Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration
of African American Males:
Workforce Challenges for 2013

Prepared by John Pawasarat and Lois M. Quinn
Employment and Training Institute
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
2013

Executive Summary
Among the most critical workforce issues facing Wisconsin are governmental policies and practices leading
to mass incarceration of African Americans men and suspensions of driving privileges to low-income
adults. The prison population in Wisconsin has more than tripled since 1990, fueled by increased
government funding for drug enforcement (rather than treatment) and prison construction, three-strike
rules, mandatory minimum sentence laws, truth-in-sentencing replacing judicial discretion in setting
punishments, concentrated policing in minority communities, and state incarceration for minor probation
and supervision violations. Particularly impacted were African American males, with the 2010 U.S. Census
showing Wisconsin having the highest black male incarceration rate in the nation. In Milwaukee County
over half of African American men in their 30s have served time in state prison.
This report uses two decades of state Department of Corrections (DOC) and Department of Transportation
(DOT) files to assess employment and training barriers facing African American men with a history of DOC
offenses and DOT violations. The report focuses on 26,222 African American males from Milwaukee
County incarcerated in state correctional facilities from 1990 to 2012 (including a third with only nonviolent crimes) and another 27,874 men with DOT violations preventing them from legally driving (many
for failures to pay fines and civil forfeitures).
Prison time is the most serious barrier to employment, making ex-offender populations the most difficult
to place and sustain in full-time employment. When DOT driver’s licensing history is also considered,
transportation barriers make successful labor force attachment even less likely. Yet, most of the recent
state policy discussions about preparing the Wisconsin workforce and debates over redistribution of
government job training dollars have largely ignored African American men and relegated ex-offender
populations to a minor (if not invisible) place in Wisconsin’s labor force.
•

This paper quantifies Milwaukee County African American male populations in need of increased
workforce policy attention and program support.

•

Proposed changes in state policies and legislation have been brought forward by religious groups, the
Milwaukee County District Attorney, The Sentencing Project, and others to reduce Wisconsin’s levels
of incarceration. They deserve serious consideration.

•

Programs to address reentry and workforce needs are currently operated by the Department of
Corrections and non-profit organizations but serve only a small portion of those in need. These should
be expanded and tested for their effectiveness.

•

Recognizing that there is no quick fix for ex-offender populations, the cost savings from reductions in
the prison population should be used to fund employment and training programs for those in and out
of corrections and to support programs to assist those without driver’s licenses, an essential
employment credential.

•

The Windows to Work, a joint effort between the DOC and workforce investment boards, should be
expanded. If successful, these efforts will save the state money, help ensure public safety, and reduce
recidivism.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

1

Findings
1. In April of 2010 when the U.S. Census Bureau conducted its decennial count of Wisconsin residents, it
found 12.8% (or 1 in 8) of African American working age men behind bars in state prisons and local
jails. This rate of mass incarceration is the highest for African American men in the country and nearly
double the national average of 6.7% (or 1 in 15). See graph, page 8.
Ten Worst States for Incarceration of African American Men
(2010 U.S. Decennial Census)

WISCONSIN
Oklahoma
Iowa
Pennsylvania
California
Indiana
Louisiana
Texas
Colorado
Kansas

12.8%

9.7%
9.4%
9.1%
8.6%
8.4%
8.2%
8.1%
7.7%
7.7%

U.S. average

6.7%

Wisconsin also leads the nation in incarceration of Native American men, with 7.6% of working age
men (or 1 in 13) in state prisons and local jails in 2010, compared to 3.1% (or 1 in 32) nationally. By
contrast, Wisconsin’s rate of incarceration of white men is similar to the national average.
% of men incarcerated in state prison and local jails at the time of the
2010 U.S. Census: Wisconsin compared to United State average
12.8%

Wisconsin rate
U.S. average

6.7%

7.6%

3.1%
1.7% 2.0%

African Americans

Native Americans

Hispanics

1.2% 1.3%

Whites

2. State DOC records show incarceration rates at epidemic levels for African American males in
Milwaukee County. Over half of African American men in their 30s and half of men in their early 40s
have been incarcerated in state correctional facilities.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

2

Levels of Incarceration by Age: African American Males of Milwaukee County

3,000

Incarcerated currently or previously in
adult DOC facility

2,500

Never in DOC facility or in for less than
10 days

2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1

5

10

15

20

25

30
35
Age in 2012

40

45

50

55

60

64

3. From 1990 to 2011 Wisconsin incarcerated 26,222 African American men from Milwaukee County in
state correctional facilities. As of January 2012, 20,591 men had been released back into the
community and 5,631 were still imprisoned.
Cumulative Count of Milwaukee County African American Men
Incarcerated in State Correctional Facilities Since 1990
30,000

26,222

25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

< 1990

0

Cumulative Total by Year First Incarcerated

4. By January 2012 the 26,222 African American men from Milwaukee County had been imprisoned for a
total of 42,675,397 days (or almost 117,000 years). At the average 2012 corrections’ operating cost of
$91 a day per capita cited by Wisconsin Legislative Fiscal Bureau, the cost of this incarceration would
total $3.88 billion at 2012 prices. 1 In early 2012 the state was spending over half a million dollars a day
to incarcerated 5,631 African American men from Milwaukee County.
5. 8,287, or one-third, of the African American men incarcerated since 1990 showed only non-violent
offenses.

1

Adult Corrections Programs, Informational Paper 56 (Wisconsin Legislative Fiscal Bureau, January 2013), p.3.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

3

6. Forty percent (N=10,497) of the African American males from Milwaukee County incarcerated since
1990 were drug offenders. In the early 1990s African Americans had 4 times as many annual
admissions for drug-related offenses as white men. As drug offenses soared in the 2002 to 2005 years
African American men had 11 to 12 times as many drug-related prison admissions as white men.
Yearly DOC Admissions with Drug-Related Offenses: Milwaukee County Residents
(Note: Some men have admissions in multiple years)
1,600
1,400
1,200

Whites
Hispanics
African Americans

1,000
800
600
400
200

7. Given the high levels of racial and
economic segregation in Milwaukee
County, two-thirds of the county’s
incarcerated African American men
came from 6 zip codes in the poorest
neighborhoods of Milwaukee. The
ability of ex-offenders to help support
their families is very limited for many
released inmates. Most ex-offenders
return from prison into inner city
neighborhoods that have extremely
large gaps (i.e., 25 to 1 in May 2009)
between the number of active job
seekers compared to available fulltime work.

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

0

Concentration of Released and Incarcerated Ex-Offenders
in Milwaukee Zipcode 53206

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

4

8. The majority of African American male exoffenders released from DOC facilities to
Milwaukee County are of working age.
Most (78%) released from DOC facilities
since 1990 are under 50, with only 4%
aged 60 or above.

Age of Released African American Males Now in the
Community (as of 2012)

50s
18%

60+
4%

20s
16%

30s
33%
40s
29%

9. The driver’s license is essential for getting to job sites and for avoiding arrests for illegal driving, yet
only 10% of African American men with DOC incarceration records (2,627 out of 26,222) showed a
current valid Wisconsin driver’s license with no recent suspensions or revocations, as of January 2012.
Driver's License Status (1/2012) of 26,222 African American Men Incarcerated by DOC
Not in license file
8%
No license, DMV ID or
old record
21%

No license but recent
sus/rev
23%

Current license, no
recent sus/rev
10%

Current license, with
recent sus/rev
22%

Expired license
16%

10. In addition to the ex-offenders with driver’s license problems, another 27,874 African American men in
Milwaukee County (and not in the DOC incarcerated population) had revoked or suspended licenses.
These included 5,622 men with revoked licenses, 11,801 with suspended licenses, and 10,451 with
suspensions in the DOT file but no driver’s license. Without a license, workers are unable to legally
drive to job sites throughout the metro area and subject to police arrests, particularly when driving
through suburban communities.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

5

Recommendations
Policies and programs should be focused on four groups: (1) offenders not yet sentenced, (2) those
incarcerated in state correctional institutions and approaching release, (3) ex-offenders previously
released from DOC facilities and now living in the community, and (4) non-offending residents, including
youth, who would immediately benefit from preventative initiatives supporting their employability.
Funding for ex-offender populations’ employment initiatives should be increased, using savings from
reduced incarceration of non-violent offenders and diversion of drug offenders into treatment programs.
1. Changes in laws contributing to mass incarceration of lower-risk offenders and alternatives to
imprisonment (funded with the savings from reductions in the prison population) are critically needed
with the focus on increasing public safety, supporting employment, and strengthening families.

Recommendations for reducing levels of imprisonment and improving life outcomes for offenders have been
advanced by religious leaders throughout the state (“11x15 Campaign for Justice” at prayforjusticeinwi.org),
Milwaukee County District Attorney John Chisholm (February 2011 address on reducing crime and prison
numbers at archive.law.marquette.edu/s3/site/images/events/chisholm-speech.pdf), The Sentencing Project
(www.sentencingproject.org), and the Commission on Reducing Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System
(report and appendices posted at www.eti.uwm.edu/reprints/DisparitiesCommissionReport.pdf and
www.eti.uwm.edu/reprints/DisparitiesCommissionAppendix.pdf). See also, “The Cost of Corrections: Wisconsin
and Minnesota” by the Wisconsin Taxpayers Alliance, April 2010 at https://wistax.org/publication/the-cost-ofcorrections-wisconsin-and-minnesota.

2. Technical violators of probation rules should be diverted, whenever appropriate, to community
supervision to allow employed ex-offenders to continue working.
3. Programs such as Windows to Work, a joint effort between the DOC and workforce investment
boards, should be expanded to improve employment readiness, including restoration and repair of
the driver’s license for those with fixable problems. Those unable to secure or repair their license
should be given assistance obtaining a state photo ID. Obtaining a driver’s license and clearing up
license suspensions and revocations should also be a priority employment initiative for those already
released into the community.
4. Transitional jobs programs for released inmates and for offenders diverted from incarceration are
needed in communities with high unemployment and job gaps.
5. Funding for employment training, job placement, and driver’s licensing should target the large
population of black males approaching adulthood in Milwaukee County. Without such investments
the population incarcerated will likely only increase and public safety problems escalate.
6. State aids funding free driver’s education in school districts where the families of more than half of
the students are poor or near poor would advance the engagement of low-income youth in the labor
force.
Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

6

Part One:
Mass Incarceration of African American Males
Two issues stand out when reviewing incarceration rates for Wisconsin residents. First is that the United
States has the highest number of incarcerated persons and the highest rate of incarceration in the world,
according to international prison population databases. (See Appendix A, page 31.) The total
incarceration rate for the state of Wisconsin is similar to the U.S. average.
What makes Wisconsin unique is its exceptionally high rate of imprisonment for African American males.
Wisconsin’s African American male incarceration rate is the highest in the United States. In fact, the rate is
32% higher than the second worst ranking state (Oklahoma), according to the U.S. 2010 Census counts.
Given wide disparities in income among racial groups in Wisconsin and the intense levels of segregation in
the Milwaukee metropolitan area, large numbers of ex-offenders released from Wisconsin correctional
institutions reside in the poorest neighborhoods of Milwaukee – areas which have seen dramatic job losses
and foreclosure actions during the economic recession. Bringing ex-offenders into full engagement in the
current labor force is one of the most important challenges for Milwaukee and for the state.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

7

Wisconsin has highest incarceration rate in U.S. for black males.
In 2010 the U.S. decennial census count of men (ages 18-64) incarcerated in state and local correctional
facilities showed Wisconsin with the highest incarceration rate for African American men in the United
States, with 12.3% (or 1 in 8 men) behind bars. Wisconsin’s rate is far higher than those of its neighboring
states. The rate for Illinois is 6.8%; for Michigan the rate is 7.1%.

% of African American Males (ages 18-64) Incarcerated in State and Local
Adult Correctional Facilities (U.S. 2010 Decennial Census)
WISCONSIN
Oklahoma
Iowa
Pennsylvania
California
Indiana
Louisiana
Texas
Colorado
Kansas
Florida
Oregon
Missouri
Nebraska
Utah
Ohio
Michigan
Kentucky
Idaho
Virginia
Arkansas
Illinois
Connecticut
Arizona
Wyoming
Nevada
Montana
Georgia
Tennessee
South Dakota
Minnesota
South Carolina
Vermont
Washington
New Jersey
Alabama
New York
Mississippi
Rhode Island
Delaware
North Carolina
New Hampshire
Maryland
New Mexico
Massachusetts
Maine
West Virginia
North Dakota
District of Columbia
Alaska
Hawaii

1.8%

9.7%
9.4%
9.1%
8.6%
8.4%
8.2%
8.1%
7.7%
7.7%
7.5%
7.4%
7.3%
7.2%
7.2%
7.1%
7.1%
7.0%
6.9%
6.9%
6.9%
6.8%
6.8%
6.8%
6.5%
6.4%
6.3%
6.2%
6.2%
5.9%
5.8%
5.6%
5.6%
5.5%
5.5%
5.4%
5.3%
5.2%
5.2%
5.2%
5.0%
5.0%
4.6%
4.5%
4.5%
4.4%
4.0%
3.7%
3.2%
2.6%

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

12.8%

8

Wisconsin also showed the highest rate of incarceration for Native Americans, according to the 2010 U.S.
Census, with 7.6% (or 1 in 13 men) incarcerated in state and local correctional facilities.

% of Native American Males (ages 18-64) Incarcerated in State and Local
Adult Correctional Facilities (U.S. 2010 Decennial Census)

WISCONSIN
South Dakota
Minnesota
Iowa
Colorado
North Dakota
Arizona
Nebraska
Wyoming
Idaho
Utah
Montana
Alaska
Washington
Vermont
Oregon
Oklahoma
Nevada
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
Kentucky
Michigan
North Carolina
District of Columbia
Kansas
New Mexico
California
Maine
New York
South Carolina
Missouri
Tennessee
New Jersey
Mississippi
Indiana
Connecticut
West Virginia
Illinois
Hawaii
Arkansas
Rhode Island
Florida
Georgia
Ohio
Louisiana
Pennsylvania
Virginia
Texas
Maryland
Alabama
Delaware

0.1%

3.8%
3.7%
3.6%
3.3%
3.3%
3.2%
2.8%
2.7%
2.7%
2.6%
2.5%
2.5%
2.4%
2.4%
2.4%
2.1%
2.0%
1.7%
1.6%
1.6%
1.6%
1.5%
1.5%
1.5%
1.3%
1.3%
1.2%
1.1%
1.0%
1.0%
1.0%
1.0%
0.8%
0.7%
0.7%
0.7%
0.6%
0.5%

4.7%
4.5%

6.5%
6.3%
6.1%
5.9%
5.8%
5.8%
5.3%

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

7.6%
7.3%
6.9%

9

The incarceration rate for white males in Wisconsin was 1.24% (or 1 in 81 men), nearly identical to the
national average of 1.25% (or 1 in 80). This rate is ten times less than the Wisconsin incarceration levels
for African American men, according to the 2010 Census, but still above that of most of the rest of the
world (see page 31).

% of White Men (ages 18-64) Incarcerated in State and Local Adult
Correctional Institutions (U.S. 2010 Decennial Census)
Oklahoma
Texas
Florida
Kentucky
Idaho
Georgia
Louisiana
Arizona
Arkansas
Mississippi
New Mexico
Indiana
Alabama
Tennessee
Missouri
Oregon
Wyoming
Nevada
Virginia
WISCONSIN
California
Ohio
South Dakota
South Carolina
Colorado
Utah
Michigan
West Virginia
Kansas
Pennsylvania
Washington
North Carolina
Delaware
Montana
Iowa
Maryland
Hawaii
New Hampshire
Nebraska
Alaska
Maine
Illinois
Connecticut
Massachusetts
North Dakota
New York
Vermont
Rhode Island
New Jersey
Minnesota
District of Columbia

0.1%

2.0%
1.9%
1.9%
1.8%
1.8%
1.7%
1.7%
1.7%
1.7%
1.6%
1.6%
1.6%
1.6%
1.5%
1.5%
1.5%
1.4%
1.3%
1.2%
1.2%
1.2%
1.2%
1.2%
1.2%
1.2%
1.1%
1.1%
1.1%
1.1%
1.0%
1.0%
0.9%
0.9%
0.9%
0.9%
0.9%
0.8%
0.8%
0.8%
0.8%
0.7%
0.7%
0.7%
0.7%
0.7%
0.6%
0.6%
0.6%
0.5%

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

2.1%

10

The Wisconsin incarceration rate for Hispanic males was 1.7% (or 1 in 60 men), below the national average
of 2.0%.

% of Hispanic Men (ages 18-64) Incarcerated in State and Local
Adult Correctional Facilities (U.S. 2010 Decennial Census)
Pennsylvania
Arizona
Colorado
Connecticut
South Dakota
Mississippi
North Dakota
Wyoming
Idaho
Massachusetts
Nebraska
Utah
Oklahoma
New Hampshire
Vermont
Montana
Texas
Oregon
New Mexico
California
Iowa
Kansas
Minnesota
Indiana
Rhode Island
Ohio
Michigan
Georgia
Missouri
Nevada
Alaska
WISCONSIN
New York
Kentucky
Arkansas
New Jersey
Alabama
Washington
District of Columbia
Illinois
Louisiana
Maine
Florida
South Carolina
Tennessee
North Carolina
Virginia
Hawaii
West Virginia
Maryland
Delaware

0.4%

3.5%
3.4%
3.3%
3.3%
3.3%
3.2%
3.1%
3.1%
2.9%
2.8%
2.7%
2.7%
2.7%
2.6%
2.4%
2.3%
2.1%
2.1%
2.1%
2.1%
2.0%
1.9%
1.9%
1.9%
1.8%
1.8%
1.8%
1.8%
1.7%
1.7%
1.7%
1.6%
1.6%
1.5%
1.5%
1.5%
1.4%
1.3%
1.3%
1.3%
1.3%
1.3%
1.2%
1.2%
1.1%
1.1%
1.0%
0.8%
0.7%

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

4.4%

11

Staggering levels of black incarceration impede post-release employment success.
Since 1990 Wisconsin has incarcerated over 100,000 Wisconsin residents in state correctional facilities. By
2012, a total of 26,222 African American men from Milwaukee County had been incarcerated by the DOC,
not including men housed for very brief periods in secure detention. Most of these men are of prime
working age.

5,000

African American Men from Milwaukee County with DOC Incarceration
Records: 1990-2012

4,500

Currently incarcerated

4,000

Released, previously incarcerated

3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

Age as of 2012

Milwaukee County African American Males Incarcerated in the DOC System, Ages 20 through 54
Currently
Formerly
U.S. Census: 2010
Total 2010 resident
Age as
incarcerated Incarcerated
Total
population in
population +
of 2012
(1/2012)
(1990-2011)
Incarcerated
Milwaukee County
in prison
20-24
739
923
1,662
9,082
9,821

% with DOC
incarceration
17%

25-29

1,036

2,436

3,472

7,623

8,659

40%

30-34

1,054

3,402

4,456

6,871

7,925

56%

35-39

850

3,301

4,151

6,998

7,848

53%

40-44

679

3,183

3,862

7,111

7,790

50%

45-49

532

2,678

3,210

7,041

7,573

42%

50-54

362

2,167

2,529

7,012

7,374

34%

5,252

18,090

23,342

51,738

56,990

41%

Total, 20-54

The incarcerated population excludes persons imprisoned for brief periods in secure detention.
The Census count is of non-Hispanic blacks.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

12

The volume of black males of prime working age imprisoned has increased to such an extent that over half
of all African American men from Milwaukee County in their 30s and half of men in their early 40s have
been or currently are in adult DOC correctional institutions.
Est. Percent of Milwaukee County African American Males Currently or
Previously Incarcerated in State Facilities
20-24

17%

Age as of 2012

25-29

40%

30-34

56%

35-39

53%

40-44

50%

45-49

42%

50-54

34%
0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Levels of Incarceration by Age: African American Males of Milwaukee County

3,000

Incarcerated currently or previously in
adult DOC facility

2,500

Never in DOC facility or in for less than
10 days

2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1

5

10

15

20

25

30
35
Age in 2012

40

45

50

55

60

64

Having completed their time in prison, often for non-violent crimes and drug-related offenses, to date
these men have received little attention in the state’s “skills development” and “talent pool” workforce
discussions. 2 Ex-offenders are a largely ignored source of labor force talent and yet are least likely to be
successfully engaged in sustained employment due to their felony records, time out of the labor force,
persistent legal problems, low education attainment levels, restrictions on access to student loans, limited

2

The 2012 Be Bold 2: Growing Wisconsin’s Talent Pool report by Competitive Wisconsin, for example, ignores both
African American ex-offenders and coming-of-age African American males as priority populations in need of
employment training and job support, dismissing most current Wisconsin workforce initiatives as “focused more on
what would be considered anti-poverty efforts rather than worker advancement or prosperity-oriented efforts.”
Instead the paper supports funding easier-to-serve populations by using government funds for “worker training
programs that assist current workers to advance, and [thus] open up entry-level positions for others.”

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

13

government supports for education and vocational training, high recidivism rates, and driver’s license
suspensions and revocations.
Given their prior employment problems, ex-offenders were particularly hard-hit by the economic
recession. 3 Most return to neighborhood where the job gap between job seekers and available job
openings is extremely high.
•

Job openings surveys conducted by the Employment and Training Institute found 25 job seekers
for every 1 available full-time job opening in May 2009 in the central city Milwaukee zipcodes
with the highest concentrations of returning ex-offenders. Even prior to the recession in May
2006 the job gap in these neighborhoods was 7 to 1. 4

•

A majority (89%) of full-time job openings in the region (in May 2009) required education and
training beyond high school or occupation-specific prior job experience.

•

In the first two years of the recession African American males saw the bottom drop out of their
employment in large and mid-size private companies in the Milwaukee area, with a 24% decrease
in “blue collar” employment (i.e., jobs in the occupational areas of skilled workers, semi-skilled
operatives, and laborers), according to company reports filed with the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission. No other major racial/ethnic group experienced such a high proportion
of blue collar job losses. 5

•

African American men from the Milwaukee area saw a disproportionate loss of construction trade
apprenticeship jobs during the recession, suffering 15% of apprenticeship job losses (even though
they comprised only 8% of active apprentices) and showing an unassignment rate of 14%
(compared to a 9% rate for white apprentices). The higher unemployment rates for African
American apprentices could not be explained by the “last hired, first fired” standard; on average,
African Americans who were unassigned had started their apprenticeship programs 11 months
before the unassigned white apprentices. 6

Ex-offenders’ successful reentry into the workforce is critical for the public safety and economic well-being
of local communities. They are now, however, competing with unemployed and underemployed skilled
and unskilled workers for jobs that become available.

3

Understanding the Unemployed Workforce in Milwaukee County (University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Employment
and Training Institute, 2009), posted at www.eti.uwm.edu/2009/UnemployedWorkforce.pdf.
4
Survey of Job Openings in the 7 Counties of Southeastern Wisconsin: Week of May 25, 2009 (University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee Employment and Training Institute, 2009), posted at
www.eti.uwm.edu/2009/RegionalJobOpenings.pdf.
5
Employment and Training Institute analysis of 2008-2010 EEO-1 reports filed with the U.S. Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission by 1,730 private companies in the four-county Milwaukee metro area. Private companies
with 100+ employees (and financial institutions with 50+ employees) are required to file annual EEO-1 reports
detailing their workforce by race/ethnicity, gender and occupational categories.
6
Losing Ground: 2010 Report Card on Apprentices in the Construction Trade (A Collaborative Report of the NAACP –
Milwaukee Branch and the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Employment and Training Institute, 2010), posted at
www.eti.uwm.edu/construction/LosingGround.pdf.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

14

Annual levels of black male incarceration
The number of African American men from Milwaukee County incarcerated in Wisconsin DOC facilities
remained above 10,000 annually from 2003 through 2008. Reductions in numbers incarcerated were seen
after 2008, going down to a total of 8,737 imprisoned in 2011. Practices adopted in Milwaukee County to
divert nonviolent offenders into substance abuse treatment and into community supervision rather than
incarceration have contributed to reductions in prison admissions in recent years.
Total African American Men from Milwaukee County Incarcerated
in DOC Facilities Each Year
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
0

2,000

4,000

The incarceration levels in the 2003-2008
period are nearly four times those seen in
1990 before drug law changes, truth-insentencing, mandatory sentences, and
three-strikes laws were broadly imposed.
Even with a recent decline in incarceration
levels, in 2010 Wisconsin still showed the
highest incarceration rate for African
Americans in the U.S.

7

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

“The United States prison population did not balloon by
accident, nor was its expansion driven principally by
surging crime rates or demographic dynamics beyond
the control of state leaders. Rather, the growth flowed
primarily from changes in sentencing laws, inmate
release decisions, community supervision practices and
other correctional policies that determine who goes to
prison and for how long. And while expanded
incarceration contributed to the drop in violent crime in
the United States during the 1990s, research shows
that having more prisoners accounted for only about
25 percent of the reduction, leaving the other 75
percent to be explained by better policing and a variety
7
of other less expensive factors.”

Collateral Costs: Incarceration’s Effect on Economic Mobility (The PEW Charitable Trusts, 2010), p. 6.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

15

For 8 of the last 10 years over 3,000 men were released (or re-released) annually back into the community.
(Note: These yearly counts include men returning home from prison for the first time as well as recidivists
and probation/supervision violators returning home for second or third, or more, times.) When release
dates are examined by the last year of release only, the following patterns are seen.
Black Males Released from DOC Incarceration: BY YEAR OF LAST RELEASE
2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

0

By 2012 a cumulative total of over 20,000 African American state inmates had come home to Milwaukee
County.
Cumulative Number of African American Ex-Offenders RELEASED into
Milwaukee County by Inmates' Last Year of Release
25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

Before 1993

0

16

Time spent in prison costs billions while limiting employment sustainability.
The 26,222 African American men from Milwaukee County incarcerated by the DOC from 1990 to 2012
were imprisoned 42,675,397, or almost 117,000 years. At the Legislative Fiscal Bureau’s estimated cost for
Wisconsin incarceration of $91 per day, this level of incarceration costs approximately $3.88 billion in 2012
prices. 8
•

For the 20,591 released black males in Milwaukee
County their total number of days imprisoned was
26,150,652 days (or 71,645 years of incarceration). At
the estimated cost for Wisconsin incarceration of $91
per day, this level of incarceration costs approximately
$2.38 billion in 2012 prices.

•

The 5,631 African American men still incarcerated in
January 2012 had already spent 16,524,745 days in
prison (or 45,273 years). At the estimated cost for state
incarceration of $91 per day, this level of incarceration
– up to 2012 – costs approximately $1.5 billion in 2012
prices.

•

It cost over $1/2 million a day to incarcerate the 5,631
men imprisoned in January 2012.

“To be clear, violent and career criminals
need to be put behind bars for significant
terms. At the same time, lower-risk
offenders can be diverted to a system of
high-quality community supervision, services
and tough sanctions that reduces recidivism
and enhances public safety while costing far
less than prison. … Every day spent under
community supervision rather than behind
bars is an opportunity for a sentenced
individual to work. It’s an opportunity to
build vocational experience. When
supervised properly in the community,
probationers and parolees can repay their
debts while building work skills and an
9
employment track record.”

To finance the total state levels of imprisonment, in the 2011-2012 biennium the Wisconsin governor and
legislature allocated more taxpayer dollars for the Department of Corrections than for the entire
University of Wisconsin higher education system. 10

8

Adult Corrections Programs, Informational Paper 56 (Wisconsin Legislative Fiscal Bureau, January 2013), p. 3. The
Vera Institute of Justice estimated state incarceration costs higher -- $104/day when capital costs, statewide
administrative costs, and inmate hospital services were included. “The Cost of Prisons|Wisconsin: What
Incarceration Costs Taxpayers” (Vera Institute of Justice, 2012). This would bring the state cost of incarcerating
26,222 African Americans for 42,675,397 days to $4.4 billion at 2012 prices.
9
Collateral Costs: Incarceration’s Effect on Economic Mobility (The PEW Charitable Trusts, 2010), p. 24.
10
Alison Bauter, “As priorities shift, corrections budget passes UW System,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel (August 16,
2012), posted at http://www.jsonline.com/news/statepolitics/wisconsin-corrections-spending-passes-that-of-uwsystem-ua62t4k-166039926.html.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

17

40% of incarcerated African American males have drug-related offenses.
“The impact of greater emphasis on law
enforcement and incarceration of drug
offenders has had a dramatic impact on
African American communities as a result of
three overlapping policy decisions: the
concentration of drug law enforcement in
inner city areas; harsher sentencing policies,
particularly for crack cocaine; and, the drug
war’s emphasis on law enforcement at the
expense of prevention and treatment. Given
the shortage of treatment options in many
inner city areas, drug abuse in these
communities is more likely to receive
attention as a criminal justice problem, rather
11
than a social problem.”

The prison populations in the state and county grew
rapidly during the 1990s, driven by new laws governing
drug-related arrests, mandatory minimum sentences,
mandatory three-strikes incarceration irrespective of the
third crime, and truth-in-sentencing laws. The annual
number of drug imprisonments for Milwaukee County men
rose from around 300 in 1990 to a high of over 1,500 in
2004, then declining to below 700 in 2011.

Yearly DOC Admissions with Drug-Related Offenses: Milwaukee County Residents
(Note: Some men have admissions in more than one year.)

1,800
Whites
1,600

Hispanics
African Americans

1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

0

Since 1990 African American males have made up 82% of DOC imprisonments of Milwaukee County male
residents with drug offenses.
11

Marc Mauer and Ryan S. King, A 25 Year Quagmire: The War on Drugs and Its Impact on American Society (The
Sentencing Project, Sept. 2007), posted at www.sentencingproject.org/doc/publications/dp_25yearquagmire.pdf.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

18

Drug sentencing offenses rose from 222 for African American males admitted to prison in 1990 to a high
of 1,272 for those admitted in 2003, then declining below 800 in 2009 and below 550 in 2011. African
American men in Milwaukee County went from having 4 times as many annual admissions for drug-related
offenses as white men in the early 1990s to having 11 to 12 times as many in the 2002 to 2005 years when
incarceration of African Americans for drug offenses was soaring. Of the 26,222 African American males
incarcerated from 1990 to 2012, 40% (N=10,497) had sentences for drug offenses.
Hispanic males from Milwaukee County showed 22 admissions to prison in 1990 with drug offenses, then
rising to 158 admitted in 2004 with declines thereafter.
During the same period white males imprisoned with drug offenses from Milwaukee County went from 49
admissions to prison in 1990 then up to 128 in 2006 and declining thereafter.

Felons incarcerated for drug-related convictions face
additional problems upon release securing private and
public sector employment and also have limitations placed
on their access to federal aid and scholarships to attend
vocational education classes, college, and other postsecondary education programs. They may also be denied
access to public housing or required to participate in drug
treatment and testing programs as conditions for the
housing. Likewise, even if income-eligible, they may be
denied access to FoodShare program support and
participation in TANF-funded programs unless they
participate in drug-testing regimens. 12

“Merely reducing prison terms does not have
a major impact on the majority of people in
the system. It is the badge of inferiority –
the felony record – that relegates people for
their entire lives to second-class status. …
forced to “check the box” indicating a felony
conviction on employment applications for
nearly every job, and denied licenses for a
wide range of professions, people whose
only crime is drug addiction or possession of
a small amount of drugs for recreational use
find themselves locked out of the
mainstream society and economy –
13
permanently.”

12

For recommendations of the Commission on Reducing Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System, appointed
by Governor Jim Doyle, on addressing needs of drug offenders in the criminal justice system see the Final Report
(February 2008) available at www.eti.uwm.edu/reprints/DisparitiesCommissionReport.pdf and appendix at
www.eti.uwm.edu/reprints/DisparitiesCommissionAppendix.pdf.
13
Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (The New Press, 2010), p.
94.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

19

8,287 inmates with non-violent or drug offenses only
When the offenses of incarcerated African American men from Milwaukee County were examined, twothirds (68%) had violent offenses listed at some time during their incarceration periods while 32%
(N=8287) showed only non-violent offenses or drug-only charges. While offense patterns were complex
(particularly for those first imprisoned for non-violent or drug possession charges and later returning to
prison as violent criminals), drug offenders as a group were more likely to be incarcerated for non-violent
offenses. Less than half (44%) of men with drug offenses also showed violent offenses, compared to 84%
of non-drug offenders.

Offenses by Imprisoned African American
Men from Milwaukee County
Sub-total with violent offenses

With non-violent offenses (and no violent offenses)
With drug offenses only
Sub-total with non-violent or drug only offenses
Total incarcerated

Drug
offenders
4,649

Non drug
offenders
13,286

Total
offenders
17,935

2,670
3,178
5,848

2,439
-2,439

5,109
3,178
8,287

10,497

15,725

26,222

As of October 2012, the 5,848 African American men serving sentences for non-violent and drug-only
offenses had spent 5,140,651 days in prison since January 1990 (or 14,084 years).

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

20

Drug vs. driving offenses as reasons for statewide incarcerations
When annual imprisonments in Wisconsin for drugs and driving offenses are compared, the sharp spikes in
incarceration of African American males from Milwaukee County show state policy impacts since 1990.
Only 6% of African American men incarcerated from Milwaukee County show DWI (driving while
intoxicated) offenses compared to 40% with drug-related offenses. In terms of male incarcerations in
Wisconsin correctional facilities, DWI incarcerations reflect the racial make-up of the state of Wisconsin
with 83% of the statewide DWI offenses listed for white inmates. By contrast, African American male
inmates statewide had 67% of the drug offenses.
Statewide Cummulative Driving vs. Drug Offenses by Males Incarcerated in DOC
Institutions, 1990-2011 (Note: individuals may show more than 1 offense.)
30,000
25,000

Whites
African Americans
Hispanics
Native Americans

20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
DWI and other driving offenses

Drug-related offenses

When offenses of incarcerated African American males from Milwaukee County are compared to the
offenses of white males from the “balance of the state,” the white BOS population showed more drunk
driving offenses and black males more drug offenses.
Cummulative offenses for drugs and driving: Milwaukee County African
American males compared to white males from the "balance of the state"
Drug offenses
Driving while intoxicated (DWI and OWI)
Rules of the Road violations
Operating after revocation/suspension

Offenses by "BOS" white males
Offenses by Milw Cnty black males

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

20,000

18,000

16,000

14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0

Hit and run

21

Age of released prisoners now living in the community
The graph below shows the current age of African American male ex-offenders from Milwaukee County
and the year when they were last released from prison. For the population of 20,591 men currently no
longer in imprisoned, 27% had a last release date of 2009 through 2011, 26% had their last release is years
2005 through 2008, 25% in years 2000 through 2004, and 22% in the 1990s (i.e., 1990 through 1999).

Age (in 2012) of African American Males by Their Year of Last Release
2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200

60+

1,000

50s

800

40s

600

30s

400

20s

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

0

1990

200

Year of Last Release

The majority of ex-offenders released from DOC facilities are of working age. Most (78%) of the African
American men who have been released from DOC facilities since 1990 are under 50, with only 4% aged 60
or above.

Age of Released African American Males as of 2012
60+
4%
50s
18%

20s
16%

30s
33%
40s
29%

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

22

Incarcerated populations by Milwaukee zipcode neighborhood
The heaviest concentrations of released inmates and currently incarcerated adults were in the poorest
neighborhoods on Milwaukee’s northside and near southside. For many inner city neighborhoods having
parents or other family members incarcerated in state prison (or in the Milwaukee County House of
Corrections) has become a way of life, given the extremely high rates of incarceration among central city
Milwaukee residents. The prison/ex-offender overlay has profound implications for youth and families as
high poverty neighborhoods are rife with hardened criminals, drug violence, and lack of safety for youth.
At the same time, many ex-offenders and current prisoners are themselves parents – and struggling (or
not struggling) to support their children financially and emotionally and to reattach to their families.
Given the high levels of racial and economic segregation in Milwaukee County, two-thirds of the
incarcerated African American men came from 6 zip codes: 53206, 53209, 53210, 53218, 53212, and
53216. Over 90% came from the 15 zip code neighborhoods listed below.
African American Males Incarcerated in DOC Facilities:
Top 15 Milwaukee County Zip Codes
ZIP Code
53206
53209
53210
53218
53212
53216
53208
53205
53225
53223
53204
53224
53233
53215
53222

Last Released
(1990-2011)
2,967
2,319
2,004
1,791
1,754
1,764
1,666
975
736
563

Incarcerated
(1/1/2012)
870
569
597
502
510
466
503
262
220
155

Total
3,837
2,888
2,601
2,293
2,264
2,230
2,169
1,237
956
718

537
529
451
394
262

155
146
130
90
46

692
675
581
484
308

White areas = Milwaukee
Shaded areas = suburbs

The ability of ex-offenders to help support their
families is very limited for many released inmates.
Most ex-offenders return from prison into inner city
neighborhoods that already have extremely large job
gaps between the numbers of active job seekers
compared to available full-time work.

14

“The concentrated poverty of inner-city
neighborhoods erodes the web of social
connections that often restrains crime in urban
areas. Lacking neighbors with their eyes on the
street, and without much adult supervision for
teenage males, poor neighborhoods are acutely
14
exposed to the risks of crime and delinquency.”

Bruce Western, Punishment and Inequality in America (Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), pp. 109-110.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

23

Home Residence of African American Male State Prisoners
(Incarcerated and Released)

,
~

'.,

....."11,,

.

.--t.•,
...' . ....•..
... . . .

... . . ':.,...-.,

i:fo= . • ~';:!.I.
"

~

.'.~,

. ~ . ", . . ;""",'.I':j,

.'

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

24

Ground zero for black male incarceration: zipcode 53206
The cumulative effects of the high levels of incarceration of African
American males can be seen in Milwaukee zipcode 53206 where 4,008
males (including 3,837 African Americans) were either presently or
previously incarcerated in adult state correctional institutions. By 2012
nearly every residential block in the neighborhood had multiple numbers
of ex-offenders with prison records.
Concentration of State Prisoners (Incarcerated and Released) in
Milwaukee Zipcode 53206

“It is a vicious cycle. Being
without a job can encourage
illegal moneymaking activities
in order to make ends meet,
which increases the risks of
incarceration. Upon release
from incarceration, a prison
record carries a stigma in the
eyes of employers and
decreases the probability that
an ex-offender will be hired,
resulting in a greater
likelihood of even more
15
intractable joblessness.”

15

William Julius Wilson, More than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City (W. W. Norton and Company,
2009), p. 78.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

25

Part Two:
Transportation Barriers to Employment
Thousands of adults concentrated in Milwaukee low-income neighborhoods have suspensions placed on
their driver’s licenses solely for not paying fines and civil forfeitures, and others including teens, have been
issued license suspensions for failure to pay fines even though they have never had a driver’s license.
Many teens and adults with suspensions continue to drive with or without a valid license.
African American males are most likely to have driver's license problems related to fine collections. Those
who continue to drive to work with suspended licenses often are stopped for minor vehicle or traffic
infractions only to be cited for driving under suspension or revocation -- far more serious offenses.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

26

Driver’s license problems for ex-offenders are extensive – and fixable.
Driver’s license problems limit the access of ex-offenders to jobs throughout the metro area and raise the
possibility of arrests for driving-without-a-valid-license offenses, yet are fixable. Programs operated by the
Center for Driver’s License Recovery & Employability have demonstrated the efficacy of driver’s license
recovery programs for this population, yet thousands of black men remain unlicensed or with fines and
forfeitures preventing their legal driving. 16 In order to assess transportation employment barriers facing
current and former prisoners, DOC driver’s license data for the last six years were matched for each
individual in the DOC file, including license status, driving suspensions, and driving revocations.
Of the 26,222 African American men incarcerated by the DOC, all but 2,093 were found in the state
Department of Transportation driver’s license files. Only 2,627 of the men (10%), however, had a current
Wisconsin driver’s license with no recent suspensions or revocations. These included 2,005 with a regular
license, 417 with a probationary license, and 205 with an instructional permit. An additional 4,323 had a
regular current license with a recent suspension or revocation, 1,094 had a probationary license with a
recent suspension or revocation, and 296 had an instructional permit with a suspension or revocation.
Driver’s License Status of 26,222 African American Men Incarcerated by the DOC
Not in license file
8%
No license, DMV ID
or old record
21%

No license but recent
sus/rev
23%

Current license, no
recent sus/rev
10%

Current license, with
recent sus/rev
22%

Expired license
16%

In all, two-thirds of the men were unlicensed, including 16% with expired licenses, 23% with recent
suspensions and revocations but no license, another 21% with a DOT record but no license (including those
obtaining state photo IDs from the DMV or having old suspension or revocation records), and 8% having no
DOT listing. State reforms eliminating most drug conviction driver’s license suspensions should help
reduce problems for a number released prisoners and unlicensed teens.
16

The Second Year Evaluation of the Center for Driver’s License Recovery and Employability (University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee Employment and Training Institute, 2008), posted at www4.uwm.edu/eti/2008/Evaluation.pdf)
found that over a fourth (27%) of men seeking out CDLRE program services had been formerly incarcerated in state
correctional facilities, and 58% of these clients successfully addressed all financial and legal obstacles in order to
obtain their driving privileges.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

27

27,874 African American men (non-DOC) with driver’s license problems
The problems of African Americans and low-income populations receiving driving citations for failure to
pay fines and civil forfeitures and penalized for minor vehicle infractions has been documented in other
Employment and Training Institute reports. 17
For this report the population was identified of African American men not in the Department of
Corrections incarceration system but with driver’s license problems in the state Department of
Transportation files. A total of 27,874 men had problems including 5,622 with revoked licenses, 11,801
with suspended licenses, and 10,451 with suspensions in the DOT file but no driver’s license.
African American Men with Driver's License Problems (and not
in the DOC incarceration system)
With revoked
license, 5,622
With suspensions
but NO license,
10,451

With suspended
license, 11,801

Well over half of this population resides in the city’s poorest neighborhoods where few jobs are available
even for the lowest-skilled workers. Without a valid driver’s license access to jobs is very limited. The
problems are most acute for men in the twenties, with 2/3 of the men in this age group showing driver’s
license problems. History shows that many of the men with driver’s license problems will continue to
drive, incurring additional suspensions and revocations and experiencing multiple police stops.

17

See the Employment and Training Institute webpage on “Driver’s License Issues for Milwaukee Workers” at
www.eti.uwm.edu/2007/MJS.htm.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

28

Addressing teen driver’s license issues before the criminal justice system is involved
Concerted efforts to ensure that African American teens obtain their driver’s license should be an
immediate priority for state and local governments. The driver’s license, while an essential asset for
employment for most workers, is increasingly expensive to obtain for lower-income youth. Wisconsin
discontinued state aids for driver’s education while requiring that school age youth participate in a school
or commercial driving program as a condition for obtaining their license.
As of January 2012, an estimated 4,010 African American males in Milwaukee aged 16 and 17 lacked a
driver’s license or learning permit.

Only 17% of African American male teens (ages 16-17) in the city of Milwaukee had a driver’s license,
including 9% with an instruction permit and 8% with a probationary license.
Milwaukee African American Males (Ages 16-17): License Status
Probationary
license
8%
Instruction permit
9%
No license, with
suspension
3%

Est. no license, no
suspensions
80%

By contrast 64% of white male teens (ages 16-17) living in the suburbs of the county had a license,
including 17% with a learner’s permit and 47% who already had their probationary license.
Paying for a driving course, maintaining a working vehicle, and securing insurance coverage for teenagers
(particularly in inner city zipcodes where insurance rates are highest) is a costly undertaking for many
financially strapped families. Unfortunately, thousands of Milwaukee teens drive even though they have
not taken driver’s education, do not have a license, and cannot afford auto insurance.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

29

Young adult African American males need immediate attention if future
Wisconsin incarceration rates and license problems are to be lessened.
A large population of African American males is approaching
adulthood in Milwaukee County. These young men will either swell
the ranks of Wisconsin prisons, most initially incarcerated for drugrelated offenses, or successfully join the workforce contributing to
the economic health of their families and the community. Focus on
employment training and job placement for young African
American men is crucial if Milwaukee is to support their transition
into adulthood and the state is to prevent a new surge of prisoners
into the state DOC system.

3,000

“High rates of incarceration remove
young working-age people from the
community during the college or
career-beginning age and return
them several years later with
reduced prospects for education and
employment. Further, the young
people often return with greater ties
18
to criminal networks.”

Milwaukee County African American Male Populaton by Age
(includes local residents plus those imprisoned by the DOC)

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0
1

3

5

7

9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59
Age as of 2010

Demographics point to a large young African American male population approaching adulthood. Young
African American males ages 1 to 18 in the 2010 census averaged 2,362 per single age year (from 2,258
one-year-olds to 2,607 eighteen-year-olds). This is compares to an average of 1,449 black males in each
age year in the 25-34 population. When the population of African American males currently incarcerated
in DOC facilities is added to the Milwaukee County residents’ census count, the average number of men
per age year is 1,659 for the 25-34 age cohort.
18

Commission on Reducing Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System Final Report (February 2008), p.4.

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

30

Appendix A: Incarceration Rates by Country
The United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world, according to the International Centre for
Prison Studies. “World Prison Brief Online” at www.prisonstudies.org/info/worldbrief/wpb_about.php,
downloaded on April 4, 2012. The graph below shows incarceration rates per 100,000 population (for all
residents, not just adults) for countries with more than 15,000 persons imprisoned.
Incarceration Rates per 100,000 Total Population (i.e., Men, Women and Children)
United States of America
Rwanda
Cuba
Russian Federation
Belarus
Georgia
El Salvador
Azerbaijan
Thailand
Ukraine
Kazakhstan
South Africa
Taiwan
Iran
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Israel
Poland
Dominican Republic
Mexico
Morocco
Tunisia
Peru
Hungary
Venezuela
Turkey
Saudi Arabia
Algeria
Czech Republic
Romania
Uzbekistan
UK: England & Wales
Spain
Argentina
Vietnam
Ethiopia
Australia
Zimbabwe
Zambia
Malaysia
Kenya
China
Myanmar
Cameroon
Canada
Iraq
Philippines
Italy
Cambodia
France
Angola
Sri Lanka
Uganda
Madagascar
Republic of (South) Korea
Germany
Egypt
Tanzania
Afghanistan
Mozambique
Indonesia
Sudan
Japan
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Democratic Republic of Congo
Nigeria
India

321
316
307
285
284
276
270
240
236
222
210
209
199
198
198
173
169
167
162
156
153
152
152
150
149
145
145
136
130
129
126
126
126
121
120
119
114
110
110
108
104
101
100
100
96
95
92
80
80
78
74
69
62
56
54
41
38
33
32
30

367

438
427
425
407

527
510
487

Wisconsin’s Mass Incarceration of African American Males: Workforce Challenges of 2013

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Appendix B: Methodology
Wisconsin Department of Corrections Public Inmate Records
The Employment and Training Institute analyzed the Wisconsin Department of Corrections public inmate
files of individuals incarcerated for the period from January 1990 to October 2012 in order to identify the
cumulative number of adults incarcerated and returning to Milwaukee County and to assess their needs
for employment and training services. The records show rapidly increasing numbers of men released back
to Milwaukee County and heavily concentrated in central city Milwaukee neighborhoods.
This report examined the population of African American males with a Milwaukee County address (as their
last found home address) who were incarcerated in Wisconsin Department of Corrections facilities from
1990 to January 2012. The report tracks all individuals with DOC records – whether currently incarcerated
or having served time previously. (For this report individuals were excluded from the DOC populations
studied if they were incarcerated for only short-term periods, i.e., of less than 10 days, usually in the
Milwaukee Secure Detention Facility.) Unlike studies reporting point-in-time levels of incarceration or
average daily inmate populations, this report examines the cumulative numbers of the incarcerated since
1990 based on individual’s prison records. Many of the African American men from Milwaukee County
have had multiple terms of imprisonment, contributing to over 65,000 admissions of 10 or more days and
over 59,500 release events. Men are considered “currently incarcerated” if they were incarcerated on
January 1, 2012, the year of the most recent DOC files examined. Men are considered “previously
incarcerated” if they were last released from DOC facilities between 1990 and 2011. Rates of incarceration
are calculated using U.S. Census Bureau 2010 population counts by race, gender and age. Unless
otherwise noted, the population studied is limited to those aged 18-64 as of 2012.
Note: The Department of Corrections incarceration totals in this report do not include additional males
incarcerated in federal prisons, state juvenile correctional facilities, or county and city jails.
Wisconsin Department of Transportation Driver’s License Records
The Employment and Training Institute has tracked the driver’s license status of Wisconsin and Milwaukee
County residents since the 1990s using the state Department of Transportation files on licenses,
suspensions and revocations.
2010 U.S. Census
State rates of incarceration of males ages 18-64 were calculated by dividing the number of males in state
prisons and local jails and other municipal confinement facilities by the total population in that age cohort
as of the census count on April 1, 2010.

The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Employment and Training Institute addresses workforce training,
transportation, and education needs of low-income and unemployed workers and families through applied
research, policy development, and technical assistance. For more information, see the Employment and
Training Institute website at www.eti.uwm.edu.

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