A NINE-STEP STRATEGY FOR

EFFECTIVE DEPLOYM ENT

SINC1!1893

With financial support from the National Institute of Justice,
Office of Science & Technology, the International Association
of Chiefs of Police intermittently publishes Executive Briefs to
inform and educate the law enforcement community on
emerging technology issues.
This Executive Brief was supported under Award number 1999LT-VX-K004 from the Office of Justice Programs, National
Institute of Justice, Department of Justice.
The opinions,
findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this
Executive Brief are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the Department of Justice or any of its
components.

Table of Contents
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………. i
IACP Staff ………………………………………………………………. ii
Executive Summary…………………………………………………… 1
Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 4
Approach ………………………………………………………………. 6
Electro-Muscular Disruption Technology:
A Nine-Step Strategy for Effective Deployment …………. 7
Summary/Future Research …………………………………………. 19

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:
The IACP gratefully acknowledges the contributions made by the
following persons and organizations to the Electro-Muscular
Disruption Technology Executive Brief.

ADVISORY BOARD:
Matt Begert, NLECTC-West, a program of the National Institute of Justice
Barry Bratburd, NLECTC-National, a program of the National Institute of
Justice
Joe Cecconi, National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S.
Department of Justice
Steve Edwards, Bureau of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs,
U.S. Department of Justice
Chief Gerald Galloway, Southern Pines, NC Police Department
Major Steve Ijames, Springfield, MO Police Department
Chief Gil Kerlikowske, Seattle, WA Police Department
Randy Means, Thomas & Means, LLP.
Captain Greg Meyer, Los Angeles Police Academy
Chris Miles, National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S.
Department of Justice
Steve Palmer, Canadian Police Research Centre
Gerard P. Panaro, Howe & Hutton, LTD.
Captain Liane M. Tuomey, UVM Police Services
The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views
of any member of the Advisory Board or the Advisory Board as a whole.

Montgomery County Maryland Police Department
Chief J. Thomas Manger
Lolita Barnes
Sergeant Peter Davidov
Officer Craig Dickerson
Captain Alan Goldberg
Officer Joan Logan
Lieutenant Philip Raum

i

IACP STAFF
EXECUTIVE
Joseph Estey
Daniel Rosenblatt
Eugene Cromartie
John Firman

2005 – IACP President
IACP Executive Director
IACP Deputy Executive Director
IACP Research Center Director

PROJECT
Valencia Kyburz
Albert Arena
William Albright
Wm. Grady Baker
Bart Baryla
Steven Brochu
Ed Dadisho
Mike Fergus
Shannon Gorey
Keven Gray
Phil Lynn
Orjada Rapo
Dave Tollett

Program Manager
Principal Writer
Editorial Assistant
Technical Advisor
Editorial Assistant
Technical Advisor
Technical Advisor
Editorial Assistant
Policy Center Advisor
Technical Advisor
Policy Center Director
Editorial Assistant
State & Provincial Advisor

ii

ELECTRO-MUSCULAR DISRUPTION TECHNOLOGY
A Nine-Step Strategy for Effective Deployment
Executive Summary
Electro-Muscular Disruption Technology (EMDT) is a group of devices that
use a high-voltage, low power charge of electricity to induce involuntary
muscle contractions that cause temporary incapacitation. More police
departments are using EMDT on resisting subjects, with a minimum of
serious injuries or lethality. The increased use of these weapons, however,
has raised concerns about the safety of EMDT, as well as the liability and
risks associated with deployment of products such as those made by the
major manufacturers, including TASER®, STINGER®, and Law Enforcement
Associates.
To address these deployment concerns, the International Association of
Chiefs of Police (IACP)1 has developed this Executive Brief to inform law
enforcement leadership on deployment challenges surrounding this
technology. The Executive Brief offers a step-by-step guide to aid law
enforcement agencies in selecting, acquiring and using EMDT.
This Executive Brief is an initial analysis of EMDT, focusing not on the
technology itself, but rather on the management of the technology. It is
intended to help law enforcement leadership develop policies,
procedures, and training curricula that are responsive and relevant to the
needs of the communities they serve. While research findings and best
practice information will continue to evolve in the future, the IACP seeks
to make interim technology management information available to
federal, state, local, Tribal and other law enforcement agencies.

IACP Nine-Step Deployment Strategy
We have designed a nine-step deployment strategy to aid law
enforcement agencies as they select, acquire and use EMDT. The
strategy emerged from research conducted to develop this Executive
1

With financial support from the National Institute of Justice, Office of Science and Technology, the IACP
publishes Executive Briefs to inform and educate the law enforcement community on emerging technology
issues. This Executive Brief was supported under Award number 1999-LT-VX-K004 from the Office of
Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, Department of Justice. It was prepared in collaboration with
the Montgomery County Maryland Police Department. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or
recommendations expressed in this Executive Brief are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the Department of Justice or any of its components.

1

Brief, and from lessons learned from various agencies that have already
deployed EMDT.2

Step 1: Build the Leadership Team
Build an EMDT Leadership Team with members that can address the host
of issues relative to acquisition, costs, policies, training, liability and
evaluation.

Step 2: Place EMDT on the use-of-force continuum
Determine placement within the local use-of-force continuum based on
an assessment of the technology.

Step 3: Assess the Costs and Benefits of Using EMDT
Include an assessment of the costs for EMDT when making a deployment
decision.

Step 4: Identify Roles and Responsibilities for EMDT Deployment
Identify the roles and responsibilities of staff with respect to the EMDT
deployment plan and the use of EMDT.

Step 5: Engage in Community Outreach
Employ an outreach strategy with key stakeholders and the community.
Their acceptance of EMDT is essential to successful deployment.

Step 6: Develop Policies and Procedures for EMDT
Write decisions about use, training, reporting requirements, medical
evaluations, legal constraints, and other operational considerations as
policies and procedures before deployment of EMDT.

2

The following definitions should be referenced for purposes of this Brief:
Deployment is defined as distributing the technology to persons or forces in a systematic and/or
strategic manner.
Use is defined as putting the technology into service (i.e. discharging the weapon).
Acquisition is defined as purchasing the technology.

2

Step 7: Create a Comprehensive Training Program for EMDT
Deployment
Create a comprehensive training program that reinforces policies and
procedures before deploying EMDT.

Step 8: Use a Phased Deployment Approach for EMDT
Adopt a phased deployment approach for EMDT.

Step 9: Assess EMDT Use and Determine Next Steps
Conduct assessments of EMDT use to determine whether further action will
improve future use-of-force outcomes.

Summary Observations
The amount of force necessary to prevent harm to law enforcement,
bystanders, or potentially violent subjects is a decision that can have
severe implications for officers, suspects, police departments and the
public. It is essential that departments provide their officers with
appropriate training and tools for these split-second decisions. Whether
the tool is verbal communication, a police baton, Oleoresin Capsicum
(OC), commonly known as pepper spray, EMDT, or a service weapon, the
determination of the reasonableness and justification for use-of-force in a
particular situation often must be made quickly by a responding officer.
With proper training and equipment, the officer will be better prepared to
assess, plan, and act to de-escalate and resolve the situation. Providing
access to appropriate tools and training allows police departments to
reduce the injuries and deaths to officers, suspects, and members of the
public.
The IACP nine-step strategy for deploying EMDT should be used to engage
departments and communities in a partnership to develop policies and
procedures that reflect public safety priorities and provide clear and
concise instructions for using this less-lethal force option.
For those departments across the country that have already deployed
EMDT, we urge retroactive review of the nine-step strategy. This review
can provide direction for measuring performance and improving policies,
procedures, and training in their existing program.

3

Introduction
Less-lethal technologies have been developed for law enforcement to
reduce reliance on weapons more likely to produce lethal injuries. These
less-lethal technologies have met with much success in reducing injuries to
suspects and officers while permitting officers to carry out their required
law enforcement duties.
In the early 1990’s, Oleoresin Capsicum (OC), commonly known as
pepper spray, was introduced as a law enforcement use-of-force option.
Shortly after its deployment, the IACP, with funding from the National
Institute of Justice (NIJ), conducted the Introduction of Pepper Spray into
the Baltimore County Police Department study.3 That study demonstrated
that the use of pepper spray lessened reliance on chemical sprays (such
as mace) and batons, reduced the number of suspect and officer injuries,
and led to fewer use-of-force complaints. Subsequently, NIJ published the
Research for Practice guide, Safety and Effectiveness of Pepper Spray,
(http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/195739.htm) which established that
pepper spray is a reasonably safe and effective tool for law enforcement
officers to use when confronting uncooperative or combative subjects.
Questions relating to the consistency and effectiveness of pepper spray,
however, have led to concerns that officers relying on pepper spray to
de-escalate a potentially violent encounter may be placed at increased
risk if the pepper spray does not work.
Electro-Muscular Disruption Technology (EMDT) is another alternative in
less-lethal technology that uses pulses of electricity to incapacitate
suspects. The weapons are designed to deliver up to a 50,000-volt charge
with low power and can incapacitate at a distance. Two metal probes
connected by thin insulated wires are propelled by either gunpowder or
nitrogen gas into the suspect who is targeted. Once the connection is
made, electrical pulses are conducted through the wires for a number of
seconds. The electric pulse delivered by an EMDT incapacitates suspects
by causing the muscles to contract, resulting in the loss of body control.
This enables the arresting officers to restrain the subject. Over the past
decade, more than 5,000 departments have turned to EMDT to augment
their less-lethal force options.
Manufacturers assert that the use of EMDT has no residual medical impact
on the suspect. Based on the research completed to date, there is not a
3

International Association of Chiefs of Police, Pepper Spray Evaluation Project: Results of the Introduction
of Oleoresin Capsicum (OC) into the Baltimore County Police Department, Alexandria, VA, June 1995.

4

basis to establish that EMDT poses unacceptable health risks when used
appropriately on healthy persons. Independent data does not yet exist
concerning in-custody deaths, the safety of EMDT when applied to drug
or alcohol-compromised individuals, or other critical issues.
As more departments consider deployment of EMDT, experience gained
from the growing use of EMDT in recent years shows they can be aided by
a structured process for decision-making and deployment. Law
enforcement agencies must address issues about whether EMDT will
improve use-of-force outcomes in their jurisdiction and the cost of
deployment. Issues such as officer and suspect safety, community
acceptance, acquisition options, policy development, training
requirements, and agency and officer liability are legitimate concerns. To
address these immediate issues and concerns, the IACP, in collaboration
with the Montgomery County Maryland Police Department, has created
this Executive Brief to provide a structured process for law enforcement
decision-making.4

4

NOTE: The Electro-Muscular Disruption Technology Brief is not intended for use as an industry
standard, but can serve as a set of recommendations for policy actions.

5

Approach
This Executive Brief presents a sample methodology for law enforcement,
elected officials, community leaders, and other relevant stakeholders to
follow when considering whether to deploy EMDT. In the course of
developing this methodology, IACP conducted an extensive search of
journals, newspapers articles, technical documents, and other information
in order to better understand the technology and its application to law
enforcement operations. IACP consulted with technology experts and
reviewed available information about the health effects of EMDT. IACP
representatives also conducted interviews and site visits to departments
where the technology is in use, reviewed policies and procedures of
various police departments, attended EMDT training sessions, and
consulted with many police chiefs who have deployed EMDT. We
gratefully acknowledge the extensive support of the Montgomery County
Maryland Police Department in examining strategies outlined in this
Executive Brief.
The 19,000 police departments in this country vary greatly in their size,
structure, and governing laws. For this reason, the suggested
methodology in this Executive Brief provides an example of a process that
would be helpful in many jurisdictions. Each police department should
review and adapt this approach based on their unique needs and
circumstances, recognizing that this Executive Brief does not represent the
only possible approach to address deployment issues.
We also recommend that decision-makers check the IACP website at
www.theiacp.org/research for current information on Electro-Muscular
Disruption Technology. This website contains sample policies, training
protocols, reports and information resources. These resources can provide
the most current information for understanding the issues that surround
deployment of this less-lethal technology.

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Electro-Muscular Disruption Technology:

A Nine-Step Strategy for Effective Deployment
Step 1 – Build the Leadership Team
As a first step in making the decision whether EMDT is appropriate for your
agency, it is recommended that you develop an EMDT Leadership Team.
The Leadership Team can provide a standing forum to address
acquisition, cost, policy, training, liability and evaluation issues. This team
should include relevant stakeholders who can provide a full and fair
assessment of the issues and advise the agency about deployment of the
technology.
In assembling this team, you may wish to consider including some or all of
the following individuals:
Agency head/command staff,
Training staff,
Policies and procedures staff,
Field and tactical operations staff,
Community representative,
Legal counsel,
Budget and procurement staff,
Media liaison,
Medical practitioner, and
Governing or oversight body representative.
In choosing representatives, you should consider promoting an
environment where the department and the community views can be
candidly discussed in a constructive dialogue. The Leadership Team
should be directed by someone who can promote consensus building
that leads to community and department acceptance of deployment
decisions.

Team Actions
To promote informed decision-making, the following procedures should
be considered by the Leadership Team:
Discussing the proposal with senior staff,
Obtaining manufacturer and other information about EMDT
technology (including recommended uses, factors that can affect

7

the effectiveness of the technology, and available research related
to health effects),
Obtaining policies and procedures from agencies using EMDT,
Talking to administrators in other departments where EMDT has
been deployed,
Attending an EMDT training course offered by another department
or EMDT vendor,
Acquiring an EMDT device for demonstration purposes,
Reviewing community outreach and media plans of other
departments that have deployed EMDT,
Reviewing applicable federal, state, or local limits on use-of-force
(including less-lethal technologies),
Reviewing existing publications or reports with recommendations
relating to EMDT,
Reviewing what other less-lethal technologies may be available,
and
Examining the risks of harm to officers and suspects if no less-lethal
weapons are made available.

Step 2 – Place EMDT on the use-of-force continuum
If the Leadership Team makes a preliminary determination that EMDT may
be a deployment option, it should attempt to outline the general
circumstances under which it would recommend that officers be
authorized to use EMDT. It should assess the technology within the context
of governing use-of-force principles, focusing on the recurring need for
officers to protect themselves and others, and to take actively resisting,
combative or violent people into custody using tools and tactics that
reduce deaths and injuries. Placing EMDT on the use-of-force continuum
as a less-lethal option, however, begins with an understanding by the
Leadership Team that, when properly deployed, EMDT is not likely to
cause serious injury or death.
While research into the health effects of EMDT is ongoing, information
currently available to IACP indicates that EMDT, when properly used, is
likely to reduce the risk of serious injury or death to officers and suspects.
One manufacturer, Taser® International, conducted a study in 2002 of
2,050 field applications and found that officers were injured at a rate less
than 0.5%, while suspects had an injury rate of less than 2%.5 In addition,

5

See, Taser International Study, “Advanced Taser® M26 Field Report Analysis”, November 7, 2002.

8

the Seattle Police Department studied EMDT use from 2001 through 2003.6
According to the Seattle Police Department:
“Injuries to subjects and officers are low in Taser® deployments when
compared with other use-of-force situations. Subjects sustained no injuries or
only dart/stun abrasions in 65% of the Taser® incidents. There have been no
injuries to officers in 84% of the Taser® incidents. National studies have
indicated that in police encounters with violent, combative, and mentally ill
subjects, as many as 40% of the officers and the subjects may sustain injuries.”

Further, preliminary research indicates that adding EMDT to the use-offorce continuum may reduce the use of lethal force and improve the
safety of officers, suspects, and bystanders.7 The Leadership Team should
ensure that current research supports this understanding and that they are
informed about any information relating to any populations at increased
risk with EMDT use.
In making this preliminary assessment, the Leadership Team can consider
that an officer has several response options available when suspects
threaten themselves, officers, or others. That range of options may start
with presence/verbal commands, but can escalate to more physical
options, including deadly force when necessary. The IACP Concepts and
Issues Paper on Electro-Muscular Control Weapons reports that most law
enforcement agencies place EMDT at the same justification level as
Oleoresin Capsicum (OC), commonly referred to as pepper spray, on the
force continuum. While the details of departmental policies may differ,
they consistently seek to encourage a variety of less-lethal options to
reduce serious injuries or deaths resulting from law enforcement
encounters with combative or dangerous individuals.
The Leadership Team should consider the safety and effectiveness of
EMDT relative to other use-of-force options. For example, some EMDT
weapons are designed to work at a distance by shooting barb-tipped
wires from a handheld device. In many cases, these weapons will not

6

See, Seattle Police Department, “SPD Special Report: The M26 Taser® Year One Implementation,”
Seattle, Washington, May 2002 and http://www.cityofseattle.net/police/Programs/Taser/DEFAULT.HTM.
7

The U.S. Department of Defense Human Effects Center for Excellence and Northern Ireland Office’s
Defense Scientific Advisory Council (DSAC) Subcommittee have concluded that the risk of lifethreatening or serious injuries from using EMDT is very low. Refer to: U.S. Department of Defense Human
Effects Center for Excellence, “Report on Human Effectiveness and Risk Characterization of Incapacitation
Devices,” Brooks Air Force Base, TX, October 2004 and Northern Ireland Office, Defense Scientific
Advisory Council Subcommittee on the Medical Implications of Less-Lethal Weapons, “Second statement
on the medical Implications of the use of the M26 Advanced Taser,” July 2004.

9

safely and successfully deploy at long ranges, thus limiting the
effectiveness of the devices in such situations.8
After completing this preliminary assessment, the Leadership Team should
be able to articulate its reasons for placing EMDT on the use-of-force
continuum. EMDT may be repositioned on the continuum based on
factors such as changes in use-of-force principles, new research
information, and evaluations of actual use-of-force incidents.

Step 3 – Assess the Costs and Benefits of Using EMDT
One of the critical determinations in an EMDT deployment decision is an
assessment of the relative costs and benefits of using this technology. This
includes an assessment of many different factors such as direct financial
costs (e.g. equipment purchase and training), how the deployment may
enhance or adversely affect other department functions or goals (e.g.
community relations), and indirect financial costs or savings (from civil
rights claims, or costs associated with evaluating EMDT incidents). This
analysis should also consider the costs and benefits of alternative lesslethal technology options.
Obvious financial costs for EMDT deployment can include equipment
purchase, and the cost of training. EMDT deployment can also include
many hidden financial costs, such as the cost of staff involved in various
aspects of EMDT deployment (e.g., policy development and community
outreach).
For departments, the critical cost/benefit analysis involves the
determination of whether the use of EMDT will help reduce serious injuries
or deaths to suspects, law enforcement officers, and third parties. Factors
to be considered in this analysis include whether there are other effective
less-lethal force options, whether the use of EMDT will reduce the use of
firearms by law enforcement to end violent confrontations, and the risk of
serious injury or death to officers if they try to resolve violent confrontations
without any less-lethal weapons.9 The Leadership Team should be
prepared to analyze and present data and statistics that justify use,
8

See, “Evaluation of Taser Devices,” Police Scientific Development Branch, Home Office, United
Kingdom, at http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/docs3/psdb09-02.pdf.

9

Physical confrontations where an officer does not pull his firearm can pose substantial risks to an officer.
Department of Justice statistics reveal that 1 out of 11 officers fatally shot on the job were shot with their
own firearm. While this risk of death has been seriously reduced by the use of retention holsters, these
holsters cannot prevent suspects from grabbing a firearm from the holster during a physical confrontation.
See, FBI 2003 Uniform Crime Report, November, 2004.

10

together with the expected outcome benefits gained from introducing
this less-lethal technology.
In comparisons with other less-lethal options in the cost/benefit analysis,
OC or batons are often considered. Some initial assessments are the
perceived value and impact of the EMDT technology versus these other
less-lethal force options. After completion of these initial assessments, the
Leadership Team can begin the process of identifying a manufacturer
and detailing equipment (including warranty information), instructor
certification, and curriculum training costs.
As mentioned earlier, successful deployment campaigns begin with
community meetings and demonstrations of the technology. During these
meetings and demonstrations, emphasis should be placed on the positive
aspects of EMDT, and how the department is working with professional
organizations, medical practitioners, and community leaders to
communicate that deployment challenges are being considered before
the technology is deployed. Costs to the agency should be anticipated
when preparing for this phase of the deployment strategy.
Perhaps more difficult to obtain, but necessary for comparison purposes,
are liability costs in the event of injuries to suspects and/or officers. Under
this heading are costs for lost time on the job, workers compensation
claims, and court awards.
Departments making EMDT cost/benefit analyses often need to consider
how to finance the deployment. Departments that traditionally allocate
resources for basic operations might require supplemental funding in order
to acquire, outfit, and train officers to use EMDT. Local, state or federal
funding options should be reviewed.

Step 4 - Identify Roles and Responsibilities for EMDT Deployment
After the Leadership Team makes a preliminary determination about how
it intends to authorize the use of EMDT, it should clearly identify the roles
and responsibilities of staff as they relate to the deployment of EMDT. This
role definition should aid in the development and implementation of
policy decisions. It is strongly recommended that this role definition occur
prior to deployment.
Specifically, role definition can allow the agency to specify who will be
assigned to make procurement decisions, develop policy documents,

11

establish a training curriculum, specify training requirements, handle postincident evaluations, and engage in community and staff outreach.
This role definition allows the department to promote consistency in
approach and reinforce policy decisions about how EMDT will be used.
This role definition also helps stakeholders better understand the
technology, the reasons for its use (reduced serious injuries or deaths), the
applicable limits on the use of the technology, and the responsibilities of
everyone involved. In establishing this role definition, accountability
should be the key principle. Accountability occurs when tasks are
organized so that there is a dedicated chain-of-command focused on
managing the technology.
In developing role definition, the Leadership Team evaluating EMDT
should provide persons with assigned roles objective, reliable, and
relevant information relating to the technology, its limits, and the goals
sought by its deployment. This information can also support the critical
community outreach efforts.

Step 5 – Engage in Community Outreach
EMDT deployment can be the subject of substantial community and
media concern. Although no evidence is available to link serious injury or
deaths directly with the technology, heightened public concern warrants
that deployment plans be carefully developed with full recognition that
community acceptance is essential to their success. It is also essential that
a deployment plan underscore the importance of media relations, clearly
defining when and under what circumstances the media should be
contacted should there be unexpected injuries or death from the use of
EMDT. Police departments need to be extremely sensitive to community
perceptions about the use of this technology.
The department should consider how best to conduct outreach to the
community and key justice stakeholders (including staff). It is
recommended that it prepare informational materials relating to the
technology, obtain objective data relating to health effects of EMDT, and
discuss the costs and benefits of using this technology as a less-lethal force
option in preventing serious injuries to suspects and law enforcement
officers.
The Leadership Team should also consider town hall or
community meetings, and the involvement of advisory groups before
making the decision to purchase and deploy EMDT. A useful approach to
this challenge could be summarizing evaluative data and including it as

12

part of a public awareness campaign similar to the work done in Seattle,
Washington.10

Step 6 – Develop Policies and Procedures for EMDT
Decisions about use, training, reporting requirements, medical
evaluations, legal constraints, and other operational considerations must
be written into departmental policies and procedures before deployment
of EMDT.
Steve Ijames, a Major with the Springfield, Missouri Police Department,
offers this advice for department leadership authoring policies and
procedures for EMDT, “Be guided by policy, not use, when developing a
plan of action”. With clear and concise policies and procedures to
address the use of EMDT, including methods for measuring success and
reporting incidents, the department will be prepared to manage this
technology.
Defining Permissible Uses of EMDT
Policies should clearly describe the circumstances when EMDT may be
used. It is not enough, however, to establish rules that address only when
to use EMDT. Policies should also be explicit as to when its use is
inappropriate.
The force a law enforcement officer may use in the course of his duties is
governed by federal and state law. These laws often govern when force
may be used to accomplish law enforcement objectives (e.g. to arrest
and detain suspects, to prevent harm to the officer or third persons, to
protect property, to prevent escapes, etc.). In addition, court decisions,
local regulations, or executive policy decisions can all limit the
circumstances when force may be used and the level of force permissible
in any given situation.
It is recommended that the Leadership Team consult with counsel to gain
a full understanding of the limitations that will apply to EMDT use. In
addition to legal limitations, the department may choose, as a matter of
policy, to limit the circumstances where it will authorize the use of EMDT,
even if this usage might otherwise be lawful. It is strongly recommended
that the department policy explicitly state that there are some
10 See, http://www.seattle.gov/police/Programs/Taser/DEFAULT.HTM.

13

inappropriate uses of EMDT (e.g. using EMDT as punishment or near
potentially flammable, volatile, or explosive materials).
In addition, the Leadership Team should answer these key questions
during the policies and procedures development phase:
Should EMDT be used on fleeing suspects? (If so, are there limits on
the types of fleeing suspects where EMDT can be used?)
Should you use EMDT on mentally challenged persons?
Should you use EMDT on persons with known or visible impairments
that indicate compromised health?
Should EMDT be used on vulnerable populations (e.g. children, the
elderly, women known to be pregnant, etc.)?
Should EMDT be used for compliance?
Under what circumstances would multiple discharges be
permissible?
Under what circumstances would direct contact (stun) be
permissible?
Including detailed examples of when to use EMDT will augment policies
and procedures, and provide guidance for officers in their efforts to
restrain and apprehend violent suspects. Policies should also clearly
specify who may carry the weapons, where they will be worn, and
whether or not the department should assign them to individual officers or
supervisory personnel.
Medical Protocol Option
Departments have employed a number of approaches as to whether
they should have provisions for medical attention and/or evaluation
following an incident with EMDT.
A medical practitioner can assist the Leadership Team in developing
protocols for the following:
Removal of darts from sensitive areas (e.g., face, head, female
breasts, genitals),
Safe removal and disposal of biohazardous materials,
Medical evaluation of suspects after an EMDT incident,
Transport to a designated hospital or clinic, and
Suggested period for monitoring suspects in-custody who have
been involved in an EMDT incident.

14

Medical follow-up policies can provide for varying responses depending
upon the circumstances of EMDT deployment or the individualized
circumstances of the suspect. If “susceptible” populations11 can be
determined to exist, all available information about them should be
assembled, and considered in the policy development. Policies may
require added caution about using EMDT to restrain and apprehend these
suspects (just as caution is warranted when using OC spray or other lesslethal weapons), and require different medical responses for these
populations.
Reporting EMDT Use
Policies should recognize that EMDT incidents constitute a use-of-force
and need to be reported. Accurate record keeping of EMDT incidents
promotes evaluations of the effectiveness and reliability of this less-lethal
option, in addition to providing an accurate account of events that
resulted in the need for use. Agencies may want to consider the extent of
documentation, such as a requirement to photograph dart/stun impact
areas. The forms for recording EMDT incidents should be incorporated into
policies and procedures and their use reinforced through training.
Sample reporting forms can be found at www.theiacp.org/research.
Policies may also want to address whether there are additional reporting
procedures following a serious injury or death after EMDT use. Policies
should address, for example, whether the weapon should be removed
from service pending an investigation, and/or whether it should be sent to
an independent testing lab for evaluation. Policies may also establish a
mechanism for the department to review and assess the EMDT incident for
follow-up action.

Step 7 - Create a Comprehensive Training Program for EMDT
Deployment
Before deploying EMDT, departments should create a comprehensive
training program that reinforces policies and procedures. It is during this
step that technical proficiency with EMDT is linked to a thorough
understanding of departmental policies and procedures that govern its

11

“Susceptible” populations may include persons with pacemakers, persons in a drug induced state of
delirium, women who are known to be pregnant, persons of small stature irrespective of age, and the very
old and very young.

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use. Training should reiterate the need for sound justification when
deploying EMDT, and the proper procedure for reporting each incident.
EMDT instruction requires the development of lesson plans and simulations
that are structured for situations where less-lethal force options are
chosen. Hands-on training using test cartridges and foil targets that
simulate human subjects reinforces the serious nature of this less-lethal
option. We recommend using scenario based training exercises to
enhance the learning experience and better prepare officers for field
situations where EMDT use is most appropriate.
Many departments require that officers who carry an EMDT weapon
experience themselves the electric shock first-hand. This training option
seeks to encourage an officer to have a greater appreciation of the
effects of EMDT which will assist the officer in determining the
circumstances when to use EMDT.
Determining who will conduct EMDT training is another important decision.
Manufacturer-sponsored instructor certification is one option. Another
possibility is certifying instructors through a train-the-trainer scenario. Some
departments use instructional materials developed by manufacturers,
while others opt for developing their own curriculum.
Regardless of who provides instruction, it is important that the training
clearly impart to the officer the limits of the technology in terms of
effectiveness. Training concerning manufacturers’ guidelines for
maintenance and calibration of the technology should also be part of the
curriculum. EMDT users should understand that devices have a built-in
monitoring system that records date/time, number of discharges, and on
newer models, a video rendering of each incident. These features are a
source of information for report verification and validation purposes.
Another goal of training should be certification for use. As with training in
the use of conventional weapons, there should also be procedures for
EMDT that include qualification/re-qualification, and a written test to
reinforce the learning process. Training should include information on
EMDT updates (such as the pending release of an audio-video recording
system) and when to expect the acquisition and deployment of these
enhanced weapons.

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The training plan should also ensure consistency of training information.
This can be accomplished by standardized lesson plans.12 Additional
information relating to training materials can be found at
www.theiacp.org/research.

Step 8 – Use a Phased Deployment Approach for EMDT
After working through each of the preceding steps, the Leadership Team
should decide if EMDT meets the criteria for a safe and effective
alternative to deadly force. If in agreement, the team will need to
develop a process for EMDT deployment.
Many departments start by issuing EMDT weapons to special operations
teams (e.g., SWAT, Crisis Intervention). Another option might be to pilot
the deployment of EMDT among supervisors or other select officers for use
in special situations. This gives departmental leadership flexibility regarding
the deployment decision, with an option to recall the weapons if
circumstances warrant, or costs become too prohibitive.
During deployment of EMDT, it is important to reinforce department
policies through supervisory staff. Because a situation requiring EMDT use
can occur long after the initial training, periodic reinforcement by
supervisors will help support the training already provided. In particular,
compliance with reporting requirements and follow-up procedures by
officers and supervisors.
Departments should establish a timeline for the pilot deployment, with
careful monitoring of incidents where EMDT is used, including reports of
injury or death-in-custody. Reports can serve as a mechanism for
providing feedback to the Leadership Team so that they can assess
progress of the pilot deployment and determine if full deployment is
justified.

Step 9 – Assess EMDT Use and Determine Next Steps
It is strongly recommended that departments conduct follow-up
assessments of EMDT use. Such assessments can determine whether the
technology is performing as expected, and whether officers are
12

It is significant to note that the recent report issued by the British Columbia Office of the Police
Complaint Commissioner has as one of its recommendations the development of standardized lesson plans
and course training for EMDT. British Columbia, Office of the Police Complaint Commissioner, “Taser
Technology Review & Interim Recommendations,” September 2004.

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complying with department policies. In addition, they can allow a
department to take remedial action that can improve use-of-force
outcomes.
Appropriate follow-up action is necessarily dependent upon accurate
and prompt reporting of EMDT incidents. Once timely and complete
information has been obtained, the department may want to consider a
variety of options to improve future use-of-force outcomes. If an officer
has deployed EMDT in a situation that has reduced the likelihood of injury
to the suspect, the officer or third parties, that action can be recognized
and reinforced, serving as a learning scenario for future training.
If, however, EMDT use has led to an outcome that the department does
not believe was appropriate, it should assess whether this was due to a
failure of the technology to perform as expected, whether the
department’s policy was sufficient to provide appropriate guidance,
whether the department’s policy was not followed, or whether this
outcome was due to some other factor. Inevitably, department policies
or training protocols may need to be re-evaluated and revised when new
information becomes available. Likewise, departments need to consider
what action is appropriate when an officer fails to follow policy. Such
follow-up can include counseling, retraining, or disciplinary action needed
to ensure compliance with EMDT policies.
Where there has been a serious injury or death following EMDT use, the
department should also consider how best to provide the community with
accurate, appropriate and necessary information about the incident and
the department’s proposed response. If the department’s community
relation liaison is provided with background materials and response
protocols prior to the deployment of EMDT, he/she will be able to respond
more effectively to public reaction following an EMDT incident. This
information should also be provided to persons who will respond to
disability claims from officers or use-of-force civil actions.

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Summary/Future Research
The contents of this Executive Brief are intended to help law enforcement
agencies develop a strategy for EMDT deployment that establishes
management accountability, guidelines for appropriate use, and
reduction of the need for more lethal levels of force. The IACP also
recognizes the need for further research. Much like our work in evaluating
pepper spray in the 1990’s, IACP supports the need for further research on
EMDT outcomes, injuries, and in-custody deaths. Research at this level will
provide clear evidence on all aspects of EMDT and further support law
enforcement technology acquisition decision-making.

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International Association of Chiefs of Police
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800.THE.IACP • www.theiacp.org