The Management of Death-Sentenced Inmates:
Issues, Realities, and Innovative Strategies*
by
George Lombardi, Former Director of the
Division of Adult Institutions
Missouri Department of Corrections
P. O. Box 236
Jefferson City, Missouri 65102

Richard D. Sluder, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Criminal Justice Department
Central Missouri State University
Warrensburg, Missouri 64093

Donald Wallace
Professor
Criminal Justice Department
Central Missouri State University
Warrensburg, Missouri 64093

*A Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences.
Las Vegas, Nevada, March, 1996
The Management of Death-Sentenced Inmates:
Issues, Realities, and Innovative Strategies
Abstract
The number of death-sentenced inmates in prisons has continued to increase steadily in
recent years. Although a substantial body of literature has emerged on a variety of capital
punishment issues, little has been written about the challenges faced by corrections
administrators in managing death-sentenced inmates in the prison environment. This
paper explores the issues and realities of managing "death row" populations. It then
sketches one state's experiences in integrating death-sentenced inmates into the
mainstream inmate general population.
The Management of Death-Sentenced Inmates:
Issues, Realities, and Innovative Strategies
Introduction
More than a decade ago Cheatwood (1985) raised compelling question about the criminal
justice system's ability to cope with a burgeoning number of inmates confined in our
nation's prisons awaiting execution of their death sentences. At the time, there were more
than 1,400 death-sentenced inmates in the country. Noting that dramatic increases in this
offender population were probably imminent, Cheatwood identified and discussed three
possible response options: (1) to begin executing as many as 200-300 prisoners each
year--numbers never before witnessed in the recorded history of the country; (2) to
commute the sentences of death row inmates to life imprisonment, segregating these
offenders in special housing units; or (3) to commute the sentence of death row inmates
to life imprisonment, dispersing these offenders in the general inmate population.(*1)
In this paper, we revisit the as yet unanswered question intimated by Cheatwood; namely,
how corrections administrators might manage a growing number of inmates sentenced to
death. We begin by assessing capital punishment trends. Second, we briefly discuss
practices traditionally employed to manage death-sentenced inmates, including legal
issues surrounding many of these practices. Third, we discuss one state's strategy for
managing death-sentenced inmates in prisons: mainstreaming these offenders into the
general inmate population--an approach not without precedent.
Capital Punishment Trends
Projecting whether death row populations will increase, decrease, or remain constant in
coming years is a threshold issue in the discussion of how corrections officials are to
manage death sentenced inmates. An examination of three indicators suggests what the
future holds in store insofar as the death penalty is concerned.

The Legal Landscape of Capital Punishment
In 1972, the Supreme Court's decision in Furman v. Georgia invalidated death penalty
statutes in 37 states. At the time, there were 558 condemned prisoners housed in the
nation's prisons (Marquart and Sorenson, 1989). The Furman decision was embraced with
a "sense of euphoria" by opponents of capital punishment, who were convinced that
complete abolition of the penalty was imminent (Haas, 1996: 129). Yet in 1976, the
hopes of opponents were dashed when the Court affirmed the constitutionality of a
bifurcated process for imposition of the penalty (Gregg v. Georgis; Profitt v. Florida;
Jurek v. Texas).
Space does not permit an exhaustive review of Supreme Court decisions that followed
these cases. White (1991) has suggested that from 1976 to 1983, the Court worked
diligently to carve out the constitutional boundaries surrounding the imposition of the
penalty. White suggests that since 1983, (*2) the Court's decisions in capital cases
signify, if anything, a desire to enable states to expeditiously carry out executions of
those sentenced to death. Haas' (1996: 131) assessment of the line of post-1983 decisions
is even stronger, writing, "I would argue...that the Court has increasingly become an
activist, pro-death-penalty tribunal." There are few reasons to suspect that there are major
shifts looming on the horizon in legal options regarding the constitutionality of the
penalty itself (Blumberg, 1994). In fact, indications suggest the Court's current
orientation is directed more toward facilitating rather than impeding imposition of the
penalty.
Public Opinion and the Death Penalty
Public attitudes about the death penalty have clearly varied over the past few decades. In
1965 and 1966, for example, less than one-half of the public was in favor of the death
penalty for persons convicted of murder. Since then, however, support for the penalty has
generally increased annually, with no less than 60 percent of the public expressing
support for the penalty since 1976. In 1994, 80 percent of those surveyed were in favor of
the penalty; in 1995, 77 percent expressed support for the (Maguire and Pastore,
1995).(*3) While support varies by factors including gender, race, age and political
affiliation, the vast majority of the public favors the penalty as an abstract proposition,
where no alternative are provided.
What seems less clear is whether the public will continue to endorse capital punishment
as a viable sanction. On one side of he issue, some have inferred that even if the rate of
executions increases substantially, public acceptance of the penalty will probably be little
affected (Wallace 1989; Ellsworth and Ross, 1983). Others, however, have proposed that
public attitudes toward the penalty will shift if the number of executions rises to new
levels in the next decade. By about 2010, the anticipated results include a pattern of
reluctance to perform executions, a growing number of Americans are expected to turn
against the penalty, and a number of jurisdictions may subsequently abolish capital
punishment (Haas, 1996). Even if the latter prediction is true, corrections administrators

will be confronted with problems for at least the next decade in managing substantial
numbers of inmates sentenced to death.
Projecting Future Death Row Populations
Attempts to project future death row populations are laden with uncertainties. Criminal
justice policies and practices--including those relating to capital punishment--are
continuously molded and shaped by broader social and political forces. Table 1 shows the
number of inmates confined in state correctional facilities under sentence of death from
1973 to 1995. An examination of these data show dramatic increases in death row
populations between 1973 and 1995. As of April 30, 1995, there were 3,009 inmates
under sentence of death--a 27 percent increase since 1990.
Assuming that the rate of growth in death row populations will remain constant in the
coming years, Table 1 also shows projected death row populations through the year 2016,
in three year increments. As the projections indicates if increases in death row
populations continue as they have in previous years, there will be approximately 5,889
inmates under sentence of death in the year 2016. These projections should be viewed
with caution, however, since they do not take into account possible increases in the
number of annual executions. If states begin to execute inmates at higher rates than in the
past, as some authors (Haas, 1996) have suggested, then the projections provided here are
obviously inflated. Conversely, however, the projections contained in Table 1 do not take
into account other shifts that could increase the number of inmates confined under
sentences of death. Increased could conceivably occur, for example, if states without
capital punishment enact statutory provision for the penalty, if legislation is enacted
increasing the number of crimes punishable by death, or if the penalty is more frequently
sought by prosecutors than is now the case.
In any event, the projections, considered along with legal decisions and strong public
support for the penalty, suggest steady growth in death row populations over the next
several years. At a minimum, the projections point to the need for corrections
administrators to begin to consider strategies that might be employed to address this
expanding and, for prison officials, unique offender population.
Traditional Strategies for Managing Death-Sentenced Inmates
With few exceptions, much of the attention surrounding capital punishment has focused
on the imposition and execution of death sentences. As Sorenson and Marquart (1989)
have noted, outside of occasional news stories about appeals, stays or actual executions,
little attention is paid to death row prisoners. Yet the capital punishment process also
involves confinement--commonly for years--as inmates' cases wind their way through the
appellate system. How these inmates are to be managed is an unavoidable reality, not
only for prison administrators, but also for legislators, the legal community, and the
public.

Since the turn of the twentieth century, death sentenced inmates have largely been
confined in separate areas of prisons, commonly referred to as "death rows." From early
times, death row conditions were characterized by a pervasive emphasis on rigid security,
isolation, limited movement, and austere conditions. Treated as "dangerous and unstable"
(Johnson, 1989:37), condemned prisoners were housed in individual cells, permitted to
have few personal possessions, and prohibited from having any item that might be
converted for use as a weapon. When removed from their cells for limited recreation,
infrequent visits, showers, or to be seen by medical personnel, these inmates were
typically escorted in full restraints. Denied opportunities to work or participate in
organized recreation, education, and other types of programs available to general
population prisoners, many condemned prisoners were confined to their cells for 20-22
hours each day (Johnson, 1990).
From the late 1970s, death row inmates in several states brought legal actions in the
federal courts alleging conditions that violated constitutional standards (Amnesty
International, 1987). It is generally accepted that the Eighth Amendment protects inmates
who have been sentenced to death and awaiting execution from cruel and unusual
punishment. Courts have viewed that the prohibitions in the Eighth Amendment evolved
primarily from the concern for the manner in which individuals would be put to death
(Groseclose v. Dutton, 1985; Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber, 1947).
From 1979 to 1985 court settlements in death row litigation were obtained in Alabama,
Florida, California, Georgia, Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas. The terms of the
settlements varied considerable in each state and were largely individually framed for the
specific circumstances of the institution. Minimum recreation periods for death row
inmates were the general feature of these consent orders. The most far-reaching
settlement was agreed in 1985 in Texas, which at the time was probably the only state to
offer a full work program to death row inmates. (Amnesty International, 1987).
Apart from consent decrees federal courts have made decisions on the merits in death row
litigation with varying results. In Smith v. Coughlin (1983, 1984) the prisoner challenged
the death row-restrictions and sought contact visits with relatives and friends, access to
paralegals, interaction with fellow inmates, participation in congregate religious services,
and the right to keep legal papers in his cell. He also alleged that as a result of the totality
of the conditions he had suffered psychological damage, resulting in the loss of will to
fight his conviction through appeals. No constitutional violations were found other than
the ban on visits by paralegal personnel. The Court of Appeals noted that he was confined
in a sixty square foot cell containing adequate lighting and ventilation, with access to
radio and television 24 hours a day, and permitted to exercise daily from 8:30 a.m. until
3:30 p.m.
In Groseclose v. Dutton (1985) the conditions of death were viewed as vastly different.
Serious inadequacies in ventilation, heating, cooling, and lighting were found in the small
cells. Access to exercise was limited to one hour per day of exercise. An absence of
attention to psychological needs of death inmates was also noted. Yet, similar conditions
were found not to be unconstitutional in Peterkin v. Jeffes (1988).

There are no U.S. Supreme Court cases dealing specifically with death row conditions.
Thus, lower courts must draw instruction from U.S. Supreme Court decisions on general
prison conditions cases. Chief among these cases are Wilson v. Seiter (1991) and Rhodes
v. Chapman (1981). Together these cases provide the objective and subjective standards
that must be met for showing that prison conditions constitute a violation of the Eighth
Amendment. The objective component consists of a showing of a deprivation of an
identifiable human need such a food, warmth or exercise. The subjective component
requires proof that the defendant acted with deliberate indifference in failing to remedy
the lack of these needs. (Branham & Krantz, 1994).
The Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals in Wishon v. Gammon (1992), a case involving the
protective custody unit at the Moberly Training Center for Men in Missouri, applied these
two standards in this analogous case for death row conditions. The Court found that in
light of the two U.S. Supreme Court decisions, prison officials were not responsible for
the unsanitary conditions in Wishon's cell and that there was no evidence that his health
suffered as a result of the food. Further, the Court held that 45 minutes per week of outof-cell recreation time was not unconstitutional considering the needs of protective
segregation and where there was no evidence of a decline in health resulting from this
limited time. In light of the access of self-study materials, college correspondence courses
and library materials, the Court found that Wishon was not treated differently from
similarly situated inmates, thus there was no unconstitutional denial of access to
educational and vocational opportunities.
Thus, Wishon indicates the difficulties of meeting the objective component for
determining that prison conditions violate the Eighth Amendment. Even if that is met the
prisoner will also have to show that the officials were deliberately indifferent to the
conditions. More recent death row conditions cases have indicated the difficulties of
showing Eighth amendment violations. For example the District Court's opinion in
Groseclose (1985) was reversed by the Sixth Circuit (Groseclose v.Dutton, 1987) stating
that the district court applied an inappropriate totality-of-the-circumstances standard in
determining that conditions constituted cruel and unusual punishment.
There are consequences apart from lessened likelihood of finding the conditions to
violate the Eighth Amendment that may impact the management of death row inmates.
Overly restricted access to attorneys or their employees may implicate the inmate's
constitutionally protected access to the court (Bounds v. Smith, 1977). Overly oppressive
physical conditions of death row may be detrimental to the inmate's mental health and
subsequently affect his mental competency for execution (Ford v. Wainwright, 1986).
The psychological impact of onerous death row conditions in combined with the
impending execution can be quite severe (Quigley & Shank, 1989). Although the
consequences are only remotely likely, it may be of interest that death row conditions,
while acceptable under the Eighth Amendment, may be found to be unacceptable to the
European Court of Human Rights. The State of Virginia was frustrated by this finding in
its attempts to have an individual extradited for prosecution. Here the European Court
held (Case of Soering, 1989) that the conditions on this state's death row were inhuman

or degrading and therefore would violate the individual's human rights as protected by the
European Convention for Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
(Quigley & Shank, 1989).
Death Row Reform Efforts
Over the past few decades death rows in many states have witnessed reforms--albeit
minor in many cases. From the historical perspective, perhaps the most notable reforms
occurred on death row at the Tucker Prison Farm in Tucker, Arkansas in 1968. Under the
leadership of Tom Murton, restrictions on death row inmates were slowly, but steadily,
lifted. Inmates were provided with work opportunities, recreation and visitation privileges
were implemented, and condemned prisoners were allowed to attend program activities.
Death row inmates were permitted to eat with other prisoners and, eventually, with the
exception of separate housing, were fully integrated into the regular prisoner population
(Murton, 1969). These dramatic reforms, occurring over a ten month period of time, were
characterized by outsiders as a "renaissance in correction" in the handling of condemned
inmates (Murton, 1969: 110). Despite the success of Murton's reforms, the program was
ultimately dismantled by the state's Board of Correction, returning capital punishment
inmates to conditions indistinguishable from most other death rows in the country.
Other states' efforts to reform death rows, while notable, have been less comprehensive.
In 1985, the Texas Department of Corrections implemented changes in the management
of death row inmates as a part of a consent decree. Inmates were classified as either
"death row work-capable", or "death row segregation" (Sorenson and Marquat, 189: 172).
Work-capable prisoners were provided with employment opportunities in a garment
factory, or assigned work as orderlies or janitors. In addition to work reforms, capital
punishment inmates were afforded greater liberties for recreation, out-of-cell time, and
access to programs provided within their assigned cellblocks. Although the program was
initially met with skepticism by staff, no serious incidents were reported following
implementation of the reforms (Marquart, Eckland-Olson & Sorenson, 1994; Sorenson
and Marquart, 1989).
On a lesser scale, other states have also instituted death row reforms. As noted in the
previous section, most of these reforms have revolved around increasing access to
recreation opportunities. Some states have also provided condemned prisoners with
reduced cell time, and expanded opportunities for visitation (Johnson, 1990). Despite
improvements, the overall conditions of confinement for the vast majority of death row
prisoners today remains little changed from those that existed at the turn of the century.
Writing on the Texas experience, for example, Marquart and Sorenson (1989: 174) note
Despite the court ruling, the quality of life for these prisoners has not substantially
improved. Although the administration ordered in 1988 that all inmates be allowed
"piddling" privileges (arts and crafts work in their cells) absent a showing of abuse by
individual inmates, the overall atmosphere of death row segregation remains relatively
unchanged. Johnson (1990: 40) has also argued that although some death row reforms
have been successful, "they have typically been piecemeal rather than comprehensive
efforts", having only nominally improved the quality of daily life for the condemned. The

conditions on death rows in the majority of states--whether having large or small
populations--are "virtually indistinguishable" (Johnson 1990: 29).
Conditions of confinement for most capital punishment prisoners have been changed
little over the past several decades. Today, however, the temporal nature of the capital
punishment process is much different than was the case even three decades ago. Johnson
(1990: 41) notes Solitary confinement may have been defensible as an across-the-board
policy when prisoners faced a few weeks or months or even a year or two on death row.
But when the stay on death row stretches, as it does today, to five, ten, or even fifteen
years, such confinement becomes at best an oppressive, last-ditch option for
unmanageable prisoners.
Mainstreaming Capital Punishment Prisoners: The Missouri Experience
Prior to April 1989, condemned prisoners in Missouri were housed on "death row" at the
Jefferson City Correctional Center (JCCC) in Jefferson City, Missouri.(*4) JCCC, the
state's primary maximum security prison at the time, is the oldest operating penal
institution West of the Mississippi River. As with other states using prison facilities
constructed before the turn of the century, conditions at JCCC were less than favorable
for both death row inmates and staff.
Capital punishment inmates were housed at a below-ground unit at JCCC completely
segregated from the general inmate population. With restrictions on movement and
limited access to programs, conditions of confinement for death row inmates mirrored
those found in other states. Death row inmates did not leave their housing unit. All
services, including medical, recreation, food and legal materials, were brought to
condemned prisoners. Inmates were permitted one hour of outside exercise each day in a
small, fenced area by the unit.
In January of 1986, capital punishments filed a class action suit alleging several
constitutional deprivations surrounding their conditions of confinement. On January 7,
1987, the Department of Corrections entered into a consent decree without an admission
or a finding by the court that the conditions on death row were unconstitutional
(McDonald v. Armontrout, 1990). The decree resulted in several changes in the
management of death row. Included in the decree were stipulations regarding the
handling of inmate legal mail, provisions to allow two inmates at a time attend religious
services in a designated "privacy room" in the unit, increased telephone access, changes
in the delivery of medical services, expanded recreation opportunities, and the
assignment of additional staff to the unit with specialized training. The decree also
provided for the creation of a death row classification scheme with three levels: regular
custody, close custody, and no-contact custody. The extent of privileges received by
death row inmates was contingent upon classification level, thus providing behavioral
incentives.
In 1989 the Potosi Correctional Center (PCC) located in Mineral Point, Missouri was
opened. Designed as a maximum security institution, PCC is a 500 bed facility that, at the

time, had an inmate population of about 200 inmates. In April of 1989 all 70 of the state's
death sentenced inmates were transferred from JCCC to the new Potosi facility. Prior to
the move, the U. S. District Court for the Western District of Missouri approved several
modifications to consent decree governing the management of death sentenced inmates.
Capital punishment inmates were initially housed in a two-winged, 92-bed unit at PCC.
Housing assignments for death sentenced inmates were based on a revised classification
system consisting of four levels: minimum custody, medium custody, close custody, and
administration segregation. Minimum custody inmates were housed in one wing of the
unit, with the remainder of the capital prisoners assigned to the other. Each level of
classification afforded inmates varying degrees of privileges with the intent to reward
those exhibiting appropriate behavior. Minimum custody inmates for example, were
afforded the same opportunity for outdoor and indoor recreation as were general
population inmates at the facility. Conversely, close custody and administrative
segregation capital offenders were given the opportunity for one hour of recreation every
other day. Similar gradations of privileges, contingent on classification level, were
provided for inmate visitation. Importantly, however, capital offenders continued to be
segregated from general population inmates.
Within a few months of the transfer to PCC, death sentenced inmates filed a motion for
contempt, challenging several conditions of their confinement at the institution. Once
again, the Department found itself in the position of justifying various practices regarding
the management of capital offenders.
At the time, administrators began to consider alternatives for managing capital offenders
that would alleviate the continuing stream of concerns raised by these inmates. In
particular, staff noted the difficulties inherent in providing capital offenders with similar
levels of access to services (e.g., law library, recreation, visitation, commissary, medical,
etc.) enjoyed by general population prisoners housed at the facility. During this
discussion process, several employees noted the irony of have similarly situated inmates,
in terms of offense characteristics, segregated from one another at PCC. With the
exception of a handful of prisoners at the institution, the majority of non-capital inmates
at PCC were serving long term sentences (e.g., life sentences without the possibility of
parole, or inmates sentenced to serve a minimum of 50 years before becoming eligible for
parole). In essence, although capital and non-capital inmates had been convicted for the
same offense, the only difference between the two groups was their sentences.
Based on this dialogue, administrators began studying the feasibility of integrating capital
offenders with general population inmates at PCC. During this process, advantages and
disadvantages of mainstreaming capital offenders were identified and discussed.
Although no definite decision point can be identified, officials made plans to begin the
complex process of liberalizing restrictions for capital punishment inmates that had been
in place for decades.
One of the first steps in the process was to discard the commonly used negative term
"death row" when referring to either death sentenced inmates or their housing status.

Instead, prison officials began referring to these offenders as "capital punishment" (CP)
inmates. Several innovative actions were taken to not only gradually prepare inmates and
staff for the eventual integration of CP inmates, but also to test the viability of the idea.
For the first time in the history of the Missouri Department of Corrections, capital
offenders left their housing unit for meals. Three times a day, minimum custody CP
inmates were escorted to and from the PCC dining room by staff members. Having
experienced no serious incidents, officials also began to escort capital offenders to the
gym at the facility. Shortly thereafter, CP inmates were permitted to visit the law library.
CP inmates were given work assignments in the prison laundry.
Based on the successes of these and other changes, preparations were made to fully
integrate CP inmates with general population inmates. Since capital inmates had
historically been isolated from other prisoners, no formal "enemy" information existed
about conflicts between CP and general population inmates. In addition, although all
general population prisoners were assessed with the Adult Internal Management System
(AIMS) for classification purposes, corrections officials had not used the instrument for
classifying CP inmates. Both pieces of information were crucial, since the criteria used
for housing assignments would be the same of CP and general population inmates.
Officials also noted that use of these criteria would most likely disperse CP inmates
among the entire PCC population. Not only would cliques that had developed over the
course of years among CP inmates be broken up, AIMS information would be beneficial
to those inmates who were then living on death row and had never served time in any
other capacity.
On January 8, 1991 after months of planning by employees at all levels, CP inmates were
mainstreamed into the general population at PCC. Five years after having begun this
"experiment", the program continues to enjoy success.
Benefits of Mainstreaming Capital Offenders
The mainstreaming program has produced benefits not only for CP inmates, but also for
general population prisoners, staff, inmates' families, corrections personnel, attorneys for
both the state and inmates, and Missouri citizens. Benefits of the integration program are
briefly summarized below.
1. Significant Cost Savings
The mainstreaming of CP inmates was accomplished with minimal initial capital outlays
(*5) and substantial long-term savings. Death rows have traditionally been labor
intensive. With mainstreaming, several special posts and functions necessary to provide
CP inmates with services and access to programs were eliminated. Before mainstreaming,
the process of escorting inmates to various points around the facility consumed the time
of a substantial number of staff. With the integration program, however, CP inmates were
afforded the same ability as general population prisoners to move about the facility. Staff
positions were reallocated throughout PCC, ultimately enhancing instead of detracting
from security. Second, the state benefits from substantial reductions in legal expenses that

under the previous death row plan, were a seeming inevitability. On September 18, 1995,
the U. S. District Court terminated it jurisdiction in the original and modified consent
decrees, writing, "The conditions of confinement applicable to CP inmates at PCC, as
shown in this record, meet or exceed the terms of the Modified Consent Decree"
(McDonald v. Delo, 1995: 84). It is expected the Department will be well positioned to
respond to any potential future litigation initiated by CP inmates on conditions of
confinement, given that capital offenders are afforded the benefits available to general
population inmates. Third, mainstreaming has provided corrections officials with greater
flexibility to use bed space at PCC. Although PCC had about 300 inmates at the time that
CP inmates were integrated in 1991, officials began double celling general population
inmates in 1995 because of increased population pressures. The Department recently
double celled CP inmates at PCC without incident; today, there are about 750 inmates
housed at the facility.
2. Benefits for Capital Punishment Inmates
Johnson (1981, 1990) has noted the debilitating and disabling effects of long-term death
row confinement for many capital offenders. With the integration program, CP inmates
have benefited in many ways--some effects have been quite obvious, others have been
more subtle. In general, it may be said that CP inmates have been placed in a more
"normalized" environment with substantial access to programs and services. Some of
these services and programs include:
CP inmates have been afforded increased access to recreation. With mainstreaming, CP
inmates are provided the opportunity for eight hours of recreation time each day. In
addition, hobbycraft is available to CP inmates six hours each day.
Greater health care access has been increased for CP inmates. Prior to mainstreaming,
physicians traveled to death row for sick call. Before integration, when CP inmates
needed to be seen in the medical unit for x-rays, the eye clinic, lab work, or dental needs,
security staff needed to not only provide escort services, the entire medical unit had to be
shut down because of the segregation of CP and general population prisoners. With
integration, CP inmates are seen at medical in the same fashion as general population
prisoners. In addition, the complexities of distributing medication to CP inmates have
been eliminated.
The difficulties of providing psychological services have been minimized. Integration has
provided counseling staff with more flexibility to see CP inmates, and to work on a more
informal basis with them.
Because mainstreamed CP inmates are managed in the same fashion as general
population prisoners, they are provided with equal work opportunities. CP inmates
compete for, and work at, jobs available to prisoners throughout the institution. Capital
inmates currently have work assignments in laundry services, the tailor shop, food
service, law library, and education program.

Capital offenders have additional access to commissary/canteen, along with the ability to
purchase a broader variety of items. Because segregation of CP and non-CP offenders is
no longer necessary, commissary hours have also been expanded.
Prior to mainstreaming, visitation for capital offenders was problematic, primarily
because CP inmates were kept separate from others, and due to the need to escort capital
offenders to and from the visiting room. Thus, visitation was labor and time intensive for
staff. With integration, CP inmates enjoy equal access to visitation. Since escort and
separation requirements no longer exist, the number visitation days has been expanded
for all PCC inmates.
The integration program has provided CP inmates greater access to the law library, and
attorney visitation is now easier. In addition, capital offenders now have improved access
to telephones for both legal and personal calls.

Beyond these advantages, the mainstream program has benefited CP inmates in other,
more subtle ways. Short of abolition of the death penalty, there is probably little than can
be done to ameliorate the stigmatization of a capital sentence and all that surrounds it for
CP inmates. If the routinized prisonization process can be smoothed for CP inmates, it is
probably best accomplished in an integrated environment where capital offenders have at
least the same opportunities provided to other maximum security prisoners. The
mainstreaming program has provided CP inmates with web of incentives to conform with
regulations. In the process, the environment has been "humanized" for capital offenders-probably as much as possible given prevailing public and political sentiments.
3. Benefits for Non-Capital Inmates
Prior to integration, general population prisoners at PCC also experienced difficulties
because of the problems arising for maintaining essentially two prison operations--one
for general population inmates, the other for CP offenders. With integration, several
programs have been expanded, including more extensive visitation, commissary access
has increased, medical services are more accessible, and movement around the facility is
not impeded as was frequently the case prior to the program when CP prisoner movement
virtually halted facility operations. Interestingly, the integration program has also
benefited inmates in Administrative Segregation. Because integration has opened a
variety of work positions for capital offenders, Administrative Segregation inmates are
now afforded limited work opportunities in the facility's laundry operation, which was the
only work previously available to CP inmates.
4. Benefits for Corrections Personnel
The majority of capital offenders are more easily managed with integration. Before the
integration program, CP inmates had little to lose--outside of limited program activities-for noncompliance with facility regulations. With the full range of privileges available to

them, CP inmates have incentives to conform with institutional policies and procedures.
Program scheduling has been simplified under the program. Disciplinary actions,
grievances, and inmate-on-inmate violence has decreased, thus minimizing the
difficulties commonly experienced by corrections staff under the old structure. The
general climate and environment of the institution has improved for the better as well,
with many of the strains accompanying the management of a traditional death row having
been eliminated.
Discussion and Conclusion
During 1994, 13 states executed 31 prisoners. Prisoners executed during this time had
been under sentence of death an average of 10.2 years, approximately 9 months longer
than the average for inmates executed the previous year (Stephan and Snell, 1996).
Although housing capital offenders on death rows completely isolated for other prisoners
may have been warranted decades ago when there was a relatively short period of time
between sentencing and imposition of the penalty, the Missouri mainstreaming
experience suggests that correctional administrators may wish to reconsider whether the
practice continues to be appropriate today.
Whether CP inmates should be integrated with general population prisoners is a question
that can only be decided ultimately by officials in states with inmates under sentence of
death. Facility design, historical background and prevailing political ideology are all
factors that vary between states. But the outcomes in Missouri, considered with
experiences in Texas, Arkansas (in the late 1960s) and other states having liberalized
schemes for managing CP inmates, suggest that integration is a viable, effective
approach.
The integration of Missouri CP inmates has not occurred without challenges. From the
outset, concerns existed about public support for the program, legislative approval, and
acceptance by staff. Corrections officials were quietly apprehensive whether the program
would work at all. After having made extensive plans and progressively implementing
the integration program, many have expressed surprise at the ease with which the
transition occurred. Mainstreaming was accepted not only by staff, but also the entire
Potosi Correctional Center inmate population.
Integration has not been the complete answer to all of the complex problems inherent in
managing capital punishment inmates. Adjustments have been made as the program has
matured and its viability continues to be assessed. Litigation regarding conditions of
confinement continues to be filed by capital offenders. However, the comprehensive
reforms that have occurred under the program have enhanced the ability of officials to
justify current capital punishment inmate management practices.
Table 1
Inmates Under Sentence of Death in the United States: 1973-1995

Year # of Persons Under Sentence of Death
1973* 134
1974 244
1975 488
1976 420
1977 423
1978 482
1979 593
1980 691
1981 856
1982 1,050
1983 1,209
1984 1,405
1985 1,591
1986 1,781
1987 1,984
1988 2,124
1989 2,250
1990 2,356
1991 2,482
1992 2,575
1993 2,716
1994 2,848
1995 3,009

1998** 3,401
2001 3,816
2004 4,231
2007 4,645
2010 5,060
2013 5,474
2016 5,889

Data Source: Maguire and Pastore (1994, 1995)

*Data for years 1973-1993 reflect persons under sentence of death on December 31; data
for 1994 reflect persons under sentence of death on April 20, 1994; data for 1995 reflect
persons under sentence of death on April 30, 1995.

**Projections for years 1998-2016 based on simple linear equation (Death Row
Population =Year* 138.201 - 272724.281. Adjusted R-Squared = .981. F-Ratio = 1,122.5,
df = 1, 21.

References
Amnesty International (1987). United States of America: The death penalty. Author:
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Branham, L. & Krantz, S.(1994). Sentencing corrections, and prisoner's rights, 4th ed.,
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Blumberg, M.(1994). The future of the death penalty in the United States. Unpublished
paper presented at the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Chicago, Illinois, March,
1994.
Cheatwood, D.(1985). Capital punishment and corrections: Is there an impending crisis?
Crime and Delinquency 31 (4): 461- 479.
Ellsworth, P., & Ross, L.(1983). Public opinion and capital punishment: A close
examination of the views of abolitionists and retentionists. Crime and Delinquency
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Finckenauer, J. O. (1995). Public support for the death penalty; Retribution as just deserts
or retribution as revenge? In C.W. Eskridge (Ed.) Criminal Justice: Concepts and Issues
(2nd ed.,). Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing.
Haas, K.C. (1996). The United States Supreme Court and the future of capital
punishment. In R.Muraskin & A.R.Roberts (eds.) Visions for Change: Crime and Justice
in the Twenty-First Century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Johnson, R. (1990). Death work: A study of he modern execution process. Pacific Grove,
CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
Johnson, R. (1981). Condemned to die: Life under sentence of death. Prospect Heights,
IL: Waveland Press.
Maguire, K., & Pastore, A.L. (1995). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics, 1994. U.S.
Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Washington, DC: USGPO.
Maguire, K., & Pastore, A.L. (1994). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics, 1993. U.S.
Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Washington, DC: USGPO.
Marquart, J. W., & Sorenson, J. R.(1989). A national study of the Furman-commuted
inmates: Assessing the threat to society from capital offenders. Loyola of Los Angeles
Law Review 23: 5-28.
Murton T. (1969). Treatment of condemned prisoners. Crime and Delinquency 15: 94111.

Quigley, J. & Shank, S. (1989). Death row as a violation of human rights: Is it illegal to
extradite to Virginia?, Virginia Journal of International Law, 30: 241-271.
Stephan, J. L. & Snell, T. L. (1996). Capital punishment 1994. U.S. Department of
Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Washington, DC: USGPO (NCJ-158023).
Wallace, D.H. (1989). Bloodbath and brutalization: Public opinion and the death penalty.
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White, W. S. (1991). The death penalty in the Nineties: An examination of the modern
system of capital punishment. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Cases Cited
Case of Soering, 195 Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) paras. 1, 76 reprinted in 28 I.L.M. 1063
(1989).
Bounds v. Smith, 430 U.S. 817 (1977).
Ford v. Wainwright, 477 U.S. 399 (1986).
Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972).
Gregg v. Georgia, 418 U.S. 153 (1976).
Groseclose v. Dutton, 609 F. Supp. 1432 (Tenn. M.D. 1985).
Groseclose v. Dutton, 829 F.2d 581 (6th Cir. 1987).
Jurek v. Texas, 428 U.S. 262 (1976).
Louisiana ex rel Francis v. Resweber, 329 U.S. 459 (1947).
McDonald v. Armontrout, 908 F.2d 2d 388 (8th Cir. 1990)
McDonald v. Armontrout, 89-1086 C (2), (8th Cir., September 18, 1995).
McDonald v. Armontrout, 85-4422-CV-C-5 (8th Cir., May 10, 1989).
McDonald v. Armontrout, 85-4422-CV-C-5 (8th Cir., July 24, 1986).
Peterkin v. Jeffes, 855 F.2d 1021 (3rd Cir. 1988).
Proffitt v. Florida, 428 U.S. 242 (1976).
Rhodes v. Chapman, 452 U.S. 37 (1981).
Smith v. Coughlin, 577 F.Supp. 1055 (S.D.N.Y. 1983).
Smith v. Coughlin, 748 F.2d 783 (2d Cir. 1984).
Wilson v. Seiter, 501 U.S. 294 (1991).
Wishon v. Gammon, 978 F.2d 446 (8th Cir. 1992).
Zant v. Stephens, 462 U.S. 862 (1983).

Endnotes
(*1) Admittedly, the thrust of Cheatwood's article was to point out potential systemic
effects that would follow either massive execution, or death sentence communications.
His work, nonetheless signified the importance of addressing how to deal with an
increasing number of death sentenced inmates.
(*2) Haas (1996) points out that the court, in Zant v. Stephens (1983), commented that
states had a legitimate interest in expediting death penalty appeals. Haas (see, e.g., pp.
135-143) also provides a review of the Court's decisions in capital cases supporting the
idea that the High Tribunal has shifted its criteria used for review of these cases.
(*3) The margin of error in opinion polling of this type is at least plus or minus three
percentage points, suggesting that there has not been a significant shift in attitudes in
1995 as compared to 1994.
(*4) At the time, the facility was called the Missouri State Prison.
(*5) Prior to the integration, officials projected the need for $41,000.00 for capital
improvements that included the construction of a concrete walkway to the housing unit,
the erection of an additional security fence, and the addition of security cameras.