances of reuniting with their families and
securing regular employment.
-

Housing barriers face those released from prison and applying for public housing
subsidies. Some may not be eligible at all for subsidized housing, while others are
subject to the practice of sharing criminal records with Section 8 landlords.

-

Education barriers have been instituted for the population of felons with drug-related
convictions which prevent them from obtaining Pell grants to attend vocational education
classes, college, and other post-secondary education programs.

-

Income maintenance barriers are most severe for those with drug convictions, making
them ineligible for food stamps or TANF services.

This report focuses on the legal and transportation barriers to employment for 26,772
adults released from Wisconsin correctional facilities since 1993 and most likely to be
currently living in Milwaukee County, along with the characteristics of 10,308 Milwaukee
County residents still incarcerated in Wisconsin correctional facilities as of June 2006. The
driver’s license status and low educational levels of the populations stand in sharp contrast to the
limited number of jobs available in the neighborhoods where these prisoners are released.
Previous ETI research on the welfare-to-work population has shown the driver’s license to be
more important than educational status in accessing and retaining employment. The most recent
May 2006 employer job survey (conducted by the UWM Employment and Training Institute for the
Private Industry Council of Milwaukee County) found that three-fourths of the job openings in the
metro area were located in areas not easily accessed by public transportation. In the CDBG
1

(Community Development Block Grant-targeted) central city Milwaukee neighborhoods where
most prisoners are released, the survey showed a job gap of 7 to 1, that is, 7 jobseekers for every 1
full-time job available. Further, ex-offenders seeking work in these (and other) neighborhoods must
compete with jobseekers who have a valid driver’s license and who do not have a prison record.

I. Recommendations
1. The DOC should assess the driver’s license status of prisoners immediately upon their
entry to the DOC facilities as part of an employability plan to target those most likely to
benefit from license restoration initiatives. Those prisoners should be identified who will be
required to serve a waiting period after application for their driver’s license so that the
application wait period can be served during incarceration in the DOC facility.
2. The state Department of Corrections should redirect existing remediation and reentry
resources to launch an in-house driver’s license restoration initiative which would:
-

Prepare inmates to take the written driver’s license test.

-

Allow inmates to apply for a driver’s license if they do not have a current license.

-

Assign Department of Transportation staff to administer the driver’s license written test
prior to release.

-

Schedule appointments for the road test immediately upon release.

-

Create a way for inmates to work off reinstatement and application fees through prison
work programs or points for good behavior.

3. The state Department of Workforce Development should document the pre- and postemployment experience of adults released from and admitted to DOC facilities using the
state Department of Workforce Development wage match data to gauge the effectiveness of
post-release employment initiatives and to identify populations most likely to benefit from
pre-employment and driver’s license initiatives.
4. The City of Milwaukee should examine the negative cost impacts of City of Milwaukee
imposed suspension-related fines on both the released and incarcerated populations.
The City of Milwaukee is responsible for most of the driver’s license suspensions in
Milwaukee County using suspension orders for failures to pay fines not related to serious
driving violations.
5. Leadership and coordination between the Department of Corrections, the Department of
Workforce Development, the Private Industry Council and community partners are necessary
to target sufficient direct services to the DOC population in Milwaukee County
6. Given the concentration of ex-offenders in Milwaukee, increased funding is needed for
education and training support for Milwaukee residents who are ex-offenders.
2

II. Methodology
This analysis uses the Department of Corrections June 30, 2006 State of Wisconsin public
inmate data file available biannually and containing detailed information on each incarceration
and release of adult inmates since 1993. The DOC files analyzed include demographic
characteristics as well the history of violations resulting in incarceration. The database includes
individuals in the Wisconsin Department of Corrections system but does not include inmates in
the House of Corrections and jails.
Additionally, state Department of Transportation files on revocations, suspensions, recent
address, and driver’s license status were matched with the DOC data to assess legal and
transportation problems facing the population. The DOC data base documents adults who have
been incarcerated or released since 1993 and consequently reflects a relatively young population
likely to be incarcerated again. The data entries for admission and release from DOC facilities
are for any reason, including for formal alternatives to revocation or for temporary probation and
parole holds.

3

III.

Findings on Release and Admission Rates for the Incarcerated Population from
Milwaukee County
1. Milwaukee County has had close to a four-fold increase in the incarcerated
population released to Milwaukee County since 1993. The number of persons
released by the Department of Corrections institutions has grown 3.7 times from
2,191 in 1993 to 8,147 in 2005. In contrast, the population annually released to the
rest of Wisconsin increased 2.2 times from 2,387 in 1993 to 5,369 in 2005. In the
first half of 2006, 4,171 persons were released to Milwaukee County and 2,655
persons were released to the rest of the state.
Beginning in 1997, the number of persons released to Milwaukee County has
exceeded those released in the balance of the state. The increase in those released to
Milwaukee County in 2002 and after coincides with the opening of the Milwaukee
secure detention facility.
Adults Released from Wisconsin Correctional Facilities

9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

from Milwaukee County

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

from Rest of State

2. There are an estimated 26,772 persons currently residing in Milwaukee County
who have done time in a Department of Corrections facility since 1993, mostly men
(89%) and majority African American (64%).
3. The rapidly increasing number of persons incarcerated in DOC facilities has led to a
disproportionate impact on young African American males. An estimated 40% of
African American males ages 25 through 29 who currently live in Milwaukee
County have spent time in the Wisconsin corrections system. In contrast, only 5%
4

of white and 5% of Hispanic male county residents in the 25 through 29 year old age
group have done time in DOC facilities.
% of Current Milwaukee County Residents Ages 25-29 Who Have Served Time in DOC Adult Facilities

African American Males

40%

Hispanic Males

5%

White Males

5%

African American Females

2.4%

Hispanic Females

0.5%

White Females

0.4%
0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

An estimated 42% of African American males ages 30 through 34 who live in
Milwaukee County have also spent time in Wisconsin adult correctional
facilities. In contrast, only 5% of white and 6.6% of male Hispanic county residents
in the 30 through 34 year old age group have done time in DOC facilities.
% of Current Milwaukee County Residents Ages 30-34 Who Have Served Time in DOC Adult Facilities

African American Males

42%

6.6%

Hispanic Males

White Males

5%

African American Females

3.2%

Hispanic Females

0.6%

White Females

0.5%
0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

5

4. The number of adults admitted to Wisconsin DOC facilities from Milwaukee
County has grown 2.9 times the 1993 level of 2,614 to 7,663 in 2005. The number
admitted from the rest of Wisconsin has increased 1.8 times from 2,991 in 1993 to
5,346 in 2005. Beginning in 1996 the number admitted from Milwaukee County
exceeded the number from the rest of the state.
5. The number of adults admitted to Wisconsin correctional facilities from
Milwaukee County surged to 6,992 in 2002 and then rose to an all-time high of
8,194 in 2004. In the first half of 2006, 4,231 adults from Milwaukee County were
admitted to DOC facilities, as were 2,708 adults from the rest of Wisconsin (and 746
adults from out-of-state or with missing residence codes). The increase of those
admitted beginning in 2002 coincides with the opening of the Milwaukee secured
detention facility.

Adults Admitted to Wisconsin Correctional Facilities
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

from Milwaukee County

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

from Rest of State

The following table shows the numbers of persons released from DOC institutions each year
from 1993 to present, as well as the number admitted to correctional facilities each year. Given
high rates of recidivism, individuals may be counted multiple times as they enter, leave and
reenter correctional facilities.

6

Persons Entering and Released from Wisconsin Correctional Facilities: 1993 – Present

Year

Persons Released from DOC Facilities
Milwaukee
Rest of
County
State
Total*

Persons Admitted to DOC Facilities
Milwaukee
Rest of
County
State
Total*

1993
1994
1995
1996

2,191
2,271
2,761
2,802

2,387
2,366
2,914
2,956

4,764
4,792
5,811
5,896

2,614
3,020
3,452
3,736

2,991
3,189
3,384
3,670

5,806
6,420
7,044
7,665

1997
1998
1999
2000

3,060
3,638
4,261
4,918

2,958
2,831
2,826
3,664

6,156
6,627
7,235
8,765

3,850
4,837
5,108
4,668

3,437
3,699
3,745
3,878

7,552
8,876
9,247
9,028

2001
2002
2003
2004

4,692
6,641
7,724
8,076

3,683
4,024
4,096
4,871

8,705
11,203
12,568
13,918

5,056
6,992
8,082
8,194

3,830
4,183
4,103
4,944

9,448
11,841
13,066
14,277

2005
2006
(1st half)

8,147

5,369

14,651

7,663

5,346

14,413

4,171

2,655

7,379

4,231

2,708

7,685

* Totals include persons from out-of-state and others with missing residence codes.

7

Findings for the Population Released from Wisconsin Correctional Facilities Since
1993 and Living in Milwaukee County (N = 26,772)
1. As of June 2006, some 26,772 Milwaukee County residents had been in a
Wisconsin Department of Corrections institution since 1993 and untold additional
numbers prior to 1993. The population is mostly male (89%), and minority
(including 64% African Americans and 7% Hispanics).
Demographics of the Released Corrections Population from Milwaukee County
Other
2%
White
27%
Female
11%

Male
89%

Hispanic
7%

African
American
64%

2. Over half (56%) of the persons released from DOC facilities since 1993 and living
in Milwaukee County are in their 20s and 30s.
Age of the Released Population from Milwaukee County, as of June 30, 2006

10,000
Number in Released Population

IV.

9,094

9,000
7,626

8,000
7,000

6,012

6,000
5,000
4,000

3,210

3,000
2,000
1,000

744
86

0
Under 20 yr

20-29 yr

30-39 yr

40-49 yr

50-59 yr

60 yr or more

8

3. Recidivism rates are high, as are consequent legal needs. For those released in the
first half of 2006, only 28% had been in state correctional facilities for the first time,
while 23% had been in twice, 15% three times, 13% four times, and 21% five or more
times. The data entries for admission and release from DOC facilities are for any
reason, including for formal alternatives to revocation or for temporary probation and
parole holds.
Number of Prior Incarcerations for Those
Released to Milwaukee County in 2006
5 or more
times
21%

1 time
28%

4 times
13%

3 times
15%

2 times
23%

4. The increasing numbers of persons being admitted to and released from Department
of Corrections institutions since the early 1990s has had a disproportionate impact on
the African American population of young men. Currently, 40% of the 6,288
African American men ages 25 to 29 living in Milwaukee County consist of men
previously incarcerated but now released from Wisconsin DOC institutions, not
including other populations incarcerated in the House of Corrections and city jails.
This compares to a 5% DOC incarceration rate for white men and a 5% rate for
Hispanic men in the county.

DOC Status of the Milwaukee County Population Ages 25 thru 29
Whites
Population Released from DOC
Facilities and Currently Out
Males
Females
Total Est. Population
Males
Females
Released and Currently Out
as % of Total Population
Males
Females

African Americans

Hispanics

847
69

2,494
231

298
22

17,401
16,482

6,288
9,644

6,037
4,662

5%
0.4%

40%
2.4%

5%
0.5%

Released population is as of June 30, 2006. Population estimates are from the U.S. Census Bureau
2005 American Community Survey. The census estimates do not include persons living in institutions
(e.g., county and city jails, dormitories, group homes).

9

5. Similarly, 42% of the population of the 6,415 African American men ages 30
through 34 living in Milwaukee County is made up of men who have previously
been incarcerated in Wisconsin DOC facilities. This compares to a 5% prior
incarceration rate for white men and a 6.6% incarceration rate for Hispanic men in the
same age range.
DOC Status of the Milwaukee County Population Ages 30 thru 34
Whites
Population Released from DOC
Facilities and Currently Out
Males
Females
Total Est. Population
Males
Females
Released and Currently Out
as % of Total Population
Males
Females

African Americans

Hispanics

932
100

2,708
293

333
23

19,191
18,486

6,415
9,128

5,057
3,984

5%
0.5%

42%
3.2%

6.6%
0.6%

Released population is as of June 30, 2006. Population estimates are from the U.S. Census Bureau
2005 American Community Survey. The census estimates do not include persons living in institutions
(e.g., county and city jails, dormitories, group homes).

6. The younger population of previously incarcerated African Americans is also the
most likely to be recidivists and to have suspensions and revocations related to
their driver’s status. For those African American men ages 25 through 29, 86% of
those with DOT records have suspension orders (and most of these did not have a
license), and for those very few who had a driver’s license, 90% had a suspension or
revocation.
The same is true for the men ages 30 through 34 years in the population of African
American men no longer incarcerated in the Wisconsin DOC facilities. For those
with DOT records, 78% have suspensions orders (and most of these did not have a
license). For those few who had a driver’s license, 82% also had a suspension or
revocation.
7. For the population of African American men currently released and in the 25 through
29 year old age bracket (N=2,494), 43% were first timers, 25% second timers, and
32% were previously incarcerated in DOC facilities at least 3 or more times.
8. For the population of African Americans men currently released and ages 30 through
34 (n=2,708), 44% were first timers, 25% 2nd timers, and 31% were previously
incarcerated in DOC facilities at least 3 or more times.

10

9. Legal problems related to driver’s license suspensions and revocations are very
high for the total released population as well. Of the 26,772 persons released to
Milwaukee County since 1993, most (62%) face driver’s license suspension
problems, including 5% whose problems also involve revocations. Only 7% of the
total released population showed recent evidence (as of 2003) of having a valid
driver’s license with no recent suspensions or revocations.
Driver’s License Status of Those Released
from Wisconsin Correctional Facilities
Valid license,
no recent
suspensions
or revocations
7%

Not in DOT file
11%
License
expired, no
suspension or
revocation
20%

License
suspensions
only
57%

Both
suspensions +
revocations
5%

10. Drug offenses are common and result in additional legal barriers for those with
driver’s license suspension and revocation problems. Of those currently released,
44% of Hispanics, 38% of African Americans, and 20% of whites had been
incarcerated at least in part for drug-related offenses.

% of Those Released Who Had Drug-Related Offenses

44%

Hispanics

African
Americans

38%

Whites

20%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

11

11. Assault charges are also high across racial/ethnic categories with 44% of African
Americans, 42% of Hispanics, and 38% of whites with assault charges.
% of Those Released Who Had Assault Charges

African
Americans

44%

Hispanics

42%

Whites

38%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

12. Sexual assault releases total 1,868, or 7% of the released population from state
correctional facilities.
13. The population is least likely to have completed high school. For Hispanics, 72%
have failed to graduate from high school, as have 60% of African Americans and
37% of whites. Education levels are very low, particularly for younger minority
populations currently released. Most ex-offenders have less than a high school
diploma, particularly for the younger population under 30 years of age, where only
9% of African Americans, 7% of Hispanics, and 20% of whites hold a four-year high
school diploma or some college. The older populations show higher percentages of
high school graduates.
GEDs and HEDs (high school equivalency) credentials are more common than high
school graduation for all age populations. For African Americans currently released,
the 14% of those under age 30 with a GED/HED double the 7% with a four-year high
school diploma, for those with no college coursework. The rate of the released
population with GED/HED rather than four-year high school diplomas is almost triple
for young Hispanics (where 14% have GED/HED and only 5% have four-year high
school diplomas) and is double for young whites (where 27% have a GED/HED,
compared to 12% with a high school diploma), for those with no college coursework.
14. The population with diplomas, GEDs or HEDs increases with the age of the

population and the number of times the individual was incarcerated. The younger
population (under age 30) is least likely to have some college or technical school
education.

12

Level of Education of the Released Population from Milwaukee County
Highest Level of Education Completed

Current Age:
Under 30 30-39 yr.

40-49 yr.

50-59 yr.

African Americans (non-Hispanic)
Less than high school completion
GED/HED
High school diploma
Some college or technical school
3 years or more of college

77%
14%
7%
2%
0%

63%
17%
13%
6%
1%

51%
23%
14%
10%
2%

41%
25%
15%
15%
3%

Hispanics
Less than high school completion
GED/HED
High school diploma
Some college or technical school
3 years or more of college

79%
14%
5%
2%
0%

74%
14%
8%
4%
0%

69%
12%
8%
9%
1%

63%
15%
13%
8%
0%

Whites (non-Hispanic)
Less than high school completion
GED/HED
High school diploma
Some college or technical school
3 years or more of college

54%
27%
12%
7%
1%

46%
26%
17%
9%
2%

30%
31%
19%
17%
4%

25%
24%
23%
18%
10%

Percent of the Released Population Coming from Milwaukee County Who Had
Completed High School or a GED/HED (or More)
100%
90%
75%

80%

70%

70%
59%

60%
50%

54%
49%

46%

37%

37%

40%

31%

30%

26%

23%

21%

20%
10%
0%
Whites

African Americans
Under age 30

30-39 yr.

40-49 yr.

Hispanics
50-59 yr.

13

Percent of the Released Population Coming from Milwaukee County Who Had
Some College or Post-Secondary Technical Training
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
28%

30%

21%

20%
10%

8%

18%
12%

11%

10%

7%
2%

2%

4%

8%

0%
Whites

African Americans
Under age 30

30-39 yr.

Hispanics

40-49 yr.

50-59 yr.

14. Based on the most recent address available, 67% of African Americans released from
correctional institutions live in the poorest Milwaukee neighborhoods (where job
availability is lowest), as do 49% of Hispanics released from DOC institutions. By
contrast, only 16% of non-Hispanic whites released live in the City of Milwaukee’s
poorest neighborhoods (i.e., those zipcodes targeted in the City’s Community
Development Block Grant, CDBG, program).

% of the Released County Population Living in the Milwaukee CDBG Zipcodes
African
Americans

67%

Hispanics

49%

Whites

16%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

*Zipcodes include 53204, 53205, 53206, 53208, 53210, 53212, 53216, 53218, and 53233.

The combinations of race, transportation barriers, and educational levels further
limit the labor market for the large number of those released to the poorest
neighborhoods. The Employment and Training Institute May 2006 job openings
survey for the Private Industry Council found spatial mismatches between
14

available job openings and the job-seeking workforce most acute in the CDBG
Milwaukee neighborhoods, where job seekers outnumbered full-time openings by
a gap of 7 workers for every 1 job available.

City of Milwaukee CDBG Zipcodes

15

V.

Characteristics of the Currently Incarcerated Population from Milwaukee County
(N= 10,308)
1. Most of the population originating from Milwaukee County and currently
incarcerated in the State of Wisconsin Department of Corrections system (N=10,308)
are males (95%) and minorities (68% are African American and 7% are Hispanic).
Demographics of the Incarcerated Population from Milwaukee County
Other
2%
White
23%
Female
5%

Hispanic
7%

Male
95%

African
American
68%

2. The incarcerated population is mostly young, with 37% in their twenties, 31% in
their thirties, and 22% in their forties.
Age of the Adult Incarcerated Population, as of June 30, 2006

3,793

4,000
3,500

3,218

3,000
2,271

2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500

727
173

126

0
Under 20 yr

20-29 yr

30-39 yr

40-49 yr

50-59 yr

60 yr or more

16

3. If recidivism rates remain similar to those of previously released populations, many
of these adults will be released only to return to a correctional facility again. Of the
persons presently incarcerated, 43% are in a Wisconsin DOC correctional facility for
the first time, 19% for the 2nd time, 14% for the 3rd time, 10% for the 4th time, and
14% have been in correctional facilities 5 or more times.
Number of Times Incarcerated for the Population Currently
in DOC Correctional Facilities and from Milwaukee County
5 or more
times
14%
4 times
10%

1 time
43%

3 times
14%

2 times
19%

4. Of those 10,308 currently in correctional facilities, 66% were involved in assaults,
30% for drug convictions, and 15% for sexual assaults.
5. Most of the incarcerated population have legal problems related to their driver’s
license records. Some 61% have suspensions, including 6% with suspensions and
revocations. Only 4% showed evidence of having a valid driver’s license in good
standing (as of 2003).
Driver’s License Status of Those Currently Incarcerated

Not in DOT file
10%
Expired
license, no
suspensions
or revocations
26%

Suspensions +
revocations
6%

Valid license,
no recent
suspensions
or revocations
4%

License
suspensions
(only)
54%

17

6. Low levels of education for the incarcerated population are similar to the released
population with 36% of whites, 60% of African Americans, and 65% of Hispanics
with less than a four-year high school diploma.

Level of Education of the Currently Incarcerated Population from Milwaukee County
Highest Level of Education Completed

Current Age:
Under 30 30-39 yr.

40-49 yr.

50-59 yr.

African Americans (non-Hispanic)
Less than high school completion
GED/HED
High school diploma
Some college or technical school
3 years or more of college

71%
20%
6%
3%
0%

59%
23%
10%
7%
1%

47%
28%
12%
11%
2%

33%
29%
17%
17%
3%

Hispanics
Less than high school completion
GED/HED
High school diploma
Some college or technical school
3 years or more of college

70%
22%
6%
2%
0%

65%
21%
7%
8%
0%

53%
25%
10%
10%
1%

54%
16%
11%
8%
11%

Whites (non-Hispanics)
Less than high school completion
GED/HED
High school diploma
Some college or technical school
3 years or more of college

50%
27%
16%
7%
1%

38%
30%
16%
14%
3%

29%
32%
15%
20%
5%

24%
20%
24%
23%
9%

% of the Incarcerated Population Coming from Milwaukee County Who Have
Completed High School or a GED/HED (or More)
100%
90%
76%

80%

71%

70%
60%

67%

62%
53%

50%

47% 46%

50%

41%
35%

40%

30%

29%

30%
20%
10%
0%
Whites

African Americans
Under age 30

30-39 yr.

40-49 yr.

Hispanics
50-59 yr.

18

% of the Incarcerated Population Coming from Milwaukee County Who Have
Some College or Post-Secondary Technical Education
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%

32%
25%

30%

10%

20%

17%

20%

19%

13%

8%

8%

8%

3%

11%

2%

0%
Whites

African Americans
Under age 30

30-39 yr.

40-49 yr.

Hispanics
50-59 yr.

7. Most minorities currently in Wisconsin correctional facilities (and from Milwaukee
County) come from the City of Milwaukee’s poorest zipcodes. The Hispanic
incarcerated population comes mostly from 53204 (39% of Hispanics) and 53215
(22%). The African American population is concentrated from 5 north side zipcodes:
53206 (17% of African Americans), 53210 (11%), 53212 (11%), 53208 (10%), and
53209 (10%).

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