Preliminary Report of the
New York State Bar Association’s
Task Force on Wrongful Convictions
For the Consideration of the House of Delegates • January 30, 2009

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Table of Contents
Executive Summary.................................................................................................! 4
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Work of Paramount Importance!....................................................................! 4

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The Formation of the Task Force...................................................................! 4

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The First Meeting.........................................................................................! 5

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Mission Statement (Box)...............................................................................! 5

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The Causes of Wrongful Convictions..............................................................! 6

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Additional Information About Case Studies....................................................! 6

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Frequency of Specific Causes Linked to Wrongful Convictions (Chart)...............! 7

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The Formation of the Subcommittees..............................................................! 8

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The Recommendations of the Subcommittees..................................................! 8

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The Vote of the Task Force...........................................................................! 8

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Proposals for the Consideration of the House of Delegates...............................! 8

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Proposals of the Government Practices Subcommittee........................! 8

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Proposals of the Identification Procedures Subcommittee...................! 10

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Proposals of the Forensic Evidence Subcommittee.............................! 12

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Proposals of the False Confession Subcommittee...............................! 13

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Proposals of the Jailhouse Informant Subcommittee...........................! 14

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Proposals of the Defense Practices Subcommittee..............................! 14

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Proposals of the Compensation Subcommittee...................................! 15

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Public Hearings by the Task Force................................................................! 17

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Special Thanks from the Task Force..............................................................! 17

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Conclusion.................................................................................................! 18

Final Report of the Government Practices Subcommittee............................................! 19
Final Report of the Identification Procedures Subcommittee.......................................! 44
Final Report of the Forensic Evidence Subcommittee.................................................! 89
Final Report of the False Confession Subcommittee...................................................! 102
Final Report of the Jailhouse Informant Subcommittee...............................................! 112
Final Report of the Defense Practices Subcommittee..................................................! 119
Final Report of the Compensation Subcommittee.......................................................! 126
Appendix A.............................................................................................................! 182
Appendix B.............................................................................................................! 184

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Executive Summary
A Review of the Task Force’s Work

Some Faces of New Yorkers Wrongfully Convicted:
Capozzi, Scott Fappiano, and Douglas Warney.

Jeff Deskovic, Alan Newton, Anthony

Work of Paramount Importance
When Bernice Leber assumed the presidency of the New York State Bar Association on June 2,
2008, she immediately recognized the need to study the root causes of wrongful convictions in
New York and to promulgate any changes necessary to insure that only the guilty are convicted.
She stated, “[f]or each wrongful conviction that surfaces, how many others are still unfairly
resolved? Ensuring the fair administration of justice must be the number one priority in our
criminal justice system. As leaders of the profession, we have a responsibility to do everything
we can to protect the innocent and make sure men and women are not punished – not even for
even one day – for crimes they did not commit,” To that end, President Leber immediately
announced the creation of a Task Force on Wrongful Convictions to carry out this cornerstone
of her administration.
The Formation of the Task Force
The Honorable Barry Kamins, immediate past president of the New York City Bar Association
and adjunct professor at Brooklyn and Fordham Law Schools, was asked to serve as Chair of the
Task Force, and some of the state’s top judges, prosecutors, defense counsel, legal scholars and
experts in the field of criminal justice agreed to serve as its Members. A complete roster of the
Task Force appears as Appendix A.
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MISSION STATEMENT

The First Meeting
The first meeting was convened

The number of exonerations in New York undermines the
assumption that the criminal justice system sufficiently
protects the innocent. Many of the exonerations do not
involve DNA evidence.
The consequences are farreaching, considering, among other things, the lengthy
incarcerations some defendants have experienced.

on June 13, 2008, and the Task

The Task Force is charged with identifying the causes for
wrongful convictions, and to attempt to eliminate them.

term “wrongfully convicted.”

The Task Force shall identify all of the causes of the
wrongful convictions and isolate the systemic causes that
produced these injustices.

determine the criteria of those

The Task Force shall focus on current rules, procedures
and statutes that were implicated in each case and propose
solutions in the form of procedural changes and
legislation.

be only those individuals whose

The Task Force shall provide opportunities to educate the
profession and the public on the causes of these erroneous
convictions with the aim of ensuring that our laws, policies
and practices are designed to reduce the risk of convicting
the innocent and increasing the likelihood of convicting
the guilty.
In addition, the Task Force shall review and report on the
current remedies/compensation available to those
wrongly convicted and propose reforms, where
appropriate.
The Task Force shall also prepare a report recommending
any appropriate reforms, both by statute, policy and
practice, to the Executive Committee and the House of
Delegates.

Force quickly adopted its
mission statement (see box at
left).

In addition, the group

defined what it meant by the
That definition, which would
cases which the Task Force
would study, was determined to
New York convictions were
subsequently overturned by
judicial/formal exoneration.1
Judge Kamins assigned between
3 to 5 wrongfully convicted
individuals to each Member of
the Task Force. He asked the
Members to carefully review the
facts of each case and then draft
a detailed report for each that
could be reviewed by the entire
Task Force. A total of 53 cases
were selected, and each
Member reviewed all
documentation available about

their assigned cases, including but not limited to, court files and various media reports. In
1

!

The Task Force does not express an opinion that all 53 exonerees were actually innocent. However, while

some individuals may not have been, in fact, innocent, in all these cases the criminal justice system broke down to
the degree that a conviction was wrongly obtained.
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addition, many Task Force Members interviewed attorneys, law enforcement personnel and
judges involved in both the original criminal case and the subsequent exoneration efforts. A list
of the 53 wrongfully convicted New Yorkers the Task Force studied is attached as Appendix B.2
The Causes of Wrongful Convictions
As the 53 case studies were carefully reviewed, six root causes were readily identified as primary
factors responsible for the wrongful convictions:
• Government Practices: one or more general errors by a government actor (a prosecutor,
member of law enforcement, or judge).
• Identification Procedures: the misidentification of the accused by the victim and/or one
or more eyewitnesses.
• Mishandling of Forensic Evidence: errors in the handling or preservation of key forensic
evidence and/or the failure to use DNA testing.
• Use of False Confessions: the extraction and use of what turned out to be a false
confession by the accused.
• Use of Jailhouse Informants: the admission and reliance by the jury on what later was
determined to be false testimony by a jailhouse informant.
• Defense Practices: one of more errors by an attorney representing the falsely accused,
usually a failure to fully investigate or to offer alternative theories and/or suspects.
Additional Information About Case Studies
The case studies also revealed some additional key information that was taken into account by the
Task Force when determining what proposals to recommend:
1. Slightly less than half of the cases reviewed by the Task Force resulting in a wrongful
conviction involved a DNA exoneration. This meant that while scientific advances have
played an essential role in helping to prevent wrongful convictions, many other non-

2!

The case reports detailing the facts of the 53 cases studied by the Task Force are available upon request

and will be made a part of the final report.
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scientific factors have also been the cause of wrongful convictions and had to be carefully
examined and considered.
2. As demonstrated in the chart below, certain causes appeared more prevalent than others
for causing a wrongful conviction in New York.3 Based on the Task Force’s findings, the
top three were (a) misidentification of the accused; (b) general errors by a government
actor; and (c) errors in the handling or preservation of key forensic evidence. It should
also be noted, that it was extremely rare that only one factor caused a wrongful
conviction. The Task Force observed that most wrongful conviction cases resulted from
multiple causes.
Frequency of Specific Causes Linked to Wrongful Convictions
Identification Procedures
Defense Practices

40

Government Practices
False Confessions

Forensic Evidence
Jailhouse Informant

36
31

30

20

26

19

10

10

4

0

3

!

Number of Cases

These causes were determined by the Task Force following its review of the 53 case studies as described

above.
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The Formation of Subcommittees
To further study these root causes and the adequacy of the current legal framework to
compensate New Yorkers who are wrongfully convicted, the following seven subcommittees
were formed on September 12, 2008: (a) Government Practices; (b) Identification Procedures;
(c) Forensic Evidence; (d) Defense Practices; (e) False Confessions; (f) Jailhouse Informants;
and (h) Compensation for the Wrongfully Convicted.
Each subcommittee was tasked with carefully reviewing (a) each case study; and (b) any current
laws, protocols, training procedures, court practices, rules, etc. that were linked to the cause
they were assigned to review. Following that, the subcommittees were requested to make
specific recommendations of changes they thought appropriate and necessary to eliminate their
specific cause of wrongful convictions.
The Recommendations of the Subcommittees
Each subcommittee drafted a report to the entire Task Force detailing its specific proposals and
the corresponding reasoning for each. Those reports were circulated to the Task Force in
advance of its meeting on November 11, 2008, and can be found at pages 19 - 181, infra.
The Vote of the Task Force
The Task Force met on November 11, 2008 and carefully reviewed and discussed each proposal
submitted by the seven subcommittees. At the end of each discussion, a vote was taken of those
present, and the following specific proposals were passed by a majority for the consideration of
the House of Delegates at its meeting on January 30, 2009:
Government Practices
1. In the Event of a Late Brady Disclosure, Whether Before or During Trial, the Court
Should Grant an Adjournment of Sufficient Length to Enable the Defense to Prepare,
and, Where Appropriate, Preclude Evidence, Give an Appropriate Instruction to the
Jury and Grant Such Other Relief As Is Appropriate

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2. If Brady Information Relevant to the Defense Has Not Been Given to the Defense or Has
Been Delivered in a Late Turnover, or If False Testimony is Used at Trial, Relief on
Appeal or Collateral Challenge Should Be Granted Unless the State Shows There Was
No Possibility the Information Would Have Affected the Decision
3. Where Procedures Do Not Currently Exist, Prosecutors Should Put in Place
Appropriate Internal Procedures for Preventing Brady and Truthful Evidence Rule
Violations and For Examining, Evaluating, and Determining Whether the Official
Conduct of an Assistant is Improper and Should Be Sanctioned, and If Appropriate
Imposing Such Sanctions
4. Under the Existing Rules of the Code of Professional Responsibility (Or, If Adopted, the
Model Rules of Professional Conduct) A Statewide Procedure for Identifying and
Reviewing Intentional or Reckless Violations of Brady and the Truthful Evidence Rule
Should Be Established
5. A Brady Conference Should Be Held Before Trial to Resolve Issues of Turnover
6. Law Enforcement Officials Should Be Trained and Supervised In the Application of
Brady and Truthful Evidence Rules
7. The Subcommittee on Government Procedures Jointly Recommends the Proposals
Submitted by the Subcommittee on Forensic Evidence and Adds the Following:
a. First, a careful examination of the crime scene, so fundamental to prosecutions of
violent crime, should be conducted.
b. Second, evidence should be maintained in a way that ensures its integrity and
permits ready retrieval.
c. Third, before and after trial physical evidence of all types should be logged and
stored to guarantee retrieval.
d. Fourth, evidence should not be discarded or destroyed except in conformity with
established protocols.
e. Fifth, with proper safeguards, before and after trial the defense should enjoy access
to physical evidence.
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f. Sixth, where either a prosecution test or a subsequent defense test of a limited
sample may destroy the sample, and make future tests impossible, trained
representatives of both sides should where practicable be permitted to select the
testing procedure and observe the testing.
g. Seventh, police department and other prosecutorial agencies should establish, with
the advise of biological scientists and other significant experts, a protocol for the
testing of samples taken in all cases that meet certain established criteria and that
each such case be monitored for compliance with the protocol.
h. Eighth, the failure to follow protocols should, where appropriate (as in cases in
which public officials have failed to establish procedures or have systematically
violated them or the state has acted intentionally to destroy the evidence), give to the
defendant at a trial or post conviction procedure the benefit of a permissible
presumption that any forensic result would deemed favorable to the defendant’s
position.
8. Police Officers Should Be Trained to Investigate Alternate Theories for a Case at Least
Until They Are Reasonably Satisfied That They Are Without Merit
Identification Procedures
1. Change the Way in Which Identification Procedures (Including Lineups and Photo
Arrays) Are Conducted to Enhance the Reliability of Eyewitness Identifications
a. Double blind administration - The administration of the identification procedure
should be performed by persons who do not know the identity of the suspect.
b. Cautionary instructions - Eyewitnesses should be told that individuals administering
the identification procedure do not know who the suspect is and told that the
perpetrator may or may not be present.
c. Effective use of fillers - At least five fillers should be used. If practicable, fillers
should be matched to the eyewitness’ description of the suspect, but at the same time
the suspect should not stand out as being different from the fillers.
d. One suspect per lineup.
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e. Documentation of the procedure - Where the identification procedure is a policearranged procedure such as a lineup or photographic array, the entire identification
procedure should be videotaped with enough cameras with audio to capture the
witness, administrator and members of the lineup or photo array. The Task Force
specifically believes that the eyewitness’ confidence level immediately after
identifying an individual should be documented before any feedback is given as to his
or her selection. If such video documentation is not possible due to the location or
circumstances of the procedure (e.g., the eyewitness is in the hospital), then the
procedure should be documented with audio recording and detailed written notes.
f. Sequential presentation of identification procedures - There is evidence that
sequential and double-blind identification procedures result in a reduction in “false
positive” results, i.e., identifications of suspects who are in fact innocent of the
crime, while other evidence exists which calls this conclusion into question. We
propose that further research, including field studies, into the efficacy of sequential
versus simultaneous procedures be conducted, and that further recommendations be
made following this additional research.
2. Allow Expert Testimony on Eyewitness Identifications At Trial
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An expert should be permitted to testify as to the scientific research surrounding
identification procedures, including their administration, reliability and the nature
of human memory, in any case where identification is an issue and where such
testimony is relevant. In the event that prosecutors or defense attorneys lack the
resources to hire an expert on eyewitness identifications, funds should be provided
to both prosecutors and defense attorneys to permit the hiring of these kinds of
experts.

3. Provide Jury Instructions on Eyewitness Identifications
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Jury instructions should be provided so that at the time of deliberations, the jury is
aware of any potential unreliability in the eyewitness identification. Through jury
instructions, jurors should be made aware of the factors to consider in evaluating the
reliability of an eyewitness identification. Specifically, in any case where an
eyewitness identification procedure is not conducted in accordance with the

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improved procedures outlined here (i.e., double-blind; one suspect per procedure;
cautionary instructions provided to the eyewitness; effective use of fillers; one
suspect per procedure), jurors should be instructed that they may consider the
failure to implement the procedure as a factor in accepting or rejecting the
identification.

Jurors should likewise be instructed that they may consider law

enforcement’s failure to properly document the identification procedure when
deciding whether to accept or reject the in-court identification
4. Evidence of Photographic Identifications Should Be Admitted At Trial If They Are
Properly Documented by Video Recording and If They Are Conducted in Accordance
With the Proposed Improvements to Identification Procedure (i.e., Double-Blind; One
Suspect Per Procedure; Cautionary Instructions Provided to the Eyewitness; Effective
Use of Fillers; One Suspect Per Procedure)
5. Failure to Comply With the Proposed Reforms to Identification Procedures Should Be
Considered By the Trial Court As A Factor in Determining Whether Evidence of the
Eyewitness Identification Should Be Admitted at Trial
6. Police, Prosecutors, Defense Attorneys and Judges Should Be Trained in the Issues
Related to Eyewitness Identifications and Should Be Made Aware of the Factors That
Can Cause Erroneous Eyewitness Identifications and the Procedures That Can Minimize
Them
7. Funding Should Be Made Available to Law Enforcement Agencies to Permit the
Implementation of These Proposed Improvements to Eyewitness Identification
Procedures
Forensic Evidence
1. Ensure Proper Preservation, Cataloguing and Retention of All Forensic Evidence
A. Enact legislation to expand the jurisdiction of the Forensic Science Commission
to include responsibility to promulgate mandatory standards for the
preservation, cataloguing and retention of all forensic evidence obtained at
crime scenes or other locations relevant to the commission of a crime;

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B. Enact legislation to require that all existing forensic evidence, especially
biological and fingerprint evidence, which currently exists in local or state
warehouses and/or storage facilities, be catalogued using state-of-the-art
technology, such as bar-coding;
C. Enact legislation to require that all forensic evidence obtained in connection
with the commission of a crime be maintained for a minimum of ten years after a
person convicted of such crime has been discharged from any post-incarceration
period of supervision; in cases where no person has been accused of the crime,
all forensic evidence shall be maintained until the expiration of all applicable
statutes of limitations for prosecution of the crime.!
2. Expand the Jurisdiction of the Forensic Science Commission to Provide Independent
Oversight of Forensic Disciplines
3. Establish Authority for Judges to Order Comparison of Crime Scene Evidence to
Available Forensic Databases Upon Request of an Accused or Convicted Person
4. Permit Wrongfully Convicted Persons To Prove Their Innocence, Regardless of
Whether the Conviction was the Result Of A Trial Verdict or a Guilty Plea
5. Promulgate Standards and Best Practices To Guide All Law Enforcement Agencies in
The Processing of Crime Scenes and the Collection, Processing, Evaluation and Storage
of Forensic Evidence
6. Provide Forensic Science Training for Prosecutors, Defense Lawyers and Judges
7. Establish a Permanent Independent Commission to Minimize the Incidence of Wrongful
Convictions
False Confessions
1. Custodial Interrogations of all Felony-Level Crime Suspects Should Be Electronically
Recorded in Their Entirety
2. Specific Training About False Confessions Should be Given to Police, Prosecutors,
Judges and Defense Attorneys

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3. Further Study Should be Undertaken on the Impact of the Phenomenon of False
Confessions on a Defendant’s Willingness to Plead Guilty
Jailhouse Informants
1. Any Informant’s Testimony Should Be Corroborated (The Corroboration Requirement
for the Use of Accomplice Testimony Should Be Extended to Non-Accomplice
Informants)
2. The Jury Should Be Instructed to Consider Several Factors Indicating the Extent to
Which the Testimony is Credible, Including: (i) Any Explicit or Implied Inducements
that the Informant May Have Received or Will Receive; (ii) the Prior Criminal History of
the Informant; (iii) Evidence That He or She is a “Career Informant” Who Has Testified
in Other Criminal Cases; and (iv) Any Other Factors That Might Tend to Render the
Witnesses’ Testimony Unreliable
3. The Court Should Conduct a Pre-Trial Reliability Hearing with Respect to the
Testimony of Informants
4. When the Court Finds the Need to Protect the Identity of an Informant Compelling, It
Should Conduct an In Camera Review of the Information Relating to the Informant’s
Credibility, and Provide the Defense With All Such Information As May be Provided
Without Disclosing the Informant’s Identity
5. A Videotape Recording, When Possible, Should be Made of Any Informant’s Statement
Given to Any Law Enforcement Agent or Prosecutor
6. The Prosecution Should Develop “Best Practices” That Check the Reliability of
Informant Testimony
Defense Practices
1. The Task Force Generally Endorses the Specific Recommendations Made by the
American Bar Association’s Criminal Justice Section’s Ad Hoc Innocence Committee to
Ensure the Integrity of the Criminal Process and Guideline 4.1 of The National Legal Aid
and Defender Association’s Performance Guidelines for Criminal Defense
Representation
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2. Those Standards Should be Widely Publicized by the New York State Bar Association
and Distributed Extensively to the Criminal Defense Bar Through the Heads of All
Defender Agencies, the Administrators of all Assigned Counsel Plans, and by
Malpractice Insurance Providers to Those Attorneys Whom They Insure
3. The Administrators of Assigned Counsel Plans Must Scrutinize More Carefully the
Qualifications of Attorneys Seeking Appointment Under the Plan to Represent Indigent
Defendants
4. The Administrators of Assigned Counsel Plans Should be Provided with Adequate
Resources to be Allocated for Staff to Enable Those Plans to Increase Their Ability to
Monitor the Performance of Attorneys Assigned Under the Plan, and, If Possible, to
Develop Within the Plan a Structure Which Offers Supervision and Legal Consultation
to Plan Attorneys
5. Bar Associations Should Solicit Experienced Members of the Criminal Defense Bar to
Make Themselves Available on a Designated Telephone Hotline or in a Specific Office to
Fellow Attorneys Who Seek Advice and Counsel With Regard to Their Representation
of a Criminal Defendant, and Bar Associations Should Give Formal Recognition in Some
Fashion to Attorneys Who Provide Such Mentoring
6. The Rules Governing CLE Credits Should be Amended to Provide That Attorneys Who
Undertake the Defense of Criminal Cases Must Certify That in Each Calendar Year That
They Have Taken a Specified Number of CLE Hours Devoted to Subjects Pertaining to
the Representation of Criminal Defendants
7. Organizations Which Currently Operate a Resource Center for Public Defenders and
Assigned Counsel Should be Given Additional Resources That Would Enable Them to
Increase Their Ability to Provide Guidance and Counsel to Any Attorney, Assigned or
Retained, Who Seeks Assistance
Compensation for the Wrongfully Convicted
1. The Broad Definition of Eligibility in the Court of Claims Act § 8-b Subdivision 2 Should
Remain Unchanged to Offer the Opportunity for Legal Redress to All Individuals Who
Have Been Imprisoned and Subsequently Found Innocent
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2. The Provision Contained in Subsection (c) of the Court of Claims Act § 8-b Should Be
Amended to Require the Claimant Only Prove That He or She Has Been Exonerated on
Every Charge Submitted to the Fact-Finder
3. Contributing to the Conviction in Cases of Attorney Negligence or Coerced Confession
Should Not Be A Factor in Determining Appropriate Compensation, and Subsection (d)
of the Court of Claims Act § 8-b Should Be So Amended
4. A Fixed Minimum Guaranteed Amount Per Year of Incarceration Should Be Set with the
Option to Seek More, Upon Satisfying the Requirements Outlined in the Court of Claims
Act § 8-b. If the Claimant Opts to Seek Additional Compensation, He or She Forfeits the
Guaranteed Amount
5. Many State Statutes Include a Provision Prohibiting the State from Offsetting the Total
Compensation Awarded by any Expenses Incurred Related to Securing or Maintaining
the Claimant’s Custody or to Feed, Clothe or Provide Medical Services for the Claimant.
It is our Recommendation that Such a Provision be Included in the New York State
Statute (Court of Claims Act § 8-b)
6. Subsection 7 of the Court of Claims Act § 8-b Should Remain Unchanged
7. Based on Need, the Immediate Provision of Subsistence Funds and Access to Services to
Assist in Reentry Should be Provided to all Individuals Who Have Been Released from
Prison after Exoneration.

Such Services Should Include Assistance in Acquiring

Affordable Housing, Job Training, Education, Health Care, and Child Custody
Assistance
8. The Claimant Should Not Be Eligible for Compensation for Any Term of Incarceration
that was Attributable to a Separate and Lawful Conviction Resulting in a Concurrent
Term of Imprisonment
9. State Law Should Specify That Upon the Death of a Wrongfully Imprisoned Individual,
Any Compensation Awarded Will Be Paid to His or Her Estate

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10. The State Should Automatically Order the Expungement of All Criminal Records
Related to the Wrongful Arrest, Conviction and Sentence At the Expense of the State
Upon Exoneration. Such Records Shall Only Be Available to a Claimant and the State in
an Unjust Conviction and Imprisonment Claim Upon Application to the Court
Public Hearings by the Task Force
The Task Force will be holding Public Hearings at the offices of the New York City Bar
Association located at 42 West 44th Street on Friday, February 13, 2009 at 9am. A Hearing will
also be held at an upstate location to be determined.
Special Thanks from the Task Force
The Task Force is truly indebted to the many individuals and institutions that generously assisted
it in completing its work. Specifically, the Task Force would like to thank:
• Arent Fox LLP - Darsche Turner, Aimee Hall, Shawanna Johnson and Tope Yusuf
• Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson LLP -- Jennifer Colyer, Steven Witzel, Holly
Chen, Lauren Flicker, Amanuel Kiros, Charlotte Levy, Aleksandr Livshits, Maya
Mitchell, Andrew Smith, Johnathan Smith, and Scott Wells
• The Fortune Society - Harvey Weinig; and Daniel Spiegel and Ariel Ruiz (law students)
• The Innocence Project - Barry Scheck, Peter Neufeld, Madeline deLone, Rebecca Brown
and Gabriel Oberfield
• The Law Offices of Robert C. Gottlieb -- Celia A. Gordon, Jordan M. Dressler, and Sarah
E. Eagen
• Morrison & Foerster, LLP - Emily Huters (Associate); Cindy Abramson, Amanda
Bakale, Tim Cleary, Steve Koshgerian, Leda Moloff, Suhna Pierce, Sarah Prutzman,
Ariel Ruiz, Ben Smiley, Katie Viggiani (Summer Associates 2008)
• National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers - Quintin Chatman, and Daniel Weir
• The New York State District Attorney’s Association
• Jon Getz, Don Thompson, Gary Craig, Frank R. Dudis, Esq. and William Easton
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Conclusion
As stated in the Task Force’s Mission Statement, any wrongful conviction erodes the public’s
confidence in our state’s criminal justice system.

It is equally clear that these improper

convictions destroy the lives of innocent men and women - both the falsely accused and the
victims of the original crime. We have the ability to learn from our mistakes and avoid these
miscarriages of justice. For these and for the multitude of other reasons presented in this
Preliminary Report, the Task Force on Wrongful Convictions respectfully urges the House of
Delegates to pass the specific proposals presented herein at its meeting on April 4, 2009.

Respectfully submitted,
Hon. Barry Kamins
Chair, Task Force on Wrongful Convictions
Richard Aborn, Esq.
Jack Auspitz, Esq.
Hon. Phylis Skloot Bamberger
Thomas Belfiore
David Louis Cohen, Esq.
Tracee Davis, Esq.
Hon. Janet DiFiore
Vincent E. Doyle, III, Esq.
Mark Dwyer, Esq.
Anthony Girese, Esq.
Robert C. Gottlieb, Esq.

Prof. William Hellerstein
Hon. Charles J. Hynes
Hon. Howard Levine
Hon. John Martin
JoAnne Page, Esq.
M. Scott Peeler, Esq.
Norman L. Reimer, Esq.
Prof. Laurie Shanks
Hon. George Bundy Smith
Lauren Wachtler, Esq.

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Government Practices
SUBCOMMITTEE REPORT AND FINAL PROPOSALS

Introduction
!

The results of the Task Force study of 53 New York State cases in which convicted

people have been found innocent of the charges against them reveal that government practices,
by police or prosecutors, were possible causes of the wrongful convictions in over 50% of the
cases. These practices include (1) the use of evidence that is false, including false testimony
about police promises, threats and offers of benefit to a state witness, see Shih Wei Su v. Filion,
335 F.3d 119 (2d Cir. 2003); (2) the failure of the prosecutor to deliver favorable information to
the defense pursuant to the New York State and Federal constitutional due process principles as
required by Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 (1963), and earlier New York authorities; (3) the
failure of the police department to collect and transfer evidence in a manner that preserves its
integrity, and to store, preserve, and safeguard physical evidence for testing or examination or
retesting, especially for testing based on advancing scientific technologies, and the failure, to
have physical objects tested for forensic evidence that might confirm or refute a person’s
involvement in a crime; and (4) the early prosecutorial focus, especially by the police, on a
particular individual as the person who committed the crime coupled with a refusal to investigate
to determine if there is a basis to believe, based on available information, that someone else may
have committed the crime.
!

The cases reviewed by the Task Force may only be the tip of the iceberg where police or

prosecutorial conduct may have resulted in a due process violation. Even if cases do not rise to
the level of an actually innocent person being wrongfully convicted, they nevertheless often
reveal troubling due process violations that occurred at trial. This analysis and recommendations
presented herein reflect concern for the application of due process principles in all cases, not
just those that involve a wrongful conviction.

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Use of Perjured and False Testimony or Evidence
!

“Since at least 1935 [in Mooney v. Holohan, 294 U.S. 103] it has been the established law

of the United States that a conviction obtained through testimony the prosecutor knows to be
false is repugnant to the Constitution….This is so because, in order to reduce the danger of false
convictions, we rely on the prosecutor not to be simply a party in litigation whose sole object is
the conviction of the defendant before him. The prosecutor is an officer of the court whose duty
is to present a forceful and truthful case to the jury, not to win at any cost.” Shih Wei Su, 335 F.
3d at 126.
!

The same principle is part of New York based jurisprudence: “[t]he prosecutor should …

correct…[false] trial testimony given by [the witness] and the impression it created….[The]
failure to do so constitutes ‘error so fundamental , so substantial’ that a verdict of guilt will not be
permitted to stand….A lie is a lie, no matter what its subject, and, if it is in any way relevant to the
case, the district attorney has the responsibility and duty to correct what he knows to be false and
elicit the truth.” People v. Savvides, 1 N.Y.2d 554, 556-57 (1956).
!

Despite the age and clarity of the law, violations of these principles occur. In fact, two

clear examples appeared in wrongful conviction cases studied by the Task Force:
!

In the case of James Walker, a prosecutor testified during pretrial proceedings that no

lineup had been held when in fact a lineup had occurred and a filler-police officer, not Walker,
was identified as the person who assaulted a victim in the crime. The detective in the case
testified he did not recall a lineup.4
!

Similarly, in the case of Albert Ramos, the prosecutor appears to have either misled or

falsely argued to the jury that it was the alleged sex act by the accused that enabled the child to
explain what occurred during the crime. However, undisclosed files showed the child knew
about sexual conduct before and acted it out before the alleged crime. Further, when the
prosecution witnesses changed their stories, the prosecutor did not inform the defense of the
change and the defense could not deal with the changes because the defense did not have the
4!

The 1972 conviction of James Walker was not obtained during the tenure of the current District Attorney

of Kings County. When Mr. Walker filed his 440 motion to vacate judgment in 1990, the current District Attorney
had his office promptly investigate the allegations and then consented to the vacatur of the conviction and the
dismissal of the indictment.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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witnesses’ prior statements. Finally, it was not disclosed to the defense that the child’s own acts
could have caused the injury she sustained.
!

Other cases are also instructive. In People v. May, 228 A.D.2d 523 (2d Dep’t 1996), the

conviction was reversed because the prosecutor did not reveal or correct false testimony about a
promise regarding sentencing of a prosecution witness; and in People v. Ross, 43 A.D.3d 567(3d
Dep’t), appeal denied 9 N.Y.3d 964 (2007), false testimony was used, but no reversal was
required because the trial judge established a curative procedure. See also People v. Pressley, 91
N.Y.2d 825 (1997), where uncorrected false testimony was used, although it was deemed not to
be prejudicial.
Violation of the Brady Rule
!

All prosecutors in all cases have an obligation to deliver exculpatory and favorable

information to the defense relevant to the issues of guilt and punishment. In Brady v. Maryland,
where the evidence was relevant to the determining punishment, the U.S. Supreme Court held
that the turnover of the information is a requirement of due process. 373 U.S. at 86-89.
!

New York State has set the rule with equal clarity. The Constitution’s mandate is that

evidence or information be given to the defense in a criminal case if it is favorable to the defense
and it is either material to guilt or punishment or affects the credibility of prosecution witnesses
whose testimony may be determinative of guilt or innocence. People v. Santorelli, 95 N.Y.2d
412 , 421 (2000), cert. denied, 532 U.S. 1008 (2001); People v. Baxley, 84 N.Y.2d 208, 212-14
(1994). “The concept of fairness embodied in the Due Process Clauses of the State and Federal
Constitutions imposes upon the prosecution a duty to apprise the defense of evidence favorable
to the accused.

To give substance to this constitutional right, it is incumbent upon the

prosecutor, who speaks for the government, to ensure that material evidence which is in its
possession and is exculpatory in nature is turned over to the defendant. This duty of candor and
disclosure is no less applicable when the evidence is relevant only to the issue of credibility.”
People v. Novoa, 70 N.Y.2d 490, 496 (1987) (citations omitted).
!

The significance to the New York justice system of the due process principle and the

resulting prosecutor’s obligation, now simply called “Brady,” is manifested in the independent
State constitutional grounds for the rule. “[The Court of Appeals] analysis of the prosecutor’s
duty to disclose exculpatory evidence is rooted in [state]cases dealing with the similar question of
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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knowing prosecutorial use of false and misleading testimony….[T]hese cases even predate the
identified Federal progenitors of Brady, and were decided entirely without reference to Federal
law, based on our own view of this State’s requirements of a fair trial….We have long emphasized
that our view of due process in this area is, in large measure, predicated both upon ‘elemental
fairness’ to the defendant, and upon concern that the prosecutor’s office discharge its ethical and
professional obligations.” People v. Vilardi, 76 N.Y.2d 67, 75-76 (1990) (citations omitted).
Vilardi makes clear that the New York rule has two due process purposes:

inhibiting

prosecutorial misconduct and providing a fair trial to a person charged with a crime.
!

The Brady rule has necessarily yielded principles to allow practical application by trial

judges who must enforce it and prosecutors who must follow it:
1. Brady obligations apply whether there has been a defense request or not. United
States v. Agurs, 427 U.S. 97 (1976).
2. The obligation of the prosecutor to turn over the information controls even if the
prosecutor believes the information to be false.
3. The obligation of the prosecutor applies to information relevant to the credibility of
witnesses as well as to information relating to other matters in the case. People v.
Hunter, 11 N.Y.3d 1 (2008); People v. Valentin, 1 A.D.3d 982 (4th Dep’t 2003),
appeal denied, 1 N.Y.3d 602 (2004).
4. The obligation of the prosecutor exists whether the failure to deliver favorable
information is intentional or not, or in good faith or not. People v. Hunter, 11 N.Y.3d
1 (2008); People v. Bryce, 88 N.Y.2d 124 (1996); People v. Baxley, 84 N.Y.2d 208.
5. Even without personal knowledge of the favorable or exculpatory information, the
prosecutor is charged with knowledge if a state official working on the case has the
information. The prosecutor has a duty to learn of any favorable evidence known to
others acting on the state’s behalf, including the police, and to disclose the
information. Youngblood v. West Virginia, 547 U.S. 867 (2006); Kyles v. Whitley,
514 U.S. 419 (1995); People v. Santorelli, 95 N.Y.2d 412; People v. Wright, 86 N.Y.2d
591 (1995); People v. Novoa, 70 N.Y.2d 490; People v. Harris, 35 A.D.3d 1197 (4th
Dep’t 2006); People v. Valentin, 1 A.D.3d 982.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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6. Activities by those working on an investigation that result in a suppression of the
information are attributed to the prosecutor. People v. Steadman, 82 N.Y.2d 1
(1993).
7. Late disclosure of favorable information during trial is satisfactory if the defense has
the opportunity to investigate and integrate the information into the defense
position. See People v. Baba-Ali, 179 A.D.2d 725 (2d Dep’t 1992); People v. Watson,
17 A.D.3d 385 (2d Dep’t 2005), appeal denied, 5 N.Y.3d 771.
!

In one situation the prosecutor is relieved of the obligation to turn over favorable

information: if the defense knew or should have known the information. People v. Doshi, 93
N.Y.2d 499 (1999). See, e.g., People v. McClain, 53 A.D.3d 556 (2d Dep’t), appeal denied, 11
N.Y.3d 791 (2008); People v. Delarosa, 48 A.D.3d 1098 (4th Dep’t), appeal denied, 10 N.Y.3d
861 (2008)
!

All types of information fall within the types of evidence which must be disclosed to the

defense: e.g., (1) promises to a witness, actual or implied on any reading of the information
(People v. Steadman, 82 N.Y.2d 1); (2) prior criminal record or bad acts of the witnesses; (3)
prior inconsistent statements of a witness (People v. Bond, 95 N.Y.2d 840 (2000); People v.
Gantt, 13 A.D.3d 204 (1st Dep’t 2004), appeal denied, 4 N.Y.3d 798 (2005); (4) information
derived from any investigation made by an agency of the state working on the case including
police reports and the results of interviews (People v. Harris, 35 A.D.3d 1197; (5) physical
evidence including human body parts (People v. Bryce, 88 N.Y.2d 124) and body fluid samples;
(6) evidence obtained through forensic testing; (7) photographs; (8) investigative
communications with other branches of government (People v. Cwikla, 46 N.Y.2d 434 (1979));
(9) information about a motive to testify (People v. Wright, 86 N.Y.2de 591; (10) a failure to
correct false testimony (People v. Steadman, 82 N.Y.2d 1; People v. Novoa, 70 N.Y.2d 490;
People v. Ross, 43 A.D.3d 567 (3d Dep’t 2007), appeal denied, 9 N.Y.3d 964 (2007); (11)
recantation of a statement by a witness (see People v. Baxley, 84 N.Y.2d 208); (12) a failure to

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disclose the conduct of the complainant that would impeach credibility (People v. Hunter, 11 N.Y.
3d 1).5
!

The obligation of prompt turnover is a continuing one triggered by Brady material

coming to the knowledge of anyone working on or associated with the investigation of the case.
By statute, Criminal Procedure Law section 240.20, delivery is required once a pretrial defense
motion is made and granted. Often Brady material is not delivered until just before the trial
begins or during the trial even if the state is in possession of the information earlier. It has been
held that the failure to give the defense exculpatory evidence, which the prosecutor had for
several months, until the eve of trial was inexcusable. People v. Baba-Ali, 179 A.D.2d at 729-30.
!

Examples of several cases examined by the Task Force demonstrate the presence of this

issue.
!

In the case of Lazaro Burt, a detective interviewed an eyewitness to a shooting six days

after the crime. The eyewitness was in jail and accessible to the police. The eyewitness told the
detective the name of the person who was the shooter, and that the person was not Mr. Burt. The
statement was written down and placed in the file of the case. The defense made pretrial Brady
motions and the prosecutor made no reference to the statement. The record of the trial shows
that the defense did not receive a copy of the statement until the fifth day of the trial, 16 months
after the shooting, when the witness could no longer be found. The jury never knew that a
person other than Burt had been named as the shooter.
!

In the matter of Kerry Kotler, the complainant was raped. A few minutes later, another

person was raped nearby. The perpetrator of the second rape matched the description given by
the complainant. The second victim was shown Kotler’s photo but did not identify him, thereby
permitting the argument that someone other than the accused also committed the earlier crime.
The defense was not told about the second rape and the failure of the second victim to identify
5!

Certain members of the Task Force note that for decades the federal and state decisional law requires the

non-disclosed information to materially affect guilt or innocence for a violation of the rule to have occurred. See,
e.g., Banks v. Dretke, 540 U.S. 668, 691 (2004) (suppressed evidence must be “material” to demonstrate one of the
components for a Brady violation); United States v. Agurs, 427 U.S. 97, 112 n.20 (1976) (the materiality standard
focuses on the impact of the undisclosed evidence on the “issue of guilt or innocence,” not on the “defendant’s
ability to prepare for trial . . . .”) (citation omitted); People v. Pressley, 91 N.Y.2d 825 (1997) (false testimony of
witness about criminal record does not require reversal when no prejudice demonstrated).
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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Kotler.

Further, the defense was not told that when the complainant selected Kotler’s

photograph, she said only that he looked like the rapist. Finally, the lead detective on the case
destroyed both his original notes about the second rape and the original of the police report.
Kotler learned all of this after the conviction. While the Brady violation was not the sole cause of
the wrongful conviction, it might have contributed to it.
!

In the case of James Walker, Mr. Walker was identified by a drug addict several months

after the crime as the person who assaulted a guard at a check cashing store during a robbery in
which another victim was killed. After the conviction of Walker for felony murder, Walker
learned that the addict-informer had identified another person as one of the participants in the
crime -- which had to have been a lie because that other person was in jail at the time of the
robbery. The defense was never told that the informer had wrongly accused someone else.
Further, Walker was not told that the man whom he was accused of beating had not identified
him in a lineup, but rather selected a filler who was a police officer.
!

In the Albert Ramos matter, Mr. Ramos was charged with sexual abuse of a child. Several

exculpatory documents in the district attorney’s file were never given to the defense. These
documents cast doubt on the testimony of the prosecution witnesses including the child
complainant, her mother, grandmother, and teacher, and supported the defense contention that
no act of sexual abuse occurred. The documents showed that the child masturbated, watched
sexually explicit movies, and placed dolls in sexual positions -- all before the date of the alleged
incident. The information rebutted the testimony about the knowledge of the child about sexual
conduct and explained the presence of her symptoms.
!

In the matter of George Whitmore, the defense was not told that a button obtained by the

victim from the coat of her attacker could not be scientifically shown to have come from
Whitmore’s coat.6
!

In the case of Lee Long, a detective confirmed Long’s alibi at the time of Long’s arrest

but prepared no report with respect to the information obtained. The alibi witness did not

6!

Eugene Gold, former District Attorney of Kings County, reviewed the circumstances of Mr. Whitmore’s

Brooklyn conviction (that arose out of an investigation in New York County and had been obtained by his
predecessor). Based on that review, District Attorney Gold moved to set aside the conviction and asked the Court to
dismiss the indictment.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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remember the detective’s name and had no way to support the challenge to the defense position.
The Brady obligation was avoided by the detectives’ failure to record the information.
!

And finally, in the Betty Tyson case, Ms. Tyson was charged with murder. A police

report showing that a witness’ claim that Tyson had been with the deceased on the night of the
murder was fabricated was not given to the defense. (The original statement was false, having
been obtained by the police by coercive conduct.)
!

The cases before the Task Force generally deal with convictions that are more than 10

years old, raising the hope that times have changed and that violations will now be rare.
However, despite the clarity and longevity of the Brady rule, a sampling of recent published or
otherwise available decisions show such conduct still occurs. See, e.g., People v. Hunter, 11
N.Y3d 1 (2008); People v. Williams, 7 N.Y.3d 15 (2006); People v. Pressley, 91 N.Y.2d 825
(1997); People v. Thompson, 54 A.D.3d 975 (2d Dep’t 2008); People v. Phillips, 55 A.D.3d 1145
(3d Dep’t 2008); People v. Colon, 865 N.Y.S.2d 601 (1st Dep’t 2008); People v. Williams, 50
A.D.3d 1177 (3d Dep’t 2008); People v. Garcia, 46 A.D.3d 461 (1st Dep’t 2007); People v.
Harris, 35 A.D.3d 1197 (4th Dept. 2006); People v. Leon, 23 A.D.3d 1110 (4th Dep’t), appeal
denied, 6 N.Y.3d 755 (2005); People v. Gantt, 13 A.D.3d 204 (1st Dep’t 2004), appeal denied, 4
N.Y.3d 798 (2005); People v. Hendricks, 4 A.D.3d 798 (4th Dep’t), appeal denied, 2 N.Y.3d
800 (2004); People v. Knight, 2007 WL 4896695 (Supreme Ct. Queens Cty. 2007). See also
Elizabeth Napier Dewar, A Fair Remedy for Brady Violations, 115 Yale L.J. 1450, 1453-56
(2006) (hereinafter “Dewar”). Neither are the federal courts immune from Brady issues. See,
e.g., United States v. Theodore F. Stevens, 1:08-CR-231 (D.D.C.) in which the prosecutor excised
favorable material from a document given to the defense and questions arose as to whether the
conduct was accidental and whether the sanction was adequate.
Subcommittee Recommendations
A.!

Remedies Relating to the Case
1. In the Event of a Late Brady Disclosure, Whether Before or During Trial, the Court
Should Grant an Adjournment of Sufficient Length to Enable the Defense to
Prepare, and, Where Appropriate, Preclude Evidence, Give an Appropriate
Instruction to the Jury and Grant Such Other Relief As Is Appropriate

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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Note
!

Pretrial and trial obligations of the prosecutor to disclose and turn over favorable,

exculpatory, and truthful information relevant to the defense are not limited by the factors that a
reviewing court would consider on appeal or collateral attack if there were an improper failure to
turn over information. The obligation of prosecutors and other public officials arises when the
investigation begins and continues throughout the proceeding. The prosecutor and the judge in
the trial court deal with the issue of the prosecutor’s responsibility: what the prosecutor actually
knows, or is deemed to know, or is expected to learn, and what the prosecutor is expected to
disclose to the defense.
!

When claims of violation of Brady or the use of false testimony arise before the trial

ends, the judge determines the appropriate corrective action. People v. Williams, 7 N.Y.3d at
19-20. If the issue arises at pre-trial proceedings, the judge can order a new hearing or reopen
the earlier one. Id. At trial, the judge can grant an adjournment to enable the defense to
investigate and prepare; can preclude the presentation of evidence; or can give an instruction to
the jury that is adverse to the prosecution. Dewar, 115 Yale L.J. at 1457-60.
!

The needs of the defense are critical to determining the length of an adjournment.

Additional investigation, including researching government and public documents, finding
witnesses whose whereabouts may be unknown, and conducting forensic tests on physical
evidence may be required.
2. If Brady Information Relevant to the Defense Has Not Been Given to the Defense or
Has Been Delivered in a Late Turnover, or If False Testimony is Used at Trial,
Relief on Appeal or Collateral Challenge Should be Granted Unless the State Shows
There Was No Possibility the Information Would Have Affected the Decision
Note
!

Under New York law, if there is a conviction followed by appellate review or collateral

challenge to the conviction, the rules of the game change for evaluating a Brady violation or the
use of false testimony. On appellate review or in collateral proceedings, issues of prejudice and
preservation are relevant to the granting of a remedy to the convicted person for improper
prosecutorial conduct. See People v. Ennis, 2008 N.Y. Slip Op. 09007 (N.Y. Nov. 20, 2008).

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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The prosecutor’s failure to deliver favorable information pursuant to a defense request results in
a new trial or dismissal of the case if the defendant shows that the undelivered evidence had a
reasonable possibility of affecting the verdict. If there was no specific defense request for Brady
material, the defendant must show there was a reasonable probability that the undelivered
information affected the outcome of the case. People v. Vilardi, 76 N.Y.2d 67.
!

By making it easier to overturn a conviction where the defense had made a specific

request, the Court of Appeals intended to emphasize the seriousness of the State’s failure to act
knowing that the defense was interested in a particular piece of information. Compare United
States v. Bagley, 473 U.S. 667 (1985 ) (which applies the same test for prejudice whether or not a
request for information was made by the defense and rejected the two levels of prejudice
previously set out in United States v. Agurs, 427 U.S. 97 (1976)). The Vilardi standard for relief is
critical to the enforcement of the Brady and truthful evidence rules, for under current law it is
the primary means for providing a remedy for the State’s improper conduct.
!

Despite Vilardi, there have been a sufficient number of cases in which Brady has not

been followed to warrant a change in the post-conviction test justifying a remedy for the
defendant. Under the circumstances, it is appropriate to seek a change in the Vilardi test. The
Subcommittee believes that the Vilardi test which provides a remedy for the failure to turn over
information under Brady or for using false information should be revised to require that the
State show there was no possibility of prejudice to the convicted person.7
B. !

Procedures Relating to the Prosecutor

!

In addition to remedies for the convicted defendant whose case involved improper State

conduct, official conduct should be examined and evaluated to determine if sanctions are
warranted.

7!

Certain members of the Task Force do not approve of the second recommendation for the following two

reasons. First, the recommendation appears to require reversal even when there is no “knowing” use of false
testimony. Second, in determining when a reversal is appropriate, Vilardi strikes the appropriate balance among the
significant interests implicated. The recommended rule could mean windfall reversals for guilty defendants, as it
seems to require virtually automatic reversal for any violation (even in cases in which courts employed remedies),
unless the prosecutor can demonstrate “no possibility” that the violation affected the verdict, a burden unclear and
impossible to meet.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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!

Research has not revealed public disciplinary steps against prosecutors.

Private or

sealed proceedings by prosecutors’ offices or Appellate Division grievance committees are not
available. Cases in the State Court of Claims for damages do not sanction prosecutors, but rather
the State. Often, the name of the state official is not mentioned in any public document. There is
little or no risk to the specific official involved resulting from a failure to follow the rule. Dewar ,
115 Yale L.J. at 1456 n.26 and resource materials cited therein.
3. Where Procedures Do Not Currently Exist, Prosecutors Should Put in Place
Appropriate Internal Procedures for Preventing Brady and Truthful Evidence Rule
Violations and for Examining, Evaluating, and Determining Whether the Official
Conduct of an Assistant is Improper and Should be Sanctioned, and If Appropriate
Imposing Such Sanctions
Note
!

After discussion with the Task Force, the Subcommittee on Government Practices sent

to the District Attorneys of the State a questionnaire asking if the offices had internal procedures
for dealing with Brady and truthful evidence rule violations; the nature of those procedures; what
sanctions were available for misconduct; whether the sanctions had ever been imposed; and
whether referrals to attorney disciplinary committees had ever been made. Responses were
received from twenty offices and the New York State District Attorneys Association. One office
declined to respond because of pending litigation. The Task Force deeply appreciates the time
and interest of those who submitted answers to the inquiries.
!

Many of the questionnaire responders provided comments in addition to answers to the

inquiries. The view of several was that the nature of the conduct was critical in deciding both
whether there was a violation of the rules and whether a sanction should be imposed. One
response listed the factors to be considered: (1) the nature of the conduct; (2) the explanation for
the conduct; (3) the experience of the assistant; and (4) the performance record of the assistant.
!

Many urged that a distinction be made between intentional misconduct and negligent

conduct or mistakes, with sanctions determined on a case-by-case basis. It was the widely
expressed view that intentional violations of the rules should not be tolerated, and could result in
a range of sanctions, including termination of employment. Mistakes or negligence should be

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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treated less severely, perhaps with a letter to the file, loss of accrued time, demotion, and the
imposition of further training and supervision.
!

The questionnaire answers revealed that in some counties there was a procedure, either

formal or informal, for handling misconduct or that the office had a small number of assistants so
that the District Attorney either handled the cases or supervised the assistants personally. Some
offices had no procedures. Generally, the available internal procedures were review of the
questioned conduct by the District Attorney or the Chief Attorney with a report to the District
Attorney. In one office, the Chief of Appeals was involved in the review process.
!

Although the questionnaire responses showed the imposition of one internal sanction

and one referral to a disciplinary committee, the other responses indicated no other instances of
either an internal sanction (including training or supervision) or referrals to the various
disciplinary committees. Many of the responders to the questionnaire explained that there had
been no need to impose a sanction or even to have a process for examining conduct because
there had been no questionable conduct identified or found by a court. Others added that there
had been none in many years.
!

Several of the questionnaire responses focused on efforts to prevent Brady and truthful

evidence rule violations or the harm that might result from such violations.

One tool is

education and training, especially emphasized in the letter from the District Attorneys
Association. The second is close supervision by a senior assistant or the District Attorney of all
new Assistant District Attorneys. The third is open file discovery which reduces the chance that
information will not be disclosed. The fourth is to elicit information about sentence and other
promises from a prosecution witness on direct examination. And fifth is the revelation to the
court and the defense of what has occurred along with the previously undisclosed information to
avoid harm to the defense.
!

Where there is no effective procedure already in place for preventing, identifying and

sanctioning misconduct, prosecutor’s offices should establish such a procedure appropriate to
its staffing. In cases in which a state or federal court has concluded that an Assistant District
Attorney has violated the rules, the prosecutor’s process should determine the appropriate
sanction, including dismissal from employment. If the court has not made such a finding, where
questions about an assistant’s behavior are raised, the office should undertake an investigation of

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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the conduct and determine if there has been unconstitutional conduct and, if so, the appropriate
sanctions to be imposed.
4. Under the Existing Rules of the Code of Professional Responsibility (or, if adopted,
the Model Rules of Professional Conduct), A Statewide Procedure for Identifying
and Reviewing Intentional or Reckless Violations of Brady and the Truthful Evidence
Rule Should Be Established
Note
!

The case for the application of disciplinary rules to prosecutors whose conduct violates

Brady and the truthful evidence rule was carefully and exhaustively made over twenty years ago.
Richard A. Rosen, Disciplinary Sanctions Against Prosecutors for Brady Violations: A Paper
Tiger, 65 N.C. L. Rev. 693 (1987). After extensive research, it was found and reported in the
article that a system in which there are rules of conduct that apply generally to all lawyers and
specifically to prosecutors provides a comprehensive network of prohibitions to Brady-type
misconduct.8
!

To the extent that the Brady and truthful evidence rule violations continue, the

application of the State’s disciplinary rules provide the already existing procedure for dealing
with the issues.
!

The New York Code of Professional Responsibility contains a disciplinary rule

specifically applicable to prosecutors and two other such rules that are relevant when there is a
basis to believe there has been a violation of Brady or the truthful evidence rule:
!

DR 7-103(B) states that “[a] public prosecutor or other government lawyer in a criminal

litigation shall make timely disclosure to counsel for the defendant, or to a defendant who has no
8!

Some Task Force Members express the belief that because the disciplinary system frequently fails to

investigate and bring charges when Brady violations occur, there is too little incentive to follow the rules. Certain
other Members of the Task Force note that fulfillment of the prosecutors’ Brady obligation is one of the
cornerstones of their function to do justice, and it is an obligation that all ethical prosecutors take most seriously.
Many Task Force Members believe that the reversal of a conviction, the potential disciplinary action by the
prosecutor’s employer or appropriate disciplinary committee, and the personal, professional embarrassment
attendant a reversal for a Brady violation supply sufficient additional incentives for prosecutors to strive to meet that
obligation.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

31

counsel, of the existence of evidence, known to the prosecutor or other government lawyer, that
tends to negate the guilt of the accused, mitigate the degree of the offense or reduce the
punishment.
!

DR 1-102(A)(4) states that “[a] lawyer shall not engage in conduct involving dishonesty,

fraud, deceit, or misrepresentation.”
!

DR 1-102(A)(5) states that “[a] lawyer shall not engage in conduct that is prejudicial to

the administration of justice.”
!

Conduct within the language of these rules is the deliberate withholding of evidence that

tends to exonerate the defendant and is a “fraudulent act,” “conduct involving bad faith” as well
as a “fraud on the court” which “undermines the integrity of the proceeding.” Baba-Ali v. State
of New York, 20 A.D.3d 376, 377 (2d Dep’t 2005).
!

The proposed Model Rules of Professional Conduct, adopted by the New York State Bar

Association in 2007, includes rules of conduct applicable to lawyers generally and specifically to
prosecutors. Rule 3.8 (a)(1) and (3) prohibit knowingly false statements to the tribunal and
offering evidence known by the lawyer to be false. Rule 3.8(d) states: [a] prosecutor in a criminal
case shall…. make timely disclosure to the defense of all of all evidence or information known to
the prosecutor that tends to negate the guilt of the accused or to mitigate the offense and (ii) in
connection with sentencing, disclose to the defense and to the tribunal all unprivileged
information known to the prosecutor, except when the prosecutor is relieved of this
responsibility by a protective order of the tribunal.”
!

The conduct that may be within the scope of the Code and the conduct that might

warrant a reversal or vacature of a judgment of conviction may not be identical or exactly
overlapping, but a disciplinary process that is focused on intentional or reckless behavior is likely
to emphasize adequately the importance of the rule.
!

There is of course a procedural mechanism in place for examining claimed intentional

and reckless violations of the rules. Each of the Appellate Divisions has established a disciplinary
committee with counsel and staff to investigate and prosecute matters involving alleged
misconduct by attorneys and the procedures for doing so.

22 NYCRR Part 603 (First

Department); 22 NYCRR Part 691 (Second Department); 22 NYCRR Part 806 (Third
Department); 22 NYCRR Part 1022 (4th Department). Investigations are begun by the filing of a
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

32

specific complaint or by the committee sua sponte.

Section 603.4(c) (First Department);

Section 691.4(c) (Second Department); Section 806.4 (Third Department); Section 1022.19
(Fourth Department).
!

It is during these investigations that the committee makes a determination as to whether

the conduct of the lawyer is serious enough to commence a disciplinary proceeding before the
court. The test is whether there has been, under Judiciary Law section 90(2), professional
misconduct. Such conduct is defined as conduct in violation of the rules of the Appellate
Division, the Code of Professional Responsibility and the Canons of Professional Responsibility,
or other rules setting out the standards for attorney conduct. Sections 603.2, 605.4 (First
Department); Section 691.2(Second Department); Section 806.2 (Third Department); Section
1022.17 (Fourth Department). The Judiciary Law section 90(2) also includes as sanctionable
conduct fraud, deceit, and conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice.
!

When, after the investigation, the committee determines that no action is warranted, the

complaint is dismissed, or, if the investigation was begun sua sponte, the investigation is closed.
If after the investigation, the committee decides that the acts of misconduct have been
established by clear and convincing evidence, but the conduct is not serious enough to warrant a
disciplinary proceeding, the committee may issue lesser sanctions, including admonishing the
attorney, cautioning the attorney, issuing a letter of education, or issuing an admonition or
reprimand, depending on the Department’s rules.

Section 806.4(c) (Third Department);

Sections 603.9, 605.2(a)(1),(22) (First Department); Section 691.4(e) (Second Department);
Section 1022.19 (Fourth Department). Procedures are available to the attorney to explain or
challenge the accusation.
!

If the conduct is more serious, the conduct may be brought before the court in a

disciplinary proceeding.

There is a formal hearing and only the court or its designated

subcommittee has the power to censure, suspend, or remove the attorney from office. Judiciary
Law section 90 (2); Sections 603.4(d), 605.2(a)(12), 605.5 (First Department); 691.4 (Second
Department); Section 806.4(c) (Third Department).
!

Conversations with counsel for attorney disciplinary committees disclose that the

attorney disciplinary committees do not have special procedures for considering claims of
prosecutorial misconduct. As with attorneys in other kinds of cases, attention to a prosecutor’s
behavior comes to the committees through newspapers; other news sources; information from
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

33

knowledge of committee members; word of mouth; the filing of a complaint by a party, a litigant,
another attorney, or a member of the public; and judicial decisions and orders that come to the
committees’ attention or are forwarded by judges.
!

Although court decisions provide a source of information about Brady and truthful

evidence issues, there is no standardized procedure for sending cases from the Appellate
Divisions involving lawyer conduct to the committees. The Appellate Division clerks do not
forward to the disciplinary committees opinions of the courts dealing with prosecutorial
misconduct.
!

The Task Force recommends that cases in which a state court finds there has been

intentional or reckless prosecutorial misconduct based on a Brady or truthful evidence rule
violation be referred by the clerk of the court to the appropriate disciplinary committee for
examination, investigation and further processing where appropriate. Where there are vacatures
of convictions by federal courts, upon the remand to the state court, the state court clerk should
likewise forward the case to the committee for consideration of sanctions.
!

There already exists under the Code of Judicial Conduct Rule 100.3(D)(2) authorization

for a judge who receives information indicating a substantial likelihood that a lawyer has
committed a substantial violation of the Code of Professional Responsibility to take appropriate
action. The rule should be interpreted so that judges will learn of the scope of their
responsibility. See also Code of Professional Responsibility DR 1-103(A) which instructs a
lawyer who has knowledge that raises a substantial question as to another lawyer’s honesty,
trustworthiness, or fitness as a lawyer to report such knowledge to a body authorized to
investigate the conduct.9

9!

Certain members of the Task Force view this recommendation as unnecessary as they believe existing

controls suffice to discourage and deter violations. They also believe that it is essential to strive to avoid such errors,
but a statewide procedure that appears to result in a virtual automatic referral for disciplinary action could deter the
vigorous advocacy necessary to the effective performance of the prosecution function. Cf., e.g., Imbler v. Pachtman,
424 U.S. 409, 431 n.34 (1976). The recommendation also appears to offer no guidance as to when the rule would
apply, and what specific standard must be met before a referral occurs.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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C.!

Court Procedures
5. A Brady Conference Should Be Held Before Trial to Resolve Issues of Turnover
Note

!

At a designated date before the first scheduled date for trial (assuming a possible

adjournment), the judge should conduct a Brady proceeding with a certification that the police
and prosecutor’s files (as well as any related files), have been examined and all material delivered.
Applications for delayed delivery can be made at that time.10
D.!

Procedures Related to Law Enforcement!

!

6. Law Enforcement Officials Should be Trained and Supervised in the Application of
Brady and Truthful Evidence Rules
Note
!

The Task Force recommends that prosecutors conduct regular training programs for all

Assistants to make sure that the relevant due process principles are fully internalized and become
the starting point for all cases. To supplement and reinforce the training, trial assistants should
be supervised by a senior assistant who will probe the circumstances in the cases to assure that
the trial assistant has complied with the law.
!

The need for training also applies to police officers. “Prosecutors’ access to exculpatory

evidence known to the police depends ultimately on the willingness of the police to record,

10

!

Certain members of the Task Force do not approve of this recommendation and provide the following

basis for their objections. The Brady obligation belongs solely to the prosecutor who, guided by ethical rules and
the Constitution, and based on his or her experience, knowledge of the case, and consultation with superiors in his
or her office, exercises the evidentiary determination to fulfill that obligation. See, e.g., Drekte, 540 U.S. at 696
(Brady rule highlights special role of prosecutor in American system of justice). Mandating a pre-trial conference in
every case for judicial review of the prosecutor’s file impermissibly allows the judicial branch to intrude into the
exclusive domain of a member of the executive branch, the prosecutor, in the advocacy determination of what to
disclose and when; weakens the adversary system and the vigorous performance of the prosecutor’s function, see,
e.g., Pachtman, 424 U.S. at 431 n.34; and unnecessarily expends scarce judicial resources and time in sifting through
prosecutors’ files that in some cases consists of thousands of pages. But see, e.g., Agurs, 427 U.S. at 106 (in a
particular case prosecutor may submit a Brady problem to the trial judge).
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

35

preserve, and reveal such evidence.

Despite pressures inclining the police against such

practices, they also have an interest in cooperating with prosecutors to implement Brady…..
[P]olice have an interest, especially in the early stages of investigation, in exonerating innocent
suspects in order to refocus their efforts on finding the guilty. Training should stress the risk
that suppression of exculpatory evidence will lead to conviction of the innocent. More
particularly, it should....stress the potentially exonerative value of ‘negative information’ and
‘first descriptions’ from witnesses.

Like much potentially exculpatory evidence, such

information is ‘casually acquired’ by the police as a by-product of the search for incriminating
evidence.” Stanley Z. Fisher, The Prosecutor’s Ethical Duty to Seek Exculpatory Evidence in
Police Hands: Lessons from England, 68 Fordham L. Rev. 1379, 1431 (2000)(citations omitted).
!

As with prosecutors, police officers must be trained about their Brady obligations and

supervised as they carry out their work to be sure the rules are followed. The training and
supervision are critical when police officers are involved in initial responses to a crime in
progress or just completed and the situation is often chaotic.
!

The training should emphasize the importance of the Brady rule to the innocent accused

and to the public when the actual perpetrator of the crime remains unpursued. The use of
hypothetical situations, either on tape or orally presented, to discuss the nature of Brady
material and what needs to be done with it should be used as a teaching tool.
!

Training has acquired heightened significance in the last fifteen years as the number of

trials has decreased. With the absence of trials and police testimony about how investigations
were conducted, police are not questioned by prosecutors in preparation for trial and by defense
counsel in cross examination as to what steps were taken in the investigation and what evidence
was found. The lack of this intense type of questioning is a lost opportunity to demonstrate to
police officers the importance of learning about exculpatory (as well as inculpatory) evidence, the
need to inform the prosecutor of the information, and the importance of preserving the
information.
E.!

Procedures Related to the Testing and Preservation of Evidence

!

Physical evidence is often critical to the proper assessment of an accused person’s guilt.

Likewise, physical evidence can be critical to the determination that a suspect is innocent. Law
enforcement officials’ interest in helping arrive at a correct result provide the incentive to obtain,
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

36

maintain, test, and preserve relevant physical evidence, and no motive to withhold such evidence
from the defense.
!

The Task Force’s inquiries have shown that, whether due to insufficient resources, lack

of effort, a failure to recognize the importance of testing and preservation of evidence, or even
venality, physical evidence all too often is not collected although available, is not stored in a
manner that prevents degradation or contamination, is lost, is not disclosed to the defense, or is
not tracked by the police department. Those failures have, in many cases, contributed to the
conviction of the innocent. The most frequent examples of the physical evidence that might
produce relevant information if tested are body fluids especially blood, which can be examined
for type and other characteristics. The Subcommittee was also surprised to find that vitullo or
rape kits were also frequently untested.
!

The many cases examined by the Task Force show that testing, storage and preservation

of evidence is a systemic mess. The tests relevant to case investigations are not conducted on a
regular basis. The cases reveal that samples are lost or destroyed, that record keeping about the
specimens does not accurately show where and how they are stored or if they have been
destroyed. A sample of the cases reviewed by the Task Force show the dizzying efforts to find
physical evidence that is reported lost, misfiled, or destroyed, with no record of the evidence.
Many samples have been found only accidentally.
!

To note several examples:

!

In the case of Alan Newton, the accused was convicted in 1985 of a rape he did not

commit and spent 21 years in prison. That injustice could have at least been reduced by emerging
DNA technology, but the authorities took 11 years to find the rape kit after Newton requested
testing in 1994. Ironically, the kit was ultimately found in the precise location in which it should
have been, suggesting that the police property clerk had simply failed to look for it for over a
decade. When the kit was finally turned over for testing, the DNA analysis proved that Newton
was innocent.
!

In the Jeff Deskovic matter, the accused was convicted in 1990 of a rape and murder he

did not commit. Semen was found in the young victim’s body, and testing determined that it was
not supplied by Deskovic. Deskovic was convicted anyway, on the theory that the victim had
previously had consensual sex with another. When he continued to maintain his innocence after

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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conviction, the authorities simply refused to check the DNA profile against available state and
national databases to determine who had supplied it. When a check was finally made in 2006, it
was determined that the DNA was from a man who was convicted of another murder in 1994, and
Deskovic was finally released.11
!

And in the case of Scott Fappiano, the accused spent 21 years in prison for a 1983 rape he

did not commit.12 The rapist had smoked a cigarette. Cigarette butts were recovered at the
crime scene; serology tests showed Fappiano was not the man who smoked them. However,
because the crime scene unit had not immediately seized the cigarettes, and the scene was not
properly safeguarded until they finally were, the prosecutor was able to argue that someone other
than the rapist might have smoked the cigarettes after the crime. In addition, a bra that may have
borne the criminal’s saliva was not subjected to a test for saliva, although it was tested for sperm.
Beginning in 1989, Fappiano asked that new DNA techniques be used to examine a small semen
sample left by the rapist, but that sample could not be located until 2005. When it was then
analyzed, it proved that Fappiano was innocent.
!

These are cases in which evidence was mishandled and in which the errors were belatedly

rectified.

It is likely there are more like them -- cases where exculpatory evidence was

irretrievably lost or never gathered in the first place. Curing the problem simply requires good
faith and common sense from law enforcement officials.

11 !

The current District Attorney of Westchester County never refused to check Deskovic’s DNA profile

against state and national databases. When first asked, in 2006 by the Innocence Project, the current District
Attorney of Westchester County consented immediately to the request that ultimately resulted in Deskovic’s
release.
12 !

The Fappiano case did not occur during the administration of the current District Attorney of Kings

County. When the Innocence Project approached the current District Attorney with DNA evidence establishing
Mr. Fappiano’s innocence, his office promptly moved to set aside the conviction and dismiss the indictment.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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7. The Subcommittee on Government Procedures Jointly Recommends the Proposals
Submitted by the Subcommittee on Forensic Evidence
Note
!

The recommendations of the Subcommittee on Forensic Evidence relating to the

treatment of forensic evidence are jointly recommended by the Subcommittee on Government
Procedures. We add the following notes:
!

In 2007, the American Bar Association issued standards relating to “biological

evidence” for the first time - in essence, to DNA evidence. DNA Evidence, ABA Standards for
Criminal Justice (3d Ed. 2007) (hereafter, “ABA Standards”). Several of the standards are
applicable to the recovery of physical evidence in general. Implementation of the recommended
practices would prevent the chance that an incorrect verdict will result, and are therefore
recommended:
!

First, a careful examination of the crime scene (so fundamental to prosecutions of violent

crime) should be conducted. Whenever a serious crime appears to have been committed, a
properly trained law enforcement officer or other official forensic investigator should be
dispatched to the location and, following written guidelines, should identify, collect, and
preserve evidence. When there is doubt as to whether material should be collected, the decision
should be in favor of collection. As to biological evidence, the investigator should take due care
to ensure that what is collected is representative of all materials that could yield evidence.
Funding should be made available for such work.

On request and absent good cause to the

contrary, a defendant’s trained investigator should be provided access to the scene to conduct an
examination for the defense. See ABA Standards, Standard 16-2.1.
!

Second, evidence should be maintained in a way that ensures its integrity and permits

ready retrieval. Before trial, the focus should be on storing fragile evidence so as to preclude
degradation and contamination.

In particular, biological evidence is readily susceptible to

spoliation. Proper safeguards are not expensive, when one considers the serious nature of the
crimes in which biological evidence tends to be used. Every jurisdiction in New York should
adopt protocols to ensure that investigators submit fragile evidence to storage facilities with the
means to maintain it. See ABA Standards, Standard 16-2.5; Standard 16-2.6.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

39

!

Third, before and after trial physical evidence of all types should be logged and stored to

guarantee retrieval. Simple bar-coding and other computer tracking techniques are readily and
cheaply available. Especially in large jurisdictions, evidence storage facilities should be run by
trained personnel willing to, and competent to, utilize those techniques. Currently, evidence
storage seems to be an extremely low priority for many police agencies, and retrieval failures –
especially after a conviction – seem to be treated with little concern. Such conditions are
unprofessional and inexcusable.
!

Fourth, evidence should not be discarded or destroyed except in conformity with

established protocols. See ABA Standards, Standard 16-2.6. The best practice would be for
prosecutor’s offices themselves to retain exhibits that are not contraband, dangerous, or fragile,
and to monitor storage of exhibits that are contraband, dangerous, or fragile.
!

Fifth, with proper safeguards, before and after trial the defense should enjoy access to

physical evidence. With only very rare exceptions, there is no cognizable disadvantage to law
enforcement in permitting such access. The defense is entitled to test evidence before trial.
Likewise, new scientific developments may make re-testing sensible after conviction. Under
New York law, defendants frequently find it difficult to gain access to evidence that might
exonerate the innocent. It is difficult to understand why limited access is the norm, and why
some prosecutors have resisted re-testing, as in the Deskovic case.13 One is sometimes reminded
of the church officials who refused to look through Galileo’s telescope. See ABA Standards,
Standard 16-6.1. Concerns about physical evidence returned to the owner need to be addressed.
Records of the return need to be maintained, but perhaps a substitute, such as a photograph, can
also be kept if future need for the object arises.
!

Sixth, where either a prosecution test or a subsequent defense test of a limited sample

may destroy the sample, and make future tests impossible, trained representatives of both sides
should where practicable be permitted to select the testing procedure and observe the testing.
See ABA Standards, Standard 16-3.4. It is possible that test questions may need be resolved by a
court.
13 !

In sworn testimony given in connection with his civil claim, Deskovic stated that he wrote once to the

previous District Attorney of Westchester County (Jeanine Pirro) in about 1997, requesting a test of semen from the
victim and a prison interview with the then District Attorney. As previously noted, the current District Attorney of
Westchester County consented to Deskovic’s request for re-testing.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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!

Seventh, police department and other prosecutorial agencies should establish, with the

advise of biological scientists and other significant experts, a protocol for the testing of samples
taken in all cases that meet certain established criteria and each such case should be monitored
for compliance with the protocol.

As with the testing of evidence, a protocol should be

established for storage and preservation, and the adherence to its strictures monitored.
!

Eighth, the failure to follow protocols should, where appropriate (as in cases in which

public officials have failed to establish procedures or have systematically violated them or the
state has acted intentionally to destroy the evidence), give to the defendant at a trial or post
conviction procedure the benefit of a permissible presumption that any forensic result would be
deemed favorable to the defendant’s position.14
F.!

Procedures to Avoid Erroneous Early Focus

!

The American criminal justice system is an adversary system. In this context, there are

occasions in which police or prosecution officials first decide that a suspect is guilty and then
dismiss other indications to the contrary. The cases reviewed by the Task Force show this has
happened in many of them. This focus arises early in the investigation, before the evidence has
been examined, witnesses interviewed, and objects tested for forensic evidence.

It is also

claimed that alternative theories and possible other subjects are not examined and the case moves
forward without a full examination.
!

An example of such a case is James Walker. After a man was killed in the course of a

robbery, rewards were offered for information. A drug addict came forward and implicated
Walker. Based on this testimony alone, Walker was convicted. The prosecutor and the lead
detective suppressed the fact that the informer had implicated a second man, a friend of Walker
who was in jail at the time of the crime, and that a surviving victim had seen Walker in a line-up
but selected someone else. Walker was exonerated after serving 19 years in prison.
!

Another example is the case of George Whitmore, in which Whitmore implicated

himself in a double homicide after coercive questioning. The actual perpetrator was discovered
some years later.
14 !

Certain members of the Task Force did not approve of this recommendation, on the grounds that it is too

broad and vague; and in cases of intentional destruction, the law already provides remedies, see, e.g., CPL 240.70
(1).
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

41

!

In the case of Norman Carter, the police accepted at face value a witness’ (the actual

perpetrator) version of the events of the murder even though her recitation of the events changed
and she did not accuse Carter until questioned over several days. Information given to the police
was not given to the prosecutor or the defense. For example, the detective did not make a report
of information that gave a description that did not match that of Carter. Another witness’
information was viewed by the detective as not aiding the investigation.
!

Even as this report was being edited, cases were reported to have resulted in wrongful

prosecutions and custody because of early focus by the police on a particular person. In one, a
person was arrested, interrogated, detained for hours, and charged with harassment for sending
abusive e-mails. A civil suit alleged that the police failed to investigate the source of abusive emails and wrongfully blamed the plaintiff. The complaint stated that the police ignored “a
mountain of evidence” that proved the plaintiff did not send the e-mails. New York City settled
the case by giving the plaintiff $25,000. See New York Times, November 21, 2008, p. A28, col.
3.
!

In another recently reported case, a person was arrested for murder. The accused

explained to the New York City detective that he had an alibi and that his metro-card would prove
that he could not have been at the scene of the crime at the time of the crime. The detective took
the card and then returned it to the defendant with no further discussion. The defense pursued
the investigation and confirmed the alibi with photos and MTA computer records.

The

defendant, being prosecuted in the federal court, was released from custody pending further
study of the case by the prosecutor. See id., November 19, 2008, p. A1, col. 3.
8. Police Officers Should Be Trained To Investigate Alternate Theories for a Case, At
Least Until They Are Reasonably Satisfied That They Are Without Merit
Note
!

Prosecutors must be trained to recognize when witnesses’ information and other

evidence points to other possible suspects than the accused. The trial prosecutor and the
supervising prosecutor should examine the entire police file and interview all investigation
officers as well as witnesses in the case to determine that appropriate investigations were
conducted. This review of the file should take place early in the process with the police officers
or detectives so that the prosecutor can direct any further investigations. The actual as well as
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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the legal responsibility for appraisal of the case should be that of the prosecutor and not of the
police officer.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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Identification Procedures
SUBCOMMITTEE REPORT AND FINAL PROPOSALS

The Problems with Witness Identification Procedures
Current Legal Mechanisms
!

In the comprehensive studies that have been done nationwide, and in the analysis of

those cases identified by this Task Force, erroneous identifications were responsible for more
wrongful convictions than any other single factor.15 Further, existing legal protections, such as
cross-examination of witnesses and the presence of counsel at lineups target purposeful as well
as unintentional misconduct and do not sufficiently protect against witnesses who mistakenly
believe that they are making the correct identification. To address this problem, the guiding
principle should be to reduce or eliminate the problem of erroneous eyewitness identifications
early in the criminal justice process in order to ensure that reliable evidence is presented at trial
and that verdicts are based on accurate information, and, to the extent possible, to ensure that
innocent individuals do not even enter the criminal justice system, thus freeing law enforcement
to devote resources to identifying and pursuing the guilty. Thus efforts should be made at the
investigative level to enhance the accuracy of identification procedures, and at the trial level to
ensure that juries are properly informed of the factors that may affect the reliability of the
identification and, if appropriate, the limitations of such procedures.

15 !

An analysis undertaken by the Subcommittee of the wrongful conviction cases studied by the Task Force

shows that of the 53 cases examined, 36 of them (68%) involved an erroneous identification by an eyewitness which
caused or contributed to the conviction. See also Sam Gross's comprehensive survey of 328 exonerations from 1989
through 2003 covers the period during which DNA testing on forensic evidence became available, and concludes
that roughly half of all exonerations were due to DNA testing. Samuel R. Gross et al., Exonerations in the United
States, 1989 Through 2003 (2004), available at http:// www.law.umich.edu/newsandinfo/exonerations-in-us.pdf.
The study found “a steady increase in the number of DNA exonerations, from one or two a year in 1989 to 1991, to an
average of 6 a year from 1992 through 1995, to an average of 21 a year since 2001.”

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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The Burden of Proof at Wade Hearings
!

Under current New York law, Wade hearings, where the admissibility of pretrial

identification procedures can be challenged on the grounds that they were unduly suggestive or
conducted in violation of the right to counsel, provide one of the few opportunities for
defendants to challenge pretrial identification procedures.16 Moreover, even though defendants
need only meet a low threshold in order to be entitled to a Wade hearing,17 to ultimately prevail at
a hearing, defendants must meet a much higher burden to prevail at the hearing. For instance,
while the prosecution, during Wade hearings, has the initial burden of establishing the
reasonableness of the police conduct and the lack of suggestiveness in the identification
procedure used, it is the defense that bears the burden of ultimately proving that the procedure
was unduly suggestive.18

Insufficient or faulty police documentation of an identification

procedure (e.g., a poor quality photograph of a lineup or a failure to report accurately the time or
place of a show up or the individuals present there) may hamper the defense in meeting its
burden, and, by extension, impede the hearing court (and, eventually, an appellate court) from
making a fully informed decision regarding the constitutionality of the identification procedure.
!

Given the number of wrongful convictions, and the fact that wrongful convictions

reversed after appellate review impose severe costs on innocent defendants – such as lengthy
terms of incarceration – as well as costs to society – in that guilty offenders remain free to
continue victimizing – Wade hearings and appellate review do not sufficiently address the
problem of wrongful convictions based on mistaken eyewitness testimony.
The Narrow Scope of the Appeals Process
!

Convictions based upon erroneous eyewitness identifications are difficult to overturn on

appeal under existing New York State law. First, although the state’s intermediate appellate

16!

See People v. Chipp, 75 N.Y.2d 327, 335 (N.Y. 1990) (“It is firmly established in our jurisprudence that

unduly suggestive pretrial identification procedures violate due process and therefore are not admissible to
determine the guilt or innocence of an accused.” (citing United States v. Wade, 388 U.S. 218 (1967))).
17 !

See People v. Ortiz, 90 N.Y.2d 533, 538 (N.Y. 1997) (explaining that under N.Y. Criminal Procedure Law

§ 710.60(3)(b) a defendant does not need to “allege specific facts tending to show suggestiveness in order to be
entitled to a Wade hearing.”)
18 !

Chipp, 75 N.Y.2d at 335.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

45

courts have factual review power to determine both whether an identification procedure was nonsuggestive and whether the jury’s conclusion that the defendant was the perpetrator was against
the weight of the evidence,19 these courts give substantial deference to the triers of fact who saw
and heard the witnesses firsthand.20
!

Second, the New York Court of Appeals, unlike the Appellate Division, has no factual

review power, and the Court of Appeals will reverse a conviction on the grounds that
identification testimony should have been suppressed only when the lower courts’ findings of
fact are clearly unsupported by the record and thus present a question of law for review.21
!

Third, because an appellate court is limited to the facts appearing in the record, it may

not have before it all the information relevant to determining whether an identification procedure
was suggestive. Although New York Criminal Procedure Law section 440.10 provides a vehicle
by which a defendant may bring matters dehors the record to the attention of a court and thereby
seek reversal of a conviction, it is difficult for an incarcerated defendant to conduct any kind of

19 !

See C.P.L. § 470.15(1), (5); People v. Neely, 219 A.D.2d 444, 447 (2d Dep’t 1996) (Appellate Division may

make factual determinations that reverse or modify the findings of hearing courts) (Rosenblatt, J.). See generally
People v. Romero, 7 N.Y.3d 633 (2006) ; People v. Bleakley, 69 N.Y.2d 490 (1987) (both cases discussing the
Appellate Division’s weight of the evidence review power).
20 !

See People v. Prochilo, 41 N.Y.2d 759, 761 (1977) (deference accorded to hearing court); Bleakley, 69 N.Y.

2d at 495 (deference to trier of fact at trial).
21 !

Compare People v. Calabria, 3 N.Y.3d 80, 83-84 (2004) (declining to reverse one-witness identification

case and noting, “Although the Appellate Division is empowered to reverse a conviction because, in its view, the
verdict is against the weight of the evidence, we are not”) (citations omitted) with People v. Foster, 64 N.Y.2d 1144,
1146-48 (1985) (reversing conviction of codefendant Reed and dismissing the indictment because the testimony of
the sole identification witness was incredible as a matter of law). See also People v. Jackson, 98 N.Y.2d 555, 559
(2002) (holding that Wade hearing dealing with the propriety of a lineup involved a mixed question of law and fact,
and thus, the hearing court’s determination, affirmed by the Appellate Division and supported by the record, was
beyond Court of Appeals review).
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

46

investigation that might reveal the type of misconduct or impropriety (such as police coaching or
coercing a witness at a lineup procedure) that would provide the basis for a 440 motion.22
!

Fourth, exclusions of expert eyewitness testimony are reviewed on appeal under an

abuse of discretion standard, which is a high standard to meet.23 In addition, the discretion to
admit or exclude experts (including psychological experts on eyewitness identifications) rests
solely with the trial courts, and the appellate courts are deferential to the lower court decisions.24
!

After trial, convictions based on erroneous eyewitness identifications are difficult to

overturn because appellate and habeas corpus decisions are almost always predicated on
22

!

While section 440.30(1-a) of the Criminal Procedure Law permits a defendant to seek testing on any

evidence, secured in connection with the trial, that might contain DNA, there are many cases (e.g., gunpoint
robberies) in which no such evidence containing DNA exists. DNA testing is a great tool to free the innocent as well
as convict the guilty, especially in identification cases, but DNA evidence is not always available.
23 !

See United States v. Christophe, 833 F.2d 1296, 1299 (9th Cir. 1987) (“On review, we reverse only if the

district court abused its wide discretion or committed manifest error in excluding expert testimony.”) (internal
citation omitted); United States v. Villiard, 186 F.3d 893, 895 (8th Cir. Minn. 1999) (“As to the district court's
refusal, after conducting a hearing under [Daubert] to admit expert testimony concerning the reliability of
eyewitness identifications, we are especially hesitant to find an abuse of discretion [in denying expert eyewitness
identification testimony] unless the government's case against the defendant rested exclusively on uncorroborated
eyewitness testimony.” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)).
24

!

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharms., 509 U.S. 579, 589-92 (U.S. 1993) (explaining that under Federal Rule of

Evidence 702, the decision to admit expert scientific testimony is within the sound discretion and authority of the
trial judge). See Diefenbach v. Sheridan Transp., 229 F.3d 27, 30 (1st Cir. 2000) (“It is well-settled that trial judges
have broad discretionary powers in determining the qualification, and thus, admissibility, of expert witnesses. It is
settled law in this circuit that whether a witness is qualified to express an expert opinion is a matter left to the sound
discretion of the trial judge. In the absence of clear error, as a matter of law, the trial judge's decision will not be
reversed.” (internal quotation marks and citation omitted)). Goodwin v. MTD Prods., 232 F.3d 600, 606 (7th Cir.
2000) (“[I]t is well established that a trial judge has wide discretion in determining both the competency of an
expert witness as well as the relevancy of the expert’s testimony on a particular subject. Consequently, a judge's
decision to limit an expert's testimony will be overturned on appeal only if manifestly erroneous.” (internal
quotation marks and citation omitted)); McCullock v. H.B. Fuller Co., 61 F.3d 1038, 1042 (2d Cir. 1995) (“The
decision to admit expert testimony is left to the broad discretion of the trial judge and will be overturned only when
manifestly erroneous.”); United States v. Harris, 995 F.2d 532, 534 (4th Cir. 1993) (“The exclusion of expert
testimony under Rule 702 [of the Federal Rules of Evidence] is within the sound discretion of the trial
judge.” (internal citation omitted)).
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questions of law, not questions of fact. This limited nature of appeals makes the reversal of
erroneous verdicts almost impossible. In particular, mistakes resulting from juror error are
difficult to correct. It is unlikely that a conviction due to a jury's mistaken application of law to
facts will be reversed because current legal mechanisms are not conducive to examining and
correcting mistakes of juror judgment. As a result, the justice system becomes frustrated, with
innocent parties jailed and criminals freed.
!

In short, once a jury has returned a guilty verdict based on a mistaken eyewitness

identification, it might be years before such error is corrected, if ever. During the interim
between a wrongful conviction and a reversal of the conviction – if any – innocent defendants
suffer the severe costs of incarceration, and society incurs the cost of guilty offenders remaining
free to perpetrate crimes against other victims.
Suggestive Eyewitness Identification Procedures Admitted under Federal Standards of Review
!

Federal standards of review at both the trial and appellate level encourage courts

reviewing eyewitness identification procedures to ignore infractions which often lead to
erroneous verdicts and to determine whether the defendant is probably guilty based on other
available evidence.25 In federal courts, a due process right to be free from unduly suggestive
procedures has been established.26

Nonetheless, erroneous admissions of excludable

identifications have been upheld on appeal under a harmless error standard of review. Moreover,
the standard of review used by federal courts to review unduly suggestive procedures focus on
whether the defendant is probably guilty instead of whether procedures were suggestive. Both
the reliability standard used at trial and pretrial Wade hearings and the harmless error standard
used on appeal allow courts to search the record for corroborating evidence and determine what
a reasonable jury would conclude.
!

When established, the due process right to be free from unduly suggestive procedures

was strict, and unnecessarily suggestive procedures were to be excluded.27 The remedy at trial

25 !

See Manson v. Brathwaite, 432 U.S. at 128 (J. Marshall dissenting).

26 !

See Stovall v. Denno, 388 U.S. 293, 295 (1967).

27 !

See Manson v. Brathwaite note 8 at 114.

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for a violation of this constitutional right is exclusion of the evidence or a curative instruction.28
Federal trial courts now use a two-step test, asking first whether the procedure was unduly
suggestive, and second whether it was reliable.29 Here, reliability is ascertained from factors
such as the witnesses’ opportunity to view the suspect, the witnesses’ level of certainty and the
time that elapsed between the initial observation and the subsequent eyewitness identification
procedure. As a result, courts have the discretion to search the record to find alternate or
corroborating evidence that the defendant is most likely guilty, despite the existence of
suggestive conduct that rises to the level of violating due process.
!

Similarly, on appeal, the harmless error standard30 allows courts to determine whether a

suspect is guilty based on the totality of the evidence despite unconstitutional procedures. As
originally contemplated, the harmless error standard was to be used by the appellate court to
examine whether the constitutional violation contributed to the conviction. Originally, the
burden of proving that the error was harmless beyond a reasonable doubt was not easily met, as
the court focused on whether the violation occurred or whether the procedure was unduly
suggestive. However, the standard has been reframed 31 to whether “a reviewing court can find
that the record developed at trial establishes guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.”32 As a result,
instead of confining their focus to whether an error directly contributed to the jury's verdict,
courts broadly search the record for independent evidence of guilt, which taken alone could
support the conviction. This allows the state to side step false evidence. !
!

Given that federal standards of review, as currently contemplated, allow suggestive

eyewitness procedures to be admitted, we cannot expect to safeguard the innocent from
wrongful convictions by means of trial or appellate remedies alone.

28

!

Watkins v. Sowders, 449 U.S. 341, 346-47 (1981) (holding that, in the context of witness identifications,

either curative instructions or a suppression hearing may remedy constitutional error).
29 !

See Manson v. Brathwaite, note 10.

30 !

See Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. at 19-20, 23-24 (establishing the harmless error standard “before a

federal constitutional error can be held harmless, the court must be able to declare a belief that it was harmless
beyond a reasonable doubt.”)
31 !

See Rose v. Clark.

32 !

Id.

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!

Under current New York law, even if a court concludes that a pretrial identification

procedure was unduly suggestive and rendered a witness's identification of a defendant
unreliable, the error in admitting that testimony is still subject to harmless error analysis.33 It
should be noted that the standard of review for constitutional harmless error – “no reasonable
possibility that the error might have contributed to the defendant’s conviction” – is stricter than
the federal standard.
Objectives of Reform Proposals
!

In order to eliminate the problem of witness misidentifications as early in the criminal

justice process as possible, the ideal solution is to:
(1) !

make eyewitness identification evidence as reliable as it can be, and

(2) !

educate juries through expert testimony or jury instructions as to
(a) !
(b)

the limitations of such evidence, and
the circumstances they should consider in determining how much credence to
give an eyewitness identification.

!

Regarding point (1) above, some methodological procedures of collecting witness

identification evidence increase the frequency of identifications of suspects who are not the
actual culprits.
!

The pretrial eyewitness identification procedure – be it a lineup or a photographic array

identification – should be optimized to decrease the possibility of a false identification leading to
a wrongful conviction and to make the identification more reliable.34 Scientific research has
33 !

See People v. Johnson, 345 N.Y.S.2d 1011 (stating that although evidence of prior identification of a

defendant from a photograph is improper (see, e.g. People v. Caserta, 19 N.Y.2d 18, 277 N.Y.S.2d 647, 224 N.E.2d
82; People v. Trowbridge, 305 N.Y. 471, 113 N.E.2d 841), where the other proof of identification and of guilt is as
clear and strong as in this case, the admission of such evidence may be regarded as harmless error.) See People v.
Perez, 785 N.Y.S.2d 218 (finding that any improper suggestiveness in photographic array from which murder
defendant was identified was harmless error, where the identification was confirmatory since one of identifying
witness' was a prior acquaintance of the defendant.)
34 !

Gary L. Wells, et al., Eyewitness Identification Procedures: Recommendations for Lineups and

Photospreads, 22(6) Law and Human Behavior 603, [13-14] (1998) [hereinafter “Eyewitness ID Procedures”].
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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identified the following phenomena associated with current eyewitness identification procedures
that can and should be controlled and corrected, which are dealt with in greater detail in the next
section.
•

Use of relative judgments by eyewitnesses rather than absolute judgments

•

Malleable confidence levels of the witness in his or her identification

•

Intentional or unintentional influence on the results of an eyewitness identification
by the administrator of the procedure

Problems with Current Eyewitness Identification Procedures
Relative Judgments
!

Eyewitnesses tend to make relative judgments rather than absolute judgments during

identification procedures.35 This means that rather than identifying a member of the lineup or
photo array based on an absolute determination, they often identify the one member of the lineup
or photo array that looks more like the culprit than the others in the lineup, even if the actual
culprit is not in the lineup. This is the result of a dual process theory of recognition memory,
which explains how memory relates to the choices one makes when attempting to identify
someone in a lineup.36
!

In the first process, signal detection theory isolates two decisions made by the witness:
•

Discrimination Accuracy. This is the ability of an individual to correctly detect a
signal triggering one’s memory vs. correctly reject the absence of such a signal. This
is affected by factors that influence the quality of the memory representation, such as
how well the witness was able to internalize a stimulus during the crime.

35 !

A minority of the Task Force believes that, given the current state of uncertainty in the scientific

community about the nature of identification decision-making processes, no single model (the “Relative
Judgments” model or any other) should be highlighted as a definitive explanation.
36

!

Christian A. Meissner, et al., Eyewitness decisions in simultaneous and sequential lineups: A dual-process

signal detection theory analysis, 33 (5) Memory & Cognition, 783 (2005).
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•

Response Criterion. This is the degree of evidence necessary for the witness to
respond that a signal/stimulus (internalized at the time of the witnessing) has been
presented in the lineup.

This can be influenced by any number of social or

instructional factors that may create a proclivity or bias to respond in one manner or
another.37
!

Second is a cognitive process that underlies the above decision-making process:
•

Recollection. This is the retrieval of conscious-level conceptual information based on
contextual details. Simply put, this is the ability to consciously recall information
from memory.

•

Familiarity. This is fluent, perceptually-based information that is believed to be
encoded in an automatic, non-conscious manner. More simply, it is the feeling that
something is familiar or known without context on a non-conscious level.38

!

In this dual process of recognition memory, familiarity is directly influenced by response

criterion, but recollection is not, meaning that the eyewitness identification process can directly
influence how much weight a witness gives to non-conscious “feelings” that some stimulus is
familiar to them. Recollection, the conscious recall of context-based information, is not affected
by the eyewitness identification process.39 Experiments show that these dual mental processes
are consistent with the notion of relative judgments by a witness viewing a lineup. When
presented with a lineup of similar-looking individuals, witnesses rely on familiarity-based
memory processes to a greater extent than when they are presented with a single individual
because the simultaneous presentation of the lineup provides a contextual basis for the
application of familiarity.40 That is to say, in these circumstances eyewitnesses tend to think,
“which one looks familiar to me” rather than “are there any context clues that make me think this
particular person is the culprit.” This is a relative judgment rather than an absolute judgment.

37 !

Id. at 784.

38!

Id.

39
40!

!

Id. at 784, 789.
Id. at 785-90.

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!

These relative judgments manifest themselves in many ways. For instance, there is solid

scientific evidence that people have more trouble identifying members of a race other than their
own than members of their own race,41 making it more likely that when viewing a lineup full of
members of another race, they will make relative judgments rather than absolute judgments.
!

Further, in an experiment in which half of the witnesses to a crime are given a lineup of

six people, including the culprit and five fillers, and the other half are given a lineup of the same
five fillers but no culprit, misidentifications of each of the five fillers by the witnesses are more
frequent when the culprit is absent as opposed to when he is present.42 This indicates that the
witnesses are making a relative judgment rather than an absolute one. If the witnesses were
making judgments based on true recognition (absolute judgment), then the same percentage that
identified the culprit in the lineup in which he was present would instead choose “not present” in
the lineup in which he was not present. Instead, those eyewitnesses viewing the lineup without
the culprit for the most part spread their choices among the rest of the fillers—the ones that,
absent the true culprit, looked the most like the actual culprit. This means that most of those that
chose the actual culprit when he was in the lineup did not do so because of actual recognition,
but because of relative similarity. These were relative judgments, not absolute ones.43
!

This difference matters because research shows that eyewitnesses who described their

identification decision-making process as one of elimination (i.e. relative judgments) were more
likely to have made false identifications than those who reported that the face “just popped out at
me.”44

41 !

Wells, G. L. & Loftus, E. F., Eyewitness Memory for People and Events, in Comprehensive Handbook of

Psychology, A. Goldstein, Ed., Volume 11, Forensic psychology (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2003), citing
Meissner, C.A. & Brigham, J.C. Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic
review, 7 Psychology, Public Policy and Law 3 (2001).
42

!

Eyewitness ID Procedures, supra note 17, citing Gary L. Wells, What do we know about eyewitness

identification? 48 American Psychologist 553 (1993).
43 !

Id.

44

Dunning, D. & Stern, L.B., Distinguishing Accurate from Inaccurate Identifications via Inquiries About

!

Decision Processes, 67 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 818 (1994). See also R.C.L. Lindsay, et al.,
Biased Lineups: Sequential Presentation Reduces the Problem.
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!

As will be discussed, in order to allow a judge and/or jury to evaluate for themselves the

level of confidence for the witness, the entire identification procedure should be recorded on
video.
Malleable Confidence Levels
!

Studies have long shown the possibility for witness malleability in the investigative

process. For instance, witnesses who are questioned repeatedly grow more confident in the
accuracy of details in their reports to police.45 Likewise, the confidence level of an eyewitness in
his or her identification, including confidence in the quality of his or her recollection of the
perpetrator and confidence in the ease with which he or she identified the person in the lineup or
photo array, is malleable and can be influenced by a number of factors both during and after the
identification procedure.46 This can result in the witness’ in-court statement of confidence being
an unintentional misrepresentation of the eyewitness’ actual confidence in the certainty of his or
her identification, which affects verdicts because juries give more consideration to a witness’
confidence level in their evaluation of identification evidence than any other aspect of
identification testimony.47

This artificially inflated certainty by eyewitnesses in their

identifications can be due to (1) any confirmatory feedback they may receive during or after an
identification procedure, (2) the format of the identification procedure and any relative
judgments the witnesses make in the process of identifying someone in a lineup or photo array,
and (3) preparations of the witness for cross-examination.48
!

Witnesses who receive feedback confirming or disconfirming that the identifications

they made are somehow in line with other evidence have significantly higher or lower confidence
levels, respectively, in their identifications than those receiving no feedback at all. For instance,
in one experiment, eyewitnesses given feedback that a co-witness identified the same member of
the lineup had significantly higher confidence levels in their identifications than those given no
feedback, while those told that a co-witness identified a different member of the lineup had a
45 !

Eyewitness ID Procedures, supra note 17 at [19].

46 !

Wells, G.L. & Bradfield, A.L., “Good, You Identified the Suspect”: Feedback to Eyewitness Distorts Their

Reports of the Witnessing Experience, 83(3) Journal of Applied Psychology 360, 374 (1998).
47 !

Eyewitness ID Procedures, supra note 17 at [18-19].

48

Id.

!

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much lower confidence level than those given no feedback.49 Even stronger effects on witness
confidence levels occur when witnesses are told that they identified the suspect instead of being
told nothing. Those receiving confirmatory feedback even exaggerate facts about the witnessing
conditions such as the quality of their views of the suspect and how much time they spent
observing the culprit’s face.50
!

Experiments further show that relative judgments made by witnesses not only affect who

is chosen, but the confidence of the witness in his or her choice. For instance, a witness’
confidence in his or her selection of a member of the lineup or photo array varies depending on
the extent to which the members of the lineup or photo array that were not chosen by the witness
also fit the description the witness previously gave of the subject. Thus, relative judgments, in
addition to causing witnesses to identify the person who looks most like the culprit, also cause
witnesses to be more confident in that identification when the person they identified was the only
person in the lineup or photo array to fit the description of the culprit, even if the one fitting that
description wasn’t the actual culprit.51
!

Additionally, experiments have shown that briefing witnesses about the types of

questions they will face on cross-examination increases the confidence they express in their
identifications during cross-examination in relation to those who were not briefed.

This

“briefing effect” only occurred among witnesses making erroneous identifications—their
confidence levels rose dramatically—but not among those making accurate identifications, whose
confidence levels did not change.52
!

Thus, relative judgments in identifications, feedback, and witness preparations for trial

can all lead to artificially distorted witness confidence in trial testimony, either inflated or
deflated. Because of the weight given by juries to eyewitness confidence levels, fluctuation in

49 !

Id. at [19-20], citing Luus C.A.E. & Wells, G.L., The Malleability of Eyewitness confidence: Co-witness

and Perseverance Effects, 79 Journal of Applied Psychology 714 (1994).
50 !

Id. at [20], citing Wells & Bradfield, supra note 28.

51 !

Id. at [11-12], citing Wells, G.L., Rydell, S.M., & Seelau, E.P., On the Selection of Distractors for

Eyewitness Lineups, 78 Journal of Applied Psychology 835 (1993).
52 !

Id. at [19], citing Wells, G.L., Ferguson, T.J. & Lindsay, R.C.L., The Tractability of Eyewitness

Confidence and its Implication for Triers of Fact, 66 Journal of Applied Psychology 688 (1981).
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either direction can have a negative impact on the efforts of the criminal justice system to ensure
that justice is achieved.
Administrator Influence on Identification
!

Officials in charge of administering the eyewitness identification procedure can

intentionally or unintentionally influence the results through cueing of the witness towards the
subject. In research on experiments generally, it has been shown that interpersonal interactions
and processes can have powerful effects on the results of an experiment, particularly when close
physical distance between the experimenter and experimentee permits eye contact, visible facial
expressions, and verbal exchanges.53 Relatedly, there is a danger that an investigating police
officer who is administering the eyewitness identification procedure will unconsciously bias the
evidence towards a confirmation of that answer, creating the phenomenon of the self-fulfilling
prophecy.
!

Experiments show that photo spread administrators’ nonverbal behavior, such as smiling

and nonverbal reinforcement of a particular photograph, can lead eyewitnesses to falsely identify
a certain person as the culprit.54 Further, what an administrator of the identification procedure
says to the eyewitness at the time of the lineup can both focus the eyewitness on the suspect and
have strong effects on the confidence of the eyewitness, including boosting the confidence of
tentative witnesses, even when the witness has misidentified an innocent suspect.55 These cues
can be intentional or unintentional on the part of the administering officer, but nevertheless have
an effect on the result of the identification procedure.

53 !

Id. at [21], citing Harris, M.J. & Rosenthal, R., Mediation of Interpersonal Expectancy Effects: 31 Met-

Analyses, 97 Psychological Bulletin 363 (1985).
54 !

Id., citing Fanselow, M.S. & Buckhout, R., Nonverbal Cueing as a Source of Biasing Information in

Eyewitness Identification Testing. New York: Center for Responsive Psychology, Brooklyn college C.U.N.Y., 1976.
55 !

Id., citing Luus & Wells, supra note 31, Wells & Bradfield, supra note 28, Wells, G.L. & Seelau, E.,

Eyewitness Identification: Psychological Research and Legal Policy on Lineups, 1 Psychology, Public Policy, and
Law 765 (1995).
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Proposed Solutions
!

To the extent that the above-listed problems can be corrected at the administration of the

lineup, they should be.

To the extent that these problems cannot be corrected at the

administration of the lineup or can be corrected but are not, the jury should be educated as to the
limitations of this eyewitness testimony so they can give it its proper weight in their
deliberations. To that end, we propose the following solutions:
In the Administration of Eyewitness Identification Procedures
1.!

Change the way in which identification procedures (including lineups and photo

!

arrays) !are conducted to enhance the reliability of eyewitness identifications.

!

a.!

!

The administration of the lineup or photo array should be performed by someone who

Double blind administration

does not know the identity of the suspect. Due to the problems outlined above in terms of the
intentional or unintentional influence on the eyewitness’ identification and confidence levels by
an administrator, the removal of an individual who knows the identity of the suspect and can
thereby influence the results of the procedure would eliminate the possibility of these problems
affecting identifications. These same double blind procedures have long been used in behavioral
and medical experiments to prevent unwanted influence on the results56 and the rationale for
conducting experiments in a double-blind manner applies equally well to lineups and photo
arrays.57
Cautionary instructions

!

b.!

!

Eyewitnesses should be told that the person administering the lineup does not know who

the suspect is and that the perpetrator may or may not be in the lineup—in effect that “none of the
above” is a valid answer. This lowers the rate of inaccurate eyewitness identifications without
lowering the number of accurate identifications by focusing the witness on using absolute
judgments rather than relative judgments.

Additionally, eyewitnesses should perceive the

56!

Harris & Rosenthal, supra note [19].

57 !

Eyewitness ID Procedures, supra note 17 at [21].

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administrators of the procedure to be blind as to which person is the suspect in order to prevent
witnesses from looking to the administrator for cues.58
!

A survey of empirical data gathered over the course of years of scientific studies shows

that a “might or might not be present” instruction given to eyewitnesses reduces
misidentifications when the actual culprit is not in the lineup.59 One study using this instruction
saw a reduction in misidentifications when the culprit was not present from 78% to 33%, while
still resulting in 87% identification of the culprit when the culprit was present.60
Effective use of fillers

!

c.!

!

Fillers should be chosen for their similarity to the witness’ description of the perpetrator,

rather than for their similarity to the suspect. At the same time, the suspect should not differ
from the fillers in a way that would make the suspect stand out, and there should be no other
factors drawing attention to the suspect. In addition, no filler should so closely resemble the
suspect that a person familiar with the suspect might find it difficult to distinguish the suspect
from that filler. Choosing fillers in this manner avoids creating a lineup of clones of the suspect
and does not make an innocent person stand out in the lineup.61
!

Additionally, research has shown that the more fillers there are in a lineup or photo array,

the less likely a witness is to misidentify an innocent suspect as the perpetrator.62 The typical
number of fillers in New York is five, and that number, which is acceptable, should be standard
statewide.
!

58 !

Id. at [23].

59

Nancy Steblay, Social Influence in Eyewitness Recall: A Meta-Analytic Review of Lineup Instruction

!

Effects, 21 Law and Human Behavior 283 (1997).
60 !

Eyewitness ID Procedures, supra note 17 at [11], citing Malpass, R.S. & Devine, P.G., Eyewitness

Identification: Lineup Instructions and the Absence of the Offender, 66 Journal of Applied Psychology 482 (1981).
61 !

Id. at [25].

62 !

Id. at [27].

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One suspect per lineup

!

d.!

!

Placing multiple suspects – as opposed to one suspect – in a lineup reduces the reliability

of the lineup by making it more likely that the eyewitness will pick a suspect out of the lineup
with a very low certainty that it was the perpetrator. Statistically, this is the case because if five
suspects are put in a lineup or photo array, whichever one the witness picks will likely have
charges brought against him because the witness identified a suspect. However, if one suspect
and five fillers are put in a lineup or photo array, and a filler is picked, the identification was
obviously a mistake. Therefore, the more suspects there are per lineup, the more likely it is that
a witness’ identification of one of those suspects is a mistake that could not be identified as
such.63
Documentation of the procedure

!

e.!

!

Every step of the identification procedure should be documented, especially the

eyewitness’ confidence level immediately after identifying the person in the lineup he or she
believes is the perpetrator and before any feedback on that choice is given. This documentation
procedure should include the taking of an assessment of certainty from the identifying witness
immediately after the identification is made describing the witness’ level of certainty in his or her
selection. Likewise, law enforcement should be required to preserve all photographs, arrays and
documents used in identification procedures, including the witness’ initial description of the
perpetrator. This assessment of certainty of the eyewitness must be videotaped and audio
recorded. 64

We propose that standards for how to conduct the certainty assessment be

developed and promulgated to assist and direct law enforcement in this endeavor.
!

There are two reasons for such a requirement. First, documenting every step effectively

allows the procedure to be “discoverable” and allows the jury to understand the reliability of the
evidence being presented to it. This should include videotaping the eyewitness identification

63

!

64 !

Gary L. Wells, Eyewitness Identification: Systemic Reforms, 2006(2) Wisc. L. Rev. 615, 623 (2006).
A minority of Task Force Members voted against this recommendation on the grounds that requiring

videotaping could impose significant financial costs on law enforcement agencies and discourage a number of
witnesses from participating in identification procedures. Others voiced concerns that a video recording of a
witness’ visible and audible reactions could constitute inadmissible evidence and would be of questionable value to
the jury in assessing the witness’ confidence in the identification.
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procedure with enough synchronized cameras with audio to capture at all times the witness, the
administrator, and the members of the lineup or photo array.
!

The second reason for this documentation is to account for the problem discussed

previously that an eyewitness’ confidence level is malleable and can be influenced by information
coming to light after the lineup identification is made. Recording the eyewitness’ visible and
audible reaction contemporaneously with the recording of the identification itself will assist the
judge and/or jury in evaluating the witness’ confidence level at the time of the identification.
!

We propose that a failure by law enforcement to implement these documentation

procedures would be considered by the trial court as a factor in determining whether evidence of
the eyewitness identification procedure could be introduced at trial. The trial court would be
required to conduct a pre-trial hearing to determine whether documentation procedures have
been followed, and, if not, preclusion of the evidence of the identification procedure could be
ordered as a sanction.
Sequential Presentation of Lineups/Photo Arrays

!

f.!

!

Some researchers suggest that eyewitnesses should only be able to view one photo or

lineup member at a time, should not know how many photos or lineup members will be presented
or which one is the last one, and should give a “yes” or “no” response to each one before the next
is presented. This process forces witnesses to make absolute judgments as to individuals rather
than making relative judgments about a group of people. Sequential presentation is likely only
effective when in combination with double blind administration because the intentional or
unintentional cues given by an officer administering the lineup that knows the identity of the
suspect will be more obvious when the witness is only viewing one member of the lineup at a
time.
!

The sequential presentation procedure relies less on the “familiar” memory process and

more on the “recollection” process (as described in the problems section above), meaning there
is an absolute judgment taking place based on the witness’ recollection of context-based
information rather than a relative judgment based on non-contextual, non-conscious memory.65

65

!

Christian A. Meissner, et al., Eyewitness decisions in simultaneous and sequential lineups: A dual-process

signal detection theory analysis, 33 (5) Memory & Cognition, 783 (2005).
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Lab studies confirm that the sequential presentation procedure results in far fewer witness
misidentifications of non-culprits (false positives).66
!

Recently, there has been some data to suggest that while sequential presentation does

decrease false positives it also increases false negatives (not identifying the actual culprit when he
was present). This research shows that sequential presentation reduces choosing of a lineup
member by eyewitnesses when the witnesses are not positive they see the culprit in the lineup.67
The data shows, however, that the ratio of accurate to mistaken identifications actually rises,
meaning that the sequential presentation method improves the odds that a suspect, if identified,
is the actual culprit.68 Additionally, those that are more likely to produce false negatives are the
ones whose memories are weaker.69 This leads to the conclusion that the true effect of the
sequential procedure on false negatives is that it lowers the possibility that a witness with poor
recollection will use relative judgments to guess correctly. It does not affect those that are good
identification witnesses and use absolute judgments.
!

Two field studies have taken place using actual implementation of double blind

sequential procedures in police departments. The Illinois state police commissioned their own
study headed by the general counsel to the Superintendent of the Chicago Police Department,
Sheri Mecklenburg (the “Mecklenburg Report” or the “Chicago Study”).

She found that,

counter to all experimental evidence, the double blind sequential procedure had higher rates of
filler picks and lower rates of suspect picks than traditional lineups.70

66 !

This field study has

Id.; Gary L. Wells, Eyewitness Identification: Systemic Reforms, 2006(2) Wisc. L. Rev. 615, 625-26

(2006).
67 !

Gary L. Wells, Eyewitness Identification: Systemic Reforms, 2006(2) Wisc. L. Rev. 615, 626-28 (2006),

citing Nancy M. Steblay et al., Eyewitness Accuracy Rates in Sequential and Simultaneous Lineup Presentations: A
Meta-Analytic Comparison, 25 Law & Human Behavior 459 (2001).
68 !

Id.

69 !

Id. at 628.

70 !

Report to the Legislature of the State of Illinois: The Illinois Pilot Program on Sequential Double-Blind

Identification Procedures, prepared by Sheri H. Mecklenburg, Program Director, submitted March 17, 2006.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

61

received much criticism, both in the academic community71 and in the press.72 This field study
was non peer-reviewed and the police department will not release the data so it can be analyzed
by outside parties.73 Further, the methodology of this study was roundly criticized by experts,
including Daniel Wright (psychology professor at the University of Sussex in Brighton, UK),
Gary Wells (psychology professor at Iowa State and an expert in the field), Daniel Schachter
(psychology professor at Harvard) and Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman (psychology professor
at Princeton).74

Mecklenburg failed to isolate certain variables in her field tests, causing

“devastating consequences for assessing the real-world implications of this particular study.”75
!

A second field study conducted in Hennepin County, Minnesota, which includes

Minneapolis, supports the idea that this procedure eliminates relative judgments and makes
identifications more reliable. Using many of the suggestions outlined above, including the
double blind, sequential presentation of photos in a photo array, when compared to previous
laboratory and field tests, the Hennepin County Attorney notes that witnesses dramatically less
frequently chose a filler and instead more frequently identified either the suspect or made no
choice at all.76 This is consistent with a notion that witnesses make more absolute judgments and
fewer relative judgments with this sequential procedure.77
!

In summary, there is evidence that sequential and double-blind identification procedures

result in a reduction in “false positive” results, i.e., identifications of suspects who are in fact
innocent of the crime, while other evidence exists which calls this conclusion into question. We
propose, therefore, that further research, including field studies, into the efficacy of sequential
71 !

Daniel L. Schacter, et al., Policy Forum: Studying Eyewitness Investigations in the Field, 32(1) Law of

Human Behavior 3 (2008); Gary L. Wells, Field Experiments on Eyewitness Identification: Towards a Better
Understanding of Pitfalls and Prospects, 32(1) Law of Human Behavior 6 (2008).
72 !

Laura Spinney, Line-ups on trial, 453(22) Nature 442 (May 2008).

73 !

Id.

74 !

Schacter, supra note 56; Wells, supra note 56.

75 !

Schacter, supra note 56.

76 !

Amy Klobuchar and Hilary Lindell Caliguri, Protecting the Innocent/Convicting the Guilty: Hennepin

County’s pilot Project in Blind Sequential Eyewitness Identification, 32 Wm. Mitchell L. Rev. 1, 23 (2005-2006).
77 !

Gary L. Wells, Eyewitness Identification: Systemic Reforms, 2006(2) Wisc. L. Rev. 615, 627 (2006).

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versus simultaneous procedures be conducted, and that further recommendations be made
following this additional research.
At Trial
2.!

Allow expert testimony on eyewitness identifications at trial.

!

Expert testimony on eyewitness identifications that is supported by behavioral science

helps the trier of fact to assess the reliability of eyewitness identification testimony, when used
effectively. Judges have broad discretion to allow such demeanor-based expert testimony where
the testimony concerns the underlying factors affecting an eyewitness’ perception, making
expert testimony a viable part of the solution to erroneous eyewitness identifications.
!

In New York State courts, the criteria for admitting expert testimony is governed by the

standard set forth in Frye v. United States.78 The Frye standard states that “expert testimony
based on scientific principles or procedures is admissible but only after a principle or procedure
has ‘gained general acceptance’ in its specified field.79 The Court of Appeals has acknowledged
that Frye should not be interpreted as “setting an insurmountable standard”80 and to that end a
scientific principle or procedure need not be “unanimously endorsed” by the scientific
community in order to be admissible.81
!

The New York Court of Appeals has acknowledged that expert testimony on eyewitness

identifications may be of great assistance to jurors. That Court has recently written:
Thus, it is clear that expert testimony regarding the factors that affect the
accuracy of eyewitness identifications, in the appropriate case, may be
admissible in the exercise of the court’s discretion. Moreover, there are cases in
which it would be an abuse of a court’s discretion to exclude expert testimony on
the reliability of eyewitness identifications.82
78 !

293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923); People v. Wesley, 83 N.Y.2d 417, 422 (1994).

79 !

Id. (Internal citations omitted).

80 !

Parker v. Mobil Oil Corp., 7 N.Y.3d 434, 447 (2006).

81 !

Wesley, supra, 83 N.Y.2d at 423 (internal citations omitted).

82

People v. LeGrand, 8 N.Y.3d 449, 456 (N.Y. 2007).

!

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!

While the New York Court of Appeals has, on a number of occasions, determined that

trial judges did not abuse their discretion when they excluded expert testimony on eyewitness
identification83, in LeGrand, the Court held that “where the case turns on the accuracy of
eyewitness identifications and there is little or no corroborating evidence connecting the
defendant to the crime, it is an abuse of discretion for a trial court to exclude expert testimony on
the reliability of eyewitness identifications . . . .”.84
Even though LeGrand arguably stands for the principle of increased reliance on

!

eyewitness identification experts, a recent opinion from the First Department of the Appellate
Division suggests that the applicability of the LeGrand holding is debatable. In People v.
Abney 85, a divided panel of the Court upheld the trial judge’s exclusion of expert testimony on
the reliability of eyewitness identification. In support of its holding, the majority not only
interpreted LeGrand narrowly, but it also attempted to distinguish it by explaining that the
record in Abney included “sufficient corroborating evidence” of the defendant’s guilt.86
However, the dissent vehemently disagreed, writing: “We should not limit LeGrand . . . to its
facts, and thus effectively consign it to jurisprudential oblivion.”87 The opinions in Abney only
provide further support for the need for additional guidance regarding the use of expert
testimony in the context of eyewitness identifications.
!

In the event that prosecutors or defense attorneys lack the resources to hire an expert on

eyewitness identifications, funds should be provided to both prosecutors and defense attorneys
to permit the hiring of these kinds of experts.
3.!

Provide jury instructions on eyewitness identifications.

!

To the extent that a local criminal justice system does not improve the reliability of its

eyewitness testimony, the jury should be informed of the extent to which the evidence under its
consideration is unreliable. Educating juries through jury instructions is an often cited remedy
83 !

See, e.g., People v. Young, 7 N.Y.3d 40 (N.Y. 2006); People v. Lee, 96 N.Y.2d 157 (2001).

84

8 N.Y.3d at 452.

!

85 !

People v. Abney, No. 3314-05, 2008 WL 4559965 (N.Y. App. Div. Oct. 14, 2008).

86 !

Id. at *4.

87 !

Id. at *10 (Moskowitz, J., dissenting).

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to the problems inherent in eyewitness identifications. In cases where the primary evidence is
eyewitness identifications, judges are permitted to caution the jury as to its potential
unreliability.
!

Some state courts have adopted special instructions to handle inadequacies in eyewitness

identification. For example, the New Jersey State Supreme Court in State v. Cromedy held that
cross-racial identifications, which occur when an eyewitness is asked to identify a person of
another race, require a special jury instruction.88
!

However, there is a strong preference for expert testimony over jury instructions as a

means to reach jurors. Psychological research indicates that traditional jury instructions on the
weaknesses of eyewitness identification have virtually no impact on the jury's actual evaluation of
problematic characteristics of an identification, whereas expert testimony has some appreciable
effect in sensitizing jurors to the relevant issues.89 In addition, the use of jury instructions (in
lieu of providing expert testimony) has been criticized as inadequate to educate juries. Professor
Guerra Thompson finds that the substance of jury instructions is beyond the common knowledge
of jurors, and by imparting this critical information at the end of the trial, jury instructions come
too late to help jurors evaluate eyewitness identification testimony.90 As a result, jury
instructions alone appear to be insufficient as a remedy for mistaken eyewitness identifications.
!

We propose that the following jury instruction be given in cases involving eyewitness

identification evidence:91
!
88

NOTE – BRACKETED LANGUAGE SHOULD BE USED IF APPLICABLE
!

State v. Cromedy, 727 A.2d 457, 458- 59 (N.J. 1999); see also United States v. Telfaire, 469 F.2d 552, 561

(D.C. Cir. 1972) (C.J.Bazelon, dissenting).
89 !

Steven Penrod & Brian Cutler, Witness Confidence and Witness Accuracy: Assessing Their Forensic

Relation, 1 Psychol. Pub. Pol'y & L. 817, 834, 840-41 (1995).
90 !

Sandra Guerra Thompson, Beyond A Reasonable Doubt? Reconsidering Uncorroborated Eyewitness

Identification Testimony, 41 U.C. Davis L. Rev. 1487.
91 !

A minority of the Subcommittee expressed concern that portions of this proposed jury instruction are not

supported by scientific research and requested that this full report be forwarded to the Committee on Criminal Jury
Instructions (CJI) with a recommendation that the Committee determine how jury instructions on eyewitness
identification should be updated.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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One of the most important questions [The only important question] in this
case is the identification of the defendant as the person who committed the
crime. The prosecution has the burden of proving beyond a reasonable doubt,
not only that the crime was committed, but also that the defendant was the
person who committed the crime. If, after considering the evidence you have
heard from both sides, you are not convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that
the defendant is the person who committed the crime, you must find the
defendant not guilty.92
The identification testimony that you have heard was an expression of belief
or impression by the witness. To find the defendant not guilty, you need not
believe that the identification witness was insincere, but merely that the
witness was mistaken in his [her] belief or impression.
Many factors affect the accuracy of identification. In considering whether the
prosecution has proved beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is the
person who committed the crime, you should consider the following:
Did the witness have an adequate opportunity to observe the criminal actor?
In answering this question, you should consider:
1. What were the lighting conditions under which the witness made his/
her observation?
2. What was the distance between the witness and the perpetrator?!
3. Did the witness have an unobstructed view of the perpetrator?
4. Did the witness have an opportunity to see and remember the facial
features, body size, hair, skin color, and clothing of the perpetrator?
5. For what period of time did the witness actually observe the
perpetrator? During that time, in what direction were the witness and
92 !

This language has been cited approvingly by the Supreme Court of Utah (State v. Long, 721 P.2d 483,495

(Utah 1986), citing R. Sanders, Helping the Jury Evaluate Eyewitness Testimony: The Need for Additional
Safeguards, 12 Am. J. Crim. L. 189, 222-24 (1984).
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the perpetrator facing, and where was the witness's attention
directed?
6. Did the witness have a particular reason to look at and remember the
perpetrator?
7. Did the perpetrator have distinctive features that a witness would be
likely to notice and remember?
8. Did the witness have an opportunity to give a description of the
perpetrator? If so, to what extent did it match or not match the
defendant, as you find the defendant's appearance to have been on
the day in question?
9. What was the mental, physical, and emotional state of the witness
before, during, and after the observation? To what extent, if any, did
that condition affect the witness's ability to observe and accurately
remember the perpetrator?
10. [Did the witness ever see the person identified prior to the day in
question? If so, how many times did the witness see that person and
under what circumstances? To what extent, if any, did those prior
observations affect the witness’s ability to accurately recognize and
identify such person as the perpetrator?93]
11. [You should also consider whether the witness is of a different race
than the criminal actor. Identification by a person of a different race
may be less reliable than identification by a person of the same race.
In this case the identifying witness is of a different race than the
defendant. In the experience of many it is more difficult to identify
members of a different race than members of one’s own.
Psychological studies support this impression. In addition, laboratory
studies reveal that even people with no prejudice against other races

93

!

These factors are drawn from the New York State Criminal Jury Instructions, 2nd on “Identification – One

Witness” (January 2008).
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

67

and substantial contact with persons of other races still experience
difficulty in accurately identifying members of a different race. Quite
often people do not recognize this difficulty in themselves. You
should consider these facts in evaluating the witness’s testimony, but
you must also consider whether there are other factors present in this
case that overcome any such difficulty of identification.94]
Was the witness sufficiently attentive to the criminal actor at the time of the
crime?
In answering this question, you should consider whether the witness knew
that a crime was taking place during the time he [she] observed the actor.
Even if the witness had adequate opportunity and capacity to observe the
criminal actor, he [she] may not have done so unless he [she] was aware that a
crime was being committed.]
Was the witness' identification of the defendant completely the product of his
[her] own memory?
In answering this question, you should consider:
1. The length of time that passed between the witness' original
observation and his [her] identification of the defendant;
2. The witness' [mental] capacity and state of mind at the time of the
identification;
3. The witness' exposure to opinions, descriptions or identifications
given by other witnesses, to photographs or newspaper accounts, or
to any other information or influence that may have affected the
independence of his [her] identification;
4. [Any instances when the witness, or any eyewitness to the crime,
failed to identify the defendant;]

94 !

Sheri Lynn Johnson, Cross-Racial Identification Errors in Criminal Cases, 69 Cornell L. Rev. 934, 977-79

(1984).
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68

5. [Any instances when the witness, or any eyewitness to the crime, gave
a description of the actor that is inconsistent with the defendant's
appearance;]
You have heard testimony regarding an identification procedure in which the
defendant was identified by the witness. You may consider the methods used
in conducting this procedure and the circumstances under which the
defendant was presented to the witness for identification. For example, you
may consider that when an officer is aware of the identity of the suspect
presents a lineup to a witness, he may inadvertently cue the witness as to
which of the individuals is the suspect. Similarly, a witness who is presented
with six individuals in a lineup simultaneously may be more likely to select
one of the individuals than a witness who is presented with the individuals
sequentially, regardless of whether the perpetrator is included in the
lineup.!
You should also take into account the circumstances under which the witness
first viewed and identified the defendant, the suggestibility, if any, of the
procedure used in that viewing, any physical descriptions that the witness may
have given to the police, and all the other factors which you find relating to
reliability or lack of reliability of the identification of the defendant.
You may also take into account that an identification made by picking the
defendant out of a group of similar individuals is generally more reliable than
one which results from the presentation of the defendant alone to the
witness.!
You may take into account that an identification made by picking the
defendant from a group of similar individuals is generally more reliable than
an identification made from the defendant being presented alone to the
witness.
You may also take into account that identifications made from seeing the
person are generally more reliable than identifications made from a
photograph.

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69

You may consider the instructions, or lack of instructions, given to the
witness during the identification procedure. For example, you may consider
that indicating to a witness that a suspect is present in an identification
procedure or failing to warn the witness that the perpetrator may or may not
be in the procedure may increase the likelihood that the witness will select
one of the individuals in the procedure even when the perpetrator is not
present. Thus, such action on the part of the officer may have increased the
probability of a misidentification.95
You may also consider the strength of the identification, including the
witness's degree of certainty. Certainty, however, does not mean accuracy,
and a witness may be sincere in his [her] belief but may still be mistaken in
that belief.
I again emphasize that the burden of proving that the defendant is the person
who committed the crime is on the prosecution. If, after considering the
evidence you have heard from the prosecution and from the defense, and after
evaluating the eyewitness testimony in light of the considerations listed
above, you have a reasonable doubt about whether the defendant is the person
who committed the crime, you must find him not guilty.
4.!

Evidence of photographic identifications should be admitted at trial if they are

properly documented by video recording and if they are conducted in accordance with the
proposed improvements to identification procedure.
!

New York is the only jurisdiction in which jurors are precluded from receiving evidence

of photographic identifications.

We propose that legislation be introduced to permit the

introduction of evidence of photographic identifications, if such photographic identification
procedures are properly documented in accordance with the proposed procedures (i.e., video
recordings of the procedure and the eyewitness’ assessment of certainty) and if the photographic
procedure is conducted in accordance with our proposed improvements (i.e., double-blind; one

95

!

Connecticut Criminal Jury Instructions § 2.6-4, citing State v. Ledbetter, 275 Conn. 534 (Conn. 2005).

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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suspect per procedure; cautionary instructions provided to the eyewitness; effective use of
fillers; one suspect per procedure).96
5.!

Sanctions for failure to comply with mandated procedures.

!

We propose that legislation be adopted that would allow for preclusion of eyewitness

identification testimony for failure to comply with proposed procedures.

Specifically, we

propose that a failure to implement the proposed improvements to eyewitness identification
procedures be considered as a factor by the trial judge in deciding whether to admit evidence of
the identification procedure at trial. The trial court would be required to conduct a pre-trial
hearing to determine whether mandated procedures have been followed.
6.!

Specialized training of police, prosecutors, judges and defense attorneys.

!

It is clear that specialized training is necessary to educate those who work in the criminal

justice system about the realities of eyewitness identifications – the reality that eyewitnesses can
be certain and yet be wrong, and the problems with the conduct of these procedures which, if left
unchanged, can lead to wrongful arrests, prosecutions and convictions. With this appreciation,
each participant in the system must then understand and act on what he or she can do to prevent
faulty eyewitness identification procedures or to expose them if they do occur.
!

Police should be educated about the dangers of eyewitness identification procedures and

the science underlying eyewitness identifications. Their training should inform the police about
the techniques associated with an increased risk of erroneous eyewitness identifications. They
should likewise be trained to implement the changes to procedure outlined herein as well as the
reasons for these improvements. The police should be trained in how to instruct and interact
with an eyewitness during an identification procedure. Police should be specifically trained in
the proper documentation of eyewitness identification procedures and in the need to preserve
these records.
!

Of course, the responsibility to address the problem of erroneous identifications does

not rest with the police alone. Therefore, the other participants in the criminal justice system

96 !

A minority of the Task Force expressed the opinion that photographic identifications should be admissible

as long as the procedure was conducted in compliance with constitutional requirements and without any linkage to
video recording or other proposed improvements to identification procedures.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

71

should also be trained. Specifically, prosecutors should be trained in the social science on the
topic.

As a preliminary matter, the prosecutors much reach a determination whether an

identification is trustworthy. Prosecutors need to approach this decision with an awareness that
erroneous eyewitness identifications do occur, and an understanding of the factors that are more
likely to result in a faulty identification.
!

Defense attorneys also should be fully informed on the issues involving eyewitness

identifications. Without this knowledge, a defense attorney may be reluctant to consider the
possibility that the eyewitness identification of his or her client was mistaken and that the client is
innocent.

Such an attorney may fail to challenge the admissibility of the identification

aggressively enough or may urge the client to accept a seemingly favorable plea. Defense
attorneys also should be familiar with the latest research on the issues, and they should learn the
most effective means to present that information to the fact-finder and to the court. Defense
attorneys should be trained in the means to elicit testimony – from the police, the client and
expert witnesses – to convey the process by which an erroneous identification could have
occurred.
!

Finally, judges should also be educated about the reality of erroneous eyewitness

identifications and the factors that can contribute to them to better inform the decisions they
must make about the admissibility of an eyewitness identification and challenges that may be
brought by the defense.
7.!

Funding for implementation of proposed procedures.

!

The Subcommittee is mindful of the financial and logistical impact that implementation

of these proposal may have on law enforcement agencies throughout New York State,
particularly in small localities. We understand that appropriate funding is a prerequisite in order
to effectuate these important changes in eyewitness identification procedures as the
Subcommittee has proposed. We therefore propose that sufficient resources be made available
to New York State law enforcement agencies to permit them to implement these improvements
to eyewitness identification procedures.

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72

APPENDIX A
INTRODUCTION
!

In light of the litany of deficiencies in traditional eyewitness identification procedures, a

number of jurisdictions have taken steps to reform eyewitness identification procedures. These
reforms can be grouped into a number of broad categories, none of which are mutually exclusive.
First, jurisdictions have developed task forces or similar commissions to conduct research and
suggest recommendations on the topic of eyewitness identification procedures.

Second,

jurisdictions have created commissioned pilot studies to investigate how proposed eyewitness
identification procedures would operate. Third, jurisdictions have created “best practices”
manuals or guidelines, and have encouraged law enforcement officials to reform their practices,
where appropriate, to those proposed in the best practices manuals. Fourth, some jurisdictions
have adopted prescriptive, legislative reforms.

Finally, in some instances the courts have

modified the law and/or procedures surrounding eyewitness identification procedures either
through litigation or their inherent, supervisory powers.
!

This appendix discusses the reform efforts that have occurred in jurisdictions across the

country. It only briefly summaries the reforms, but it provides insight into what has been done to
combat the problems relating to traditional eyewitness identification methods.
REFORMS BY JURISDICTION
Federal
!

In light of the considerable number of mistaken eyewitness identifications, in 1999 the

Department of Justice’s National Institute of Justice commissioned a best practices manual
designed and approved by the Technical Working Group for Eyewitness Evidence.97

The

manual was designed to provide guidance and instruction to jurisdictions nationwide about ways
in which they could consider reforming eyewitness identification procedures. Among other
things, the report encourages law enforcement officials to: provide thorough cautionary
instructions to witnesses, document eyewitness identification procedures, and record witness
recollections.

97 !

National Institute of Justice, Eyewitness Evidence:

A Guide for Law Enforcement (1999),

http://ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/178240.htm.
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California
!

Starting in 2002, Santa Clara County started requiring the use of double-blind,

sequential identification procedures whenever possible.98

On April 13, 2006, the statewide

Commission on the Fair Administration of Justice released a report entitled “Report and
Recommendations Regarding Eyewitness Identification Procedures.”99 The report, which based
its findings on the reforms in Santa Clara and other jurisdictions throughout the country, offered
the following recommendations and/or reforms: double-blind and sequential identification
procedures; lineup procedures and photo displays should be videotaped or audiotaped wherever
possible; cautionary instructions should be provided to witnesses; there should be a minimum of
six photos presented in a photo spread as well as a minimum of six people in a lineup; the
institution of training programs for law enforcement officials on recommended procedures for
eyewitness IDs as well as training programs for judges, prosecutors, and defense lawyers on the
risks inherent in cross-racial identifications and unreliable identification procedures; and the
enactment of a task force which would include the California Attorney General to develop
statewide policies and procedures. Recent efforts to implement legislative reforms have been
vetoed by the governor.
Illinois
!

In 2000, then-Governor George Ryan established the Commission on Capital

Punishment to study and review the administration of capital punishment in the State of Illinois.
In its April 2002 report, the Commission recommended a number of reforms, some of which
related to eyewitness identification procedures.100

Among other things, the Commission

recommended, at least in some cases, double-blind, sequential eyewitness identification

98 !

Santa Clara County Police Chiefs’ Association, Santa Clara County Line-up Protocol,

http://www.innocenceproject.org/docs/Santa_Clara_eyewitness.pdf.
99 !

California Commission on the Fair Administration of Justice, Report and Recommendations Regarding

Eyewitness

Identification

Procedures

(April

13,

2006),

http://ccfaj.org/documents/reports/eyewitness/official/eyewitnessidrep.pdf.
100 !

Report of the Governor’s Commission on Capital Punishment (April 15 2002),

http://www.idoc.state.il.us/ccp/ccp/reports/index.html.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

74

procedures should be used. In 2003, when the Death Penalty Reform Bill101 was enacted, some,
but not all, of the reforms regarding eyewitness identification procedures were included.
Specifically, the bill provides that: lineups must be “photographed or otherwise recorded;” all
photographs and photographic spreads must be disclosed to defense counsel; and that
eyewitness viewing a lineup must sign a standardized form which informs them that the suspect
may not be in lineup, they are not obligated to make an identification, and they cannot assume
lineup administrator knows which person is the suspect.

The bill also mandated the

implementation of a pilot study to consider the effectiveness of sequential lineup procedures.
Maryland
!

On May 17, 2007 Governor Martin O’Malley signed a bill into law that required each law

enforcement agency in the State to adopt written policies relating to eyewitness identification
procedures that complied with the United States Department of Justice standards by December
1, 2007.102
Massachusetts
!

While there has not yet been any statewide reforms in Massachusetts, a number of

municipalities in the State have altered the manner in which they conduct eyewitness
identification procedures. The Northhampton Police Department has mandated the following
reforms:

the use of double-blind and sequential identification procedures; cautionary

instructions to witnesses; and the requirement of a minimum of five fillers for photographic
identifications and four fillers for lineup identifications.103 The city of Boston has implemented
similar reforms.104

101

!

102 !

725 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/107A-5 (2003). Relevant provisions of this bill are provided in Appendix B.
MD. CODE ANN., PUB. SAFETY § 3-506 (2007). Relevant provisions of this bill are provided in

Appendix B.
103

!

Northampton Police Department, Administration & Operations Manual O-408, “Eyewitness

Identification Procedures,” http://www.innocenceproject.org/docs/Northampton_MA_ID_Protocols.pdf.
104 !

The Justice Project, Eyewitness Identification:

A Policy Review (2006), http://

www.thejusticeproject.org/wp-content/uploads/polpack_eyewitnessid-fin21.pdf.
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75

Minnesota
!

While Minnesota has not yet implemented any statewide reforms to the way eyewitness

identification procedures are conducted in the State, a pilot program conducted in Hennepin
County that has garnered considerable national attention. In 2003, Hennepin County Attorney
Amy Klobuchar spearheaded an effort to implement a sequential, double-blind pilot program in
four police departments, including Minneapolis.105 The reforms, which were implemented at
minimum cost, led to a reduction in the number of filler identification, and at the same time, they
did not lead to any significant drop in suspect identifications. A subsequent study showed that
sequential, double-blind procedures increased protections against misidentifications, benefited
investigators, and resulted in higher quality eyewitness evidence. Due to these results, the
Hennepin County Attorney has advocated for broad adoption of such reforms.
New Jersey
!

In 2001, Attorney General John Farmer Jr., in his capacity as overseer of the State’s

criminal justice system, instituted widespread reforms in the manner in which the State
conducted eyewitness identification procedures.106 Those reforms made New Jersey the first
state to officially adopt the recommendations of the National Institute of Justice’s 1999 report
Eyewitness Evidence: A Guide for Law Enforcement. Due to the reforms implemented by the
Attorney General, the State now mandates the use of double-blind, sequential lineups.
Furthermore, police officers are required to issue cautionary instructions, ensure that lineups
are constructed effectively and include an adequate number of appropriate fillers, and document
identification procedures, including witnesses’ statements of certainty. These reforms have been
cited with approval, at least partially, by the New Jersey Supreme Court.107

105 !

Amy Klobuchar, Nancy M. Steblay & Hilary Lindell Caligiuri, Improving Eyewitness Identifications:

Hennepin County’s Blind Sequential Lineup Pilot Project, 4 Cardozo Pub. L. Pol’y & Ethics J. 381 (2006).
106 !

New Jersey Department of Law and Public Safety, Office of the Attorney General, Memorandum Re:

Attorney General Guidelines for Preparing and Conducting Photo and Live Lineup Identification Procedures to all
County Prosecutors, Police Chiefs, and Law Enforcement Chief Executives (April 18, 2001), http://www.state.nj.us/
lps/dcj/agguide/photoid.pdf.
107 !

See State v. Delgado, 188 N.J. 48 (2006) (unanimously holding that complete documentation of the

identification procedure is a condition of admissibility for out-of-court identifications).
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North Carolina
!

In November 2002, then-Chief Justice I. Beverly Lake of the North Carolina Supreme

Court created the North Carolina Actual Innocence Commission to study and recommend
potential strategies for lessening incidence of wrongful convictions. In its October 2003 report,
Commission recommended and endorsed the following eyewitness identification procedural
reforms:

the use of cautionary instructions with witnesses; documentation of a witness’

confidence in the identification without any feedback given by the administrator; the effective
use of fillers (a minimum of eight photos in a photo identification procedures and a minimum of
six individuals in live identification procedures); and sequential double-blind procedures.108 In
2007, North Carolina passed legislation that adopted many of the aforementioned reforms.109
Virginia
!

In 2004, the Virginia General Assembly passed a resolution directing the Virginia State

Crime Commission to conduct a study on mistaken eyewitness identifications, lineup
procedures, and the potential costs and benefits surrounding the implementation of the
sequential method in eyewitness identification procedures.

In January 2005, the Crime

Commission released its study and made recommendations.110 In response to the Commission’s
study, legislation was subsequently enacted that requires photographs of arrestees to be
submitted to the Central Criminal Records Exchange, police departments to develop written
policies and procedures for in-person and photo lineups, and for the Department of Criminal
Justice Services and the Virginia Crime Commission to develop model lineup procedures and
training requirements.111

108 !

North Carolina Actual Innocence Commission, Recommendations for Eyewitness Identification (October

2003), http://www.ncids.org/News%20&%20Updates/Eyewitness%20ID.pdf.
109 !

Eyewitness Identification Reform Act. N.C. Gen. Stat. § 15A-284.52 (2007). Relevant provisions of this

bill are provided in Appendix B.
110

!

Virginia State Crime Commission, Mistaken Eyewitness Identification: Report to the Governor and the

General Assembly of Virginia (January 2005), http://leg2.state.va.us.dls/h&sdocs.nsf/By+Year/
HD402005/$file/HD40.pdf.
111 !

Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-390 (2005); Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-390.02 (2005).

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West Virginia
!

On March 10, 2007, the State enacted legislation, the Eyewitness Identification Act,112

which required law enforcement officials to conform with the Department of Justice’s guidelines
on eyewitness identification procedures.

Among other things, the Act requires that law

enforcement officials provide witnesses with cautionary instructions before conducting a lineup
as well as provide detailed documentation of the lineup procedure. The Act also mandated the
creation of a task force to study and identify best practices for eyewitness identifications.
Wisconsin
!

The Wisconsin Department of Justice, working with University of Wisconsin Law

School, developed a comprehensive set of model eyewitness identification guidelines for law
enforcement that was distributed in March 2005.113 The guidelines include recommendations on
matters such as:

the use of cautionary instructions to witnesses before, and the use of

assessments of witness confidence immediately after, identifications procedures as well as the
benefits of double-blind sequential presentation of lineups. While the model policy is only
advisory, the Wisconsin Department of Justice has developed a training program for law
enforcement officials across the state, and to date, over 800 investigators have been trained on
these new procedures. Additionally, training has been incorporated into the curriculum for new
investigators.114
!

In 2004, a Wisconsin state representative created a task force to study the case of

mistaken witness identification in the Steven Avery case and to make recommendations on
reforming eyewitness identification procedures. The following fall, the state enacted legislation
that reformed the manner in which eyewitness identification procedures are conducted. Among
the reforms, law enforcement officials were required to have written procedures “designed to

112 !

W. VA. CODE § 62-1E-2. Relevant provisions of this bill are provided in Appendix B.

113 !

State of Wisconsin, Office of the Attorney General, Model Policy and Procedure for Eyewitness

Identification (2005), http://www.doj.state.wi.us/dles/tns/EyewitnessPublic.pdf.
114 !

The Justice Project, Eyewitness Identification:

A Policy Review (2006), http://

www.thejusticeproject.org/wp-content/uploads/polpack_eyewitnessid-fin21.pdf.
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reduce the potential for erroneous identifications.”115 In creating those policies, not only were
police department instructed to consider model policies adopted by other jurisdictions, but the
legislation also requires biennial review of policies. Furthermore, the law requires that “to the
extent feasible,” blind administrators and the sequential procedures must be used.

115 !

WIS. STAT. § 175.50 (2005). Relevant provisions of this bill are provided in Appendix B.

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APPENDIX B
INTRODUCTION
!

This Appendix contains provisions from various state legislative proposals on eyewitness

identification procedure reforms that have been enacted into law.
STATE LEGISLATION
Illinois
Lineup and Photo Spread Procedure (2003)116
(a) All lineups shall be photographed or otherwise recorded. These photographs shall be
disclosed to the accused and his or her defense counsel during discovery proceedings as
provided in Illinois Supreme Court Rules. All photographs of suspects shown to an eyewitness
during the photo spread shall be disclosed to the accused and his or her defense counsel during
discovery proceedings as provided in Illinois Supreme Court Rules.
(b) Each eyewitness who views a lineup or photo spread shall sign a form containing the
following information:
(1) The suspect might not be in the lineup or photo spread and the eyewitness is not
obligated to make an identification.
(2) The eyewitness should not assume that the person administering the lineup or photo
spread knows which person is the suspect in the case.
(c) Suspects in a lineup or photo spread should not appear to be substantially different from
"fillers" or "distracters" in the lineup or photo spread, based on the eyewitness' previous
description of the perpetrator, or based on other factors that would draw attention to the suspect.

116 !

725 ILL. COMP. STAT. 5/107A-5 (2003).

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North Carolina
Eyewitness Identification Reform Act (Effective March 1, 2008)117
Purpose
The purpose of this Article is to help solve crime, convict the guilty, and exonerate the innocent
in criminal proceedings by improving procedures for eyewitness identification of suspects.
Eyewitness Identification Reform
(b) Eyewitness Identification Procedures. -- Lineups conducted by State, county, and other local
law enforcement officers shall meet all of the following requirements:
(1) A lineup shall be conducted by an independent administrator or by an alternative method
as provided by subsection © of this section.
(2) Individuals or photos shall be presented to witnesses sequentially, with each individual or
photo presented to the witness separately, in a previously determined order, and removed
after it is viewed before the next individual or photo is presented.
(3) Before a lineup, the eyewitness shall be instructed that:
a. The perpetrator might or might not be presented in the lineup,
b. The lineup administrator does not know the suspect's identity,
c. The eyewitness should not feel compelled to make an identification,
d. It is as important to exclude innocent persons as it is to identify the perpetrator, and
e. The investigation will continue whether or not an identification is made.
f. The eyewitness shall acknowledge the receipt of the instructions in writing. If the
eyewitness refuses to sign, the lineup administrator shall note the refusal of the
eyewitness to sign the acknowledgement and shall also sign the acknowledgement.

117 !

N.C. GEN. STAT. §§ 15A-284.51-53 (2007).

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(4) In a photo lineup, the photograph of the suspect shall be contemporary and, to the extent
practicable, shall resemble the suspect's appearance at the time of the offense.
(5) The lineup shall be composed so that the fillers generally resemble the eyewitness's
description of the perpetrator, while ensuring that the suspect does not unduly stand out
from the fillers. In addition:
a. All fillers selected shall resemble, as much as practicable, the eyewitness's description
of the perpetrator in significant features, including any unique or unusual features.
b. At least five fillers shall be included in a photo lineup, in addition to the suspect.
c. At least five fillers shall be included in a live lineup, in addition to the suspect.
d. If the eyewitness has previously viewed a photo lineup or live lineup in connection
with the identification of another person suspected of involvement in the offense, the
fillers in the lineup in which the current suspect participates shall be different from the
fillers used in any prior lineups.
(6) If there are multiple eyewitnesses, the suspect shall be placed in a different position in the
lineup or photo array for each eyewitness.
(7) In a lineup, no writings or information concerning any previous arrest, indictment, or
conviction of the suspect shall be visible or made known to the eyewitness.
(8) In a live lineup, any identifying actions, such as speech, gestures, or other movements,
shall be performed by all lineup participants.
(9) In a live lineup, all lineup participants must be out of view of the eyewitness prior to the
lineup.
(10) Only one suspect shall be included in a lineup.
(11) Nothing shall be said to the eyewitness regarding the suspect's position in the lineup or
regarding anything that might influence the eyewitness's identification.
(12) The lineup administrator shall seek and document a clear statement from the eyewitness,
at the time of the identification and in the eyewitness's own words, as to the eyewitness's
confidence level that the person identified in a given lineup is the perpetrator. The lineup
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administrator shall separate all witnesses in order to discourage witnesses from conferring
with one another before or during the procedure. Each witness shall be given instructions
regarding the identification procedures without other witnesses present.
(13) If the eyewitness identifies a person as the perpetrator, the eyewitness shall not be
provided any information concerning the person before the lineup administrator obtains the
eyewitness's confidence statement about the selection. There shall not be anyone present
during the live lineup or photographic identification procedures who knows the suspect's
identity, except the eyewitness and counsel as required by law.
(14) Unless it is not practical, a video record of live identification procedures shall be made. If
a video record is not practical, the reasons shall be documented, and an audio record shall be
made. If neither a video nor audio record are practical, the reasons shall be documented, and
the lineup administrator shall make a written record of the lineup.
(15) Whether video, audio, or in writing, the record shall include all of the following
information:
a. All identification and non-identification results obtained during the identification
procedure, signed by the eyewitness, including the eyewitness's confidence statement.
If the eyewitness refuses to sign, the lineup administrator shall note the refusal of the
eyewitness to sign the results and shall also sign the notation.
b. The names of all persons present at the lineup.
c. The date, time, and location of the lineup.
d. The words used by the eyewitness in any identification, including words that describe
the eyewitness's certainty of identification.
e. Whether it was a photo lineup or live lineup and how many photos or individuals were
presented in the lineup.
f. The sources of all photographs or persons used.
g. In a photo lineup, the photographs themselves.

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h. In a live lineup, a photo or other visual recording of the lineup that includes all
persons who participated in the lineup.
(c) Alternative Methods for Identification if Independent Administrator Is Not Used. -- In lieu of
using an independent administrator, a photo lineup eyewitness identification procedure may be
conducted using an alternative method specified and approved by the North Carolina Criminal
Justice Education and Training Standards Commission. Any alternative method shall be carefully
structured to achieve neutral administration and to prevent the administrator from knowing
which photograph is being presented to the eyewitness during the identification procedure.
Alternative methods may include any of the following:
(1) Automated computer programs that can automatically administer the photo lineup directly
to an eyewitness and prevent the administrator from seeing which photo the witness is viewing
until after the procedure is completed.
(2) A procedure in which photographs are placed in folders, randomly numbered, and shuffled
and then presented to an eyewitness such that the administrator cannot see or track which
photograph is being presented to the witness until after the procedure is completed.
(3) Any other procedures that achieve neutral administration.
(d) Remedies. -- All of the following shall be available as consequences of compliance or
noncompliance with the requirements of this section:
(1) Failure to comply with any of the requirements of this section shall be considered by the
court in adjudicating motions to suppress eyewitness identification.
(2) Failure to comply with any of the requirements of this section shall be admissible in
support of claims of eyewitness misidentification, as long as such evidence is otherwise
admissible.
(3) When evidence of compliance or noncompliance with the requirements of this section has
been presented at trial, the jury shall be instructed that it may consider credible evidence of
compliance or noncompliance to determine the reliability of eyewitness identifications.

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Training of Law Enforcement Officers
Pursuant to its authority under G.S. 17C-6 and G.S. 17E-4, the North Carolina Criminal Justice
Education and Training Standards Commission and the North Carolina Sheriffs' Education and
Training Standards Commission, in consultation with the Department of Justice, shall create
educational materials and conduct training programs on how to conduct lineups in compliance
with this Article.
Maryland
Written Policies Regarding Eyewitness Identification (May 17, 2007) 118
(a) Adoption. -- On or before December 1, 2007, each law enforcement agency in the State shall
adopt written policies relating to eyewitness identification that comply with the United States
Department of Justice standards on obtaining accurate eyewitness identification.
(b) Filing with Department of State Police. -- On or before January 1, 2008, each law
enforcement agency in the State shall file a copy of the written policy relating to eyewitness
identification with the Department of State Police.
(c) Compiling and public inspection. –
(1) On or before February 1, 2008, the Department of State Police shall compile the written
policy relating to eyewitness identification of each law enforcement agency in the State.
(2) The Department of State Police shall allow public inspection of each policy compiled.
West Virginia
Eyewitness Identification Act (March 10, 2007) 119
Eyewitness Identification Procedures.
(a) Before a lineup, the eyewitness should be given the following three instructions:
(1) That the perpetrator might or might not be present in the lineup;

118 !

MD. CODE ANN., PUB. SAFETY § 3-506 (2007).

119 !

W. VA. CODE §§ 62-1E-2, 3 (2007).

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(2) That the eyewitness is not required to make an identification; and
(3) That it is as important to exclude innocent persons as it is to identify the perpetrator.
(b) Law-enforcement officers should make a written record of a lineup, including the following
information:
(1) The date, time and location of the lineup.
(2) The names of every person in the lineup, if known, and all other persons present at the
lineup.
(3) The words used by the eyewitness in any identification, including words that describe the
eyewitness' certainty or uncertainty in the identification at the time the identification is made.
(4) Whether it was a photo lineup or live lineup.
(5) The number of photos or individuals that were presented in the lineup.
(6) Whether the lineup administrator knew which person in the lineup was the suspect.
(7) Whether, before the lineup, the eyewitness was instructed that the perpetrator might or
might not be presented in the lineup.
(8) Whether the lineup was simultaneous or sequential.
(9) The signature, or initials, of the eyewitness, or notation if the eyewitness declines or is
unable to sign.
(10) A video of the lineup and the eyewitness' response may be included.
(c) There is hereby created a task force to study and identify best practices for eyewitness
identification…
(d) The task force, or their assigned designees, shall serve without compensation, and in
consultation with eyewitness identification practitioners and experts, shall develop
recommended guidelines for policies, procedures and training with respect to the collection and
handling of eyewitness evidence in criminal investigations by law-enforcement agencies that are
consistent with the reliable evidence supporting best practices. The purpose of the guidelines is

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to provide law-enforcement agencies with information regarding eyewitness identification
policies and procedures to increase the accuracy of the crime investigation process.
(e) Such guidelines shall include procedures for the administration of live and photographic
lineups and instructions that will increase the accuracy of eyewitness identifications. The task
force, in developing these guidelines, shall consider:
(1) The use of blind administration of live and photo lineups;
(2) The issuance of specific instructions to the eyewitness before and during the
identification procedure;
(3) The number and selection of fillers to be used in live and photo lineups;
(4) Sequential versus simultaneous presentation of lineup members;
(5) Whether only one suspect should be included in any live or photo lineup;
(6) The timing of when the administrator should request and record the eyewitness's
statement of his confidence in his selection;
(7) Whether to refrain from providing of any confirmatory information to the eyewitness;
(8) The visual recording of the lineup and its administration;
(9) The video or audio recording of the lineup procedure;
(10) Any other policies or procedures the task force determines to be relevant; and
(11) What training, if any, should be made available to law- enforcement personnel in the use
of these procedures….
Training of Law-Enforcement Officers.
The Superintendent of State Police may create educational materials and conduct training
programs to instruct law-enforcement officers and recruits how to conduct lineups in compliance
with this section.

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Wisconsin
Eyewitness Identification Procedures.120
(2) Each law enforcement agency shall adopt written policies for using an eyewitness to identify a
suspect upon viewing the suspect in person or upon viewing a representation of the suspect. The
policies shall be designed to reduce the potential for erroneous identifications by eyewitnesses in
criminal cases.
(3) A law enforcement agency shall biennially review policies adopted under this section.
(4) In developing and revising policies under this section, a law enforcement agency shall
consider model policies and policies adopted by other jurisdictions.
(5) A law enforcement agency shall consider including in policies adopted under this section
practices to enhance the objectivity and reliability of eyewitness identifications and to minimize
the possibility of mistaken identifications, including the following:
(a) To the extent feasible, having a person who does not know the identity of the suspect
administer the eyewitness viewing of individuals or representations.
(b) To the extent feasible, showing individuals or representations sequentially rather than
simultaneously to an eyewitness.
(c) Minimizing factors that influence an eyewitness to identify a suspect or overstate his or
her confidence level in identifying a suspect, including verbal or nonverbal reactions of the
person administering the eyewitness viewing of individuals or representations.
(d) Documenting the procedure by which the eyewitness views the suspect or a
representation of the suspect and documenting the results or outcome of the procedure.

120 !

WIS. STAT. § 175.50 (2005).

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Forensic Evidence
SUBCOMMITTEE REPORT AND FINAL PROPOSALS

Introduction
!

The review of numerous exonerations in New York State confirms that myriad failures

related to the handling of forensic evidence and the conduct of crime scene investigations
contribute significantly to wrongful conviction. While it is forensic evidence, principally DNA,
that achieves the ultimate exoneration of the wrongfully condemned, recognition of the
importance of this evidence and adoption of reforms may prevent wrongful conviction in the first
instance. Eventual exonerations do not prove that the system works; rather they prove the
existence of the problem and the need for reform. In cases where crucial evidence is not
preserved, is preserved but is later lost, or where it is never properly analyzed, a wrongful
conviction may never be uncovered.
!

In considering forensic science reform, it should be acknowledged that New York State

was among the first states to take important strides in this area. In the 1990s New York State
established a Commission on Forensic Science and a DNA Subcommittee pursuant to Article
49-B of the Executive Law. The Commission was empowered to develop minimum standards and
a program of accreditation for all public forensic science laboratories in New York State.
Accreditation of forensic DNA laboratories is granted through the Commission.

The DNA

Subcommittee advises the Commission on Forensic Science on matters related to the
implementation of scientific controls and quality assurance procedures for the performance of
forensic DNA analysis. Forensic laboratories must demonstrate compliance with the standards of
the American Society of Crime Lab Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB),
the American Board of Forensic Toxicology (ABFT), and/or the Quality Assurance Standards
for the DNA Testing Laboratories published by the FBI.

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!

In addition, New York State added a section to the Criminal Procedure Law (Section

440.30 1-a) to provide a mechanism by which a convicted defendant could seek post-conviction
testing of biological evidence where there is a reasonable probability that DNA testing would
have produced a more favorable verdict for the defendant.
!

While the Commission on Forensic Science and the post-conviction DNA testing are

noteworthy advances, experience, including numerous exonerations, suggests the need for
further reform.
!

The case synopses below summarize some of the forensic science failings that played a

role in the exoneration. Based upon these cases, and after reviewing other reports,
recommendations and proposed legislation, the subcommittee proposes a number of reform
measures designed to minimize the role that the deficient use of forensic evidence plays in the
criminal justice system.
Synopses of New York Cases: Forensic Evidence Failures
• James O’Donnell – In 1998, defendant was convicted of sodomy based upon
misidentification; sentenced to 3 ½ to 7 years.
-

Failure to test biological evidence until two years after conviction.

• Anthony Faison and Charles Shepard – In May 1988, convicted of murder; sentenced
to 20 to life and 14 years to life respectively.
-

Failure by both prosecution and defense counsel to understand, appreciate or inform
jury that crime scene forensic evidence was inconsistent with eyewitness account.

-

Failure to run latent fingerprints recovered at the scene with existing databases,
which would have identified actual perpetrator.

• Victor Ortiz – In January 1983, convicted of sexual of rape and sodomy; sentenced to 12
½ - 25 years.
-

Unavailability of DNA testing.

-

Failure to obtain biological samples from another potential source of sperm, despite
inconsistent accounts by victim and other source.

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• Scott Fappiano – In 1983, defendant was convicted of rape and sodomy based, in part,
upon an eyewitness identification.
-

Failure to perform additional blood type testing during initial investigation may have
deprived defendant of key exculpatory evidence.

-

People’s consumption of specimen may have lessened the availability of blood
samples for further post-conviction testing by the defense.

-

Improper cataloguing and retention of DNA and other forensic evidence lengthen
period of wrongful incarceration.

-

More sophisticated DNA testing which would have eliminated defendant as a suspect
was unavailable at the time of trial.

• Hector Gonzalez – In 1996, defendant was convicted of murder in the second degree
based, in part, upon an eyewitness identification and forensic evidence (blood samples).
-

Failure of police, prosecutors and defense counsel to request DNA testing, which
was available in 1996, rather than relying exclusively on serological testing which was
inconclusive.

• Anthony Capozzi - In 1987, defendant was convicted of rape, sexual assault and sodomy
based, in part, upon eye witnesses identification.
-

More sophisticated DNA testing was unavailable at the time of trial which would have
eliminated defendant as a suspect.

-

Post-conviction requests for specimens from the local medical center went ignored
because the requests had not been made pursuant to the established protocols.

-

Improper cataloguing may have led law enforcement to believe that slides from the
rape kit were unavailable, further hampering defendant’s efforts to conduct DNA
testing.

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• Roy Brown – In 1992, defendant was convicted of murder based upon, among other
things, bite marks found on the victims body and testimony by defendant’s wife and exwife of defendant’s propensity to bite when angry.
-

Failure by prosecutors to disclose potentially exculpatory opinion of forensic
odontologist.

-

More sophisticated DNA testing was unavailable at the time of trial.

-

People’s consumption of saliva specimens may have lessened availability of samples
for further post-conviction testing by the defense.

• Marion Coakley – In 1985, defendant was convicted of rape in the first degree based, in
part, upon testimony of forensic blood type testing expert.
-

Failure by defense counsel and prosecution to conduct additional serological testing
which would have confirmed exculpatory opinion of forensic expert.

-

Court’s refusal to grant the defense an adjournment in order to conduct further
testing which would have confirmed exculpatory opinion of forensic expert.

-

Forensic expert’s lack of knowledge about the state of testing serological evidence
which may have caused unwarranted uncertainty regarding his opinion.

• Antron McCray – In 1990, defendant was convicted of rape and robbery in the first
degree in the Central Park Jogger case based upon incriminating statements and
admissions made by defendant, and co-defendants who were allegedly involved in the
crimes and the presence of certain forensic evidence (hair and semen).
-

Failure by police and prosecutors to further investigate the inconsistent and
exculpatory DNA test results which failed to connect the hair and other DNA
evidence and defendant(s) to the crime.

-

Police mishandling of forensic evidence which may have caused the hairs to be
picked up at the precinct house, rather than during the crime.

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• Michael Mercer – In 1992, defendant was found guilty of rape, sodomy and robbery
based, in part, upon the eyewitness testimony of the victim.
-

More sophisticated DNA testing was unavailable at the time of trial.

• Kevin Richardson – In 1990, defendant was convicted of attempted murder, robbery,
rape and sodomy in the Central Park Jogger case based upon incriminating statements
and admissions made by defendant and co-defendants who were allegedly involved the
crimes and the presence of certain forensic evidence (hair and semen).
-

Failure by police and prosecutors to further investigate the inconsistent and
exculpatory DNA test results which failed to connect the hair and other DNA
evidence and defendant(s) to the crime.

-

Police mishandling of forensic evidence which may have caused the hairs to be
picked up at the precinct house, rather than during the crime.

• Yusef Salaam – In 1990, defendant was convicted of robbery and rape in the Central
Park Jogger case based, in part, upon alleged oral unsigned statements made by
defendant and co-defendants who were allegedly involved the crimes and the presence of
certain forensic evidence (hair and semen).
-

Failure by police and prosecutors to further investigate the inconsistent and
exculpatory DNA test results which failed to connect the hair and other DNA
evidence and defendant(s) to the crime.

-

Police mishandling of forensic evidence which may have caused the hairs to be
picked up at the precinct house, rather than during the crime.

• Raymond Santana – In 1990, defendant was convicted of robbery and rape in the
Central Park Jogger case based, in part, upon incriminating statements and admissions
made by defendant, and co-defendants who were allegedly involved the crimes and the
presence of certain forensic evidence (hair and semen).
-

Failure by police and prosecutors to further investigate the inconsistent and
exculpatory DNA test results which failed to connect the hair and other DNA
evidence and defendant(s) to the crime.

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-

Police mishandling of forensic evidence which may have caused the hairs to be
picked up at the precinct house, rather than during the crime.

• Kharey Wise – In 1990, defendant was convicted of assault, sexual abuse and rioting in
connection with the Central Park Jogger case based, in part, upon incriminating
statements and admissions made by defendant and co-defendants who were allegedly
involved in the crimes and the presence of certain forensic evidence (hair and semen).
-

Failure by police and prosecutors to further investigate the inconsistent and
exculpatory DNA test results which failed to connect the hair and other DNA
evidence and defendant(s) to the crime.

-

Police mishandling of forensic evidence which may have caused the hairs to be
picked up at the precinct house, rather than during the crime.

• Terry Chalmers – In 1987, defendant was twice convicted of rape, sodomy, and grand
larceny arising from two separate incidents based upon self-incriminating statements and
inconclusive forensic testing.
-

More sophisticated DNA testing was unavailable at the time of trial which later
conclusively established that defendant had not committed the rapes.

• Douglas Warney – In 1997, defendant was convicted of murder based upon selfincriminating statements made by defendant, a mentally retarded man suffering from
serious physical and mental disabilities at the time of his interrogation and arrest.
-

Failure by police and prosecutors to further investigate and analyze forensic
evidence that was inconsistent with defendant’s alleged confession.

-

More sophisticated DNA testing was unavailable at the time of trial.

-

Prosecutors’ refusal to permit post-conviction DNA testing of physical evidence.

-

Court’s short shrift denial of defendant’s motion for DNA testing.

-

Government’s position that it is under no obligation to disclose post-conviction
exculpatory DNA results.

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Proposals
1. Ensure Proper Preservation, Cataloguing and Retention of All Forensic Evidence
A. Enact legislation to expand the jurisdiction of the Forensic Science Commission
to include responsibility to promulgate mandatory standards for the
preservation, cataloguing and retention of all forensic evidence obtained at
crime scenes or other locations relevant to the commission of a crime;
B. Enact legislation to require that all existing forensic evidence, especially
biological and fingerprint evidence, which currently exists in local or state
warehouses and/or storage facilities, be catalogued using state-of-the-art
technology, such as bar-coding;
C. Enact legislation to require that all forensic evidence obtained in connection
with the commission of a crime be maintained for a minimum of ten years after a
person convicted of such crime has been discharged from any post-incarceration
period of supervision; in cases where no person has been accused of the crime,
all forensic evidence shall be maintained until the expiration of all applicable
statutes of limitations for prosecution of the crime.!

!

Notes
!

As is evident from the examination of New York exonerations, many injustices never

would have been corrected but for the availability of biological evidence many years after the
prosecution. Recent experience has demonstrated that evolving technology makes possible
exclusions and inclusions that were not feasible years ago. Ever smaller samples yield ever more
conclusive results as more sophisticated testing methods emerge.
!

The loss or destruction of forensic evidence renders later testing impossible. According

to The Justice Project, “[t]he loss or destruction of DNA evidence jeopardizes the integrity of the
criminal justice system.” New York’s experience demonstrates that while biological evidence is
the most common basis upon which innocence can be established, it is by no means the only
crime scene evidence that can reverse an injustice. For example, despite new witnesses
implicating another suspect and a recantation by a key witness, the prosecution and the court
rejected Anthony Faison’s and Charles Shepard’s claims of innocence. Ultimately, the
exoneration was achieved only when the match of a latent print implicated the new suspect. Thus,
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the critical importance of preserving both biological and other forensic evidence cannot be
overstated.
!

Unfortunately, New York currently has a haphazard and careless approach to the

preservation of evidence. Numerous cases have been documented in which requests for vital
evidence, which could be subjected to biological or other testing, could not be accommodated
because the evidence could not be found. On October 10, 2006, the New York State Assembly’s
Standing Committee on Codes conducted a hearing on Storage and Accessibility of DNA Crime
Scene Evidence in Criminal Investigations. Among the witnesses were Peter Neufeld, Esq., CoDirector, The Innocence Project and exonerees Alan Newton and Scott Fappiano. (The
transcript of the hearing is appended as an exhibit.) The testimony demonstrates the chronic
need for a thorough inventorying of all available forensic evidence. In the cases of Newton and
Fappiano, the evidence that would have spared them years of needless incarceration was available
– it just could not be located.
!

Peter Neufeld testified in 2006 that, based upon a preliminary sample of cases, efforts to

locate the biological evidence from 23 sexual assaults or homicides under investigation by The
Innocence Project for possible wrongful conviction had been unsuccessful. Indeed, it was not
that there was conclusive documentation that the evidence had been destroyed, but rather, the
evidence simply could not be located. Mr. Neufeld indicated that the Innocence Project rate of
closing cases because of lost or destroyed evidence is 35 percent higher in New York State and
56 percent higher in New York City than in the rest of the country. See also: Peter Neufeld, Legal
and Ethical Implications of Post-Conviction DNA Exonerations, 35 New Eng. L. Rev. 639, 641
(2001).
!

Plainly there is a need for reform in this area. Properly identifying, preserving and

cataloguing forensic evidence will enable New York to make effective use of new testing
technologies to exonerate the innocent and solve unsolved crimes. Presently 21 states (and the
District of Columbia) require evidence preservation throughout the term of incarceration.
(Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana,
Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina,
Oklahoma, Rhode Island, Texas, Virginia, Wisconsin and Washington, D.C., all have such
statutes. A partial list of references is available at footnote 8 of The Justice Project Report,

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footnote 3, supra, and a continuously updated roster is available through The Innocence
Project ).
!

New York’s Forensic Science Commission is an appropriate entity to promulgate

mandatory standards for the preservation, cataloguing and retention of forensic evidence. A
potential model for enabling legislation is the Assembly Bill 8693 that was introduced in the
2007-2008 Regular Session (attached as an exhibit). Additional legislation may be required to
expand the jurisdiction of the Forensic Science Commission to ensure appropriate authority to
issue standards applicable to all forensic evidence.
2. Expand the Jurisdiction of the Forensic Science Commission to Provide Independent
Oversight of Forensic Disciplines
Notes
!

New York was a trailblazer in establishing the Commission on Forensic Science, as

codified under NYS Exec. Law 49-B, Section 995 et al. The Commission plays a major role in
assuring the reliability and validity of forensic analyses that arise from the operations of crime
laboratories and laboratory personnel. Its jurisdiction, however, does not extend to all forensic
science providers. Some medical examiner offices and police departments employ forensic
disciplines without the same oversight as would be in place if these operations were performed
under the aegis of a crime lab. Many disciplines, including in some cases fingerprint and
ballistics analyses, and in all cases forensic odontology, arson, and other forensic sciences, are
not covered by the Commission. Of paramount importance, crime scene investigators are not
currently subject to Commission oversight.

Yet evidence identification, collection and

preservation at a crime scene are vitally important functions that directly affect the capacity to
identify suspects and exonerate the innocent.
!

Procedural and methodological deficiencies in these disciplines contribute to wrongful

conviction. For example, the failure to seek a match for the latent print in the Faison and Shepard
case, and the discredited reliance upon odontology evidence in the Roy Brown case, might have
been averted if the Commission had authority to promulgate standards for the qualification and
training of those performing these vital services in the field. In light of the Commission’s
authority to ensure the integrity of forensic evidence, it should have adequate and explicit
jurisdiction to fully fulfill that mission. !

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3. Establish Authority for Judges to Order Comparison of Crime Scene Evidence to
Available Forensic Databases Upon Request of an Accused or Convicted Person
Notes
!

At present, no explicit authority exists for a court to compel that biological and/or

fingerprint evidence obtained at crime scenes be compared with existing databases. That
discretion is solely vested in the hands of law enforcement. As many of the New York
exonerations confirm, comparing crime scene evidence to appropriate forensic databases can
both exonerate the wrongfully convicted and provide the necessary evidence to prosecute the
real perpetrator. Further, while prosecutors and law enforcement overwhelmingly discharge
their awesome responsibilities with integrity and a firm commitment to justice, the exoneration
case analyses confirm that post-conviction prosecutorial resistance to innocence claims is a
barrier to exoneration.
!

Accordingly, courts must have the ultimate authority to direct that such comparisons

must be made when there is any reasonable possibility that an innocent person is accused or
wrongfully convicted. The proposed legislation introduced in the Assembly in the 2007 - 2008
Regular Session contains a provision that would add a new section 10 to Section 995-c of the
Executive Law conferring this authority upon showing that such a request is reasonable and may
be material to the defense.
4. Permit Wrongfully Convicted Persons To Prove Their Innocence, Regardless of
Whether the Conviction was the Result Of A Trial Verdict or a Guilty Plea
Notes
!

Those who have studied exonerations nationally have concluded that post-conviction

DNA testing must be available to those who may be wrongfully convicted, regardless of whether
their conviction was the result of a trial verdict or a guilty plea, and notwithstanding a confession
or a previous unfavorable test result. As The Justice Project has noted, “[e]xcluding defendants
who confessed or pled guilty does not take into account evidence that many false confessions and
even some plea bargains are obtained from innocent people.” “Nearly a dozen of the more than
200 DNA exonerees in the United States initially pled guilty, and 50 of the first 200 purportedly
confessed to crimes that they did not commit.” As has now been well-established in various
studies on the phenomenon of false confession, many people, particularly mentally and
emotionally vulnerable populations, plead guilty even though they are innocent. Faced with a
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choice between a guilty plea or the prospect of a much higher sentence following a guilty verdict,
and unaware of the possibility that scientific evidence can establish their innocence, they take
what seems like a the lesser of two bad alternatives.
!

Bad decisions should not irrevocably condemn those who are actually innocent. While

New York’s statute does not specifically address the availability of post-conviction DNA testing
for those who have pled guilty, New York appellate courts have construed the statute as
foreclosing DNA testing after a guilty plea. People v. Byrdsong, 33 A. D. 3d 175 (2nd Dept.
2006), lv denied 7 N.Y. 3d 900 (2006); People v. Lebron, 44 A.D.3d 310 (1st Dept 2007), lv
denied 9 N.Y.3d 1007 (2007); People v. Allen, 47 A.D. 3d 543 (1st Dept. 2008).

Such judicial

interpretation should not be permitted. Accordingly, the law should be amended to ensure that
such testing is available irrespective of whether the conviction was the result of a verdict or a
plea.
5. Promulgate Standards and Best Practices To Guide All Law Enforcement Agencies in
The Processing of Crime Scenes and the Collection, Processing, Evaluation and Storage
of Forensic Evidence
Notes
!

The proposed legislation outlined in recommendations I and II, which would vest the

Commission on Forensic Science with full authority over forensic issues, is the best way to
achieve universal compliance with the highest standards and the best state-of-the-art
methodologies. Experience teaches, however, that legislative action in New York can be an
arduous and often futile route to reform. Accordingly, the New York State Bar Association
should undertake a project to promulgate its own set of standards and best practices to maximize
the tremendous potential to use forensic evidence to effectively prosecute the guilty, protect the
wrongfully accused and exonerate the innocent.
!

There is precedent for such a project. In 2005, the State Bar empaneled a Special

Committee to Enhance the Quality of Mandated Representation that promulgated statewide
Standards for the Provision of Mandated Representation. The standards seek to elevate the
quality of representation provided to the indigent accused.

A similar project should be

undertaken with respect to forensic science to develop comprehensive standards and best
practices. The designated group should include the best minds in the respective sciences and
leaders in law enforcement, and should provide appropriate representation for the judiciary and
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the prosecution and defense bars. While not having the force of law, such standards will tend to
elevate practice and guide prosecutors, defense attorneys and judges as they discharge their
responsibilities in the criminal justice system.
6. Provide Forensic Science Training for Prosecutors, Defense Lawyers and Judges
Notes
!

If the criminal justice system is to function effectively, each component must be

equipped to understand, evaluate and, when necessary, challenge forensic evidence. Forensic
evidence, which is often proffered as more reliable than testimonial evidence because it is not
subject to inherent human limitations and potential unreliability resulting from bias, motive or
interest, carries enormous weight with juries.

The exonerations conclusively demonstrate,

however, that when forensic evidence is misunderstood, misapplied or mishandled, it is as just
capable of producing an erroneous result. Judges, prosecutors and defense attorneys cannot
discharge their responsibility unless they are fully conversant with the nuances and emerging
technologies in the forensic evidence fields. Sustained and focused training is essential.
!

The New York State Bar Association should urge the government to provide designated

resources to promote such training.
!

In addition, NYSBA should assist by promulgating a statewide plan for cooperative

training that would bring together the judiciary, the prosecution and defense bars with the
science and technology communities to assess emerging issues and forge collaborative
educational initiatives related to forensic science, technology and the law. The project should
begin with a series of regional statewide training conferences and should eventually evolve into
an ongoing training module that the State Bar and local bar associations can maintain on an
ongoing basis. These cooperative ventures should seek a joint commitment for participation (and
possibly the allocation of training funds) by the judiciary, the district attorneys and public
defender entities and the private bar. The crucial need for fundamental training in the basics of
emerging forensic science methodologies transcends the unique tactical considerations that may
be more appropriately addressed in exclusive settings. Cooperative training in forensic science
offers the potential for huge economies and will elevate the standards of practice, often obviating
the need for wasteful litigation and minimizing the incidence of wrongful conviction.

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7.

Establish a Permanent, Independent Commission To Minimize the Incidence of
Wrongful Convictions
Notes

!

The only reliable way to correct any flawed system is to study cases of failure to

understand what went wrong and then propose remedies and reforms to prevent reoccurrence.
The New York exonerations, as is evident in exonerations nationally, reveal recurring factors that
are present in wrongful convictions. This is particularly so with respect to forensic science
failures. There is no reason why the criminal justice system should not do what industry, the
military and the transportation sector does when there is a major accident or failure: launch a
thorough investigation, including the procurement of all relevant evidence and testimony to
identify precisely how an innocent person came to be convicted of a crime. The conviction of an
innocent person is the justice system’s equivalent of factory catastrophe, a plane crash or the
bombardment of the wrong target. It deserves to be investigated fully, forthrightly and publicly.
!

New York should do as an increasing number of states with far fewer exonerations have

done and establish a permanent, independent Commission to review any criminal or juvenile
case involving a wrongful conviction. The Commission, which should include representation
from the forensic science fields, law enforcement, the judiciary, the defense and prosecution
bars, and victims’ rights advocates, must be empowered to hold hearings, procure evidence and
make findings of fact to determine the cause or causes of any wrongful conviction and
recommend reforms to lessen the likelihood of recurrence. The Commission should have the
authority to subpoena witnesses, examine them under oath or affirmation, and compel the
production of such records and data as may be necessary to carry out its mission. A model for the
creation of such a “Commission for the Integrity of the Criminal Justice System” was contained
in the proposed legislation introduced in the New York State Assembly in the 2007 - 2008
Regular Session (8693-A, Article 23).
!

Until legislation creating such a Commission is enacted, NYSBA should create its own

permanent Task Force on Wrongful Conviction. Such a Task Force, modeled after the current
Task Force, should be expanded to include representatives of the forensic science field, and
should convene to thoroughly investigate any reported case of wrongful conviction in New York
State. While lacking the power of compulsory process, such a Task Force can play an important
salutary role in exposing the defects that perpetuate the tragedy of wrongful conviction.

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False Confessions
SUBCOMMITTEE REPORT AND FINAL PROPOSALS

Introduction
!

In an alarming number of wrongful convictions, the accused makes a false confession or

incriminatory statement. Indeed, in 23% (12 of 53) of the wrongful convictions analyzed by the
Task Force, the accused had falsely confessed. As shocking as this figure may be, it is in fact
consistent with national research indicating that false confessions contribute to almost 25% of
the known cases of wrongful conviction.121 These findings demonstrate that false confessions
occur  and contribute to wrongful convictions  more frequently than previously thought.
!

False confessions pose a particularly significant danger for wrongful conviction because

confessions are such persuasive evidence. As characterized by the NYSBA’s Criminal Justice
Section, “[c]onfessions are powerful evidence.”122 Indeed, a confession is likely the most potent
evidence of guilt, and often sufficient in and of itself to secure a conviction. As noted in one Law
Review article:
Confessions are among the most powerful forms of evidence introduced
in a court of law, even when they are contradicted by other case evidence
and contain significant errors.

This is because police, prosecutors,

judges, jurors and the media all tend to view confessions as selfauthenticating and see them as dispositive evidence of guilt. Juries tend

121 !

Jeremy W. Newton, False Confession: Considerations for Modern Interrogation Techniques at Home and

War, 9 J.L. & Soc. Challenges 63 (2008); C. Ronald Huff, Wrongful Conviction: Causes and Public Policy Issues,
18(1)(ABA) Criminal Justice 15 (Spring 2003); The Innocence Project, Understand the Causes (available at http://
www.innocenceproject.org/understand/). !
122 !

Report and Proposed Resolution of the Criminal Justice Section Concerning Electronic Recording of

Custodial Interrogations (June, 2004).
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to discount the possibility of false confessions as unthinkable, if not
impossible. 123
!

The law has developed a series of evolving rules designed to exclude the admission of

unreliable confessions. For example, under both common law and constitutional law, courts
exclude confessions that have been given involuntarily. The United States Supreme Court
expanded the doctrine of voluntariness into the so-called Miranda rule124 the requirement that
police advise suspects of certain rights before any interrogation. In addition, both common law
and statutory law in New York require that confessions be corroborated. Specifically, Criminal
Procedure Law §  60.50 provides that “[a] person may not be convicted of any offense solely
upon evidence of a confession or admission made by him without additional proof that the
offense charged has been committed.” For years, the courts have relied upon these two rules 
voluntariness and corroboration  to exclude unreliable confessions and reduce the possibility of
wrongful convictions based upon such confessions.
!

The prevalence of false confessions found by every study of the topic casts doubt on the

adequacy of these rules either to prevent false confessions or to exclude their admission into
evidence. Indeed, the false confessions in the cases studied by the Task Force were all deemed to
be “voluntary” under current standards and were all corroborated by other evidence. Existing
protections simply did not suffice to identify confessions that may have been voluntary under
current constitutional analysis, but were factually false.
!

Any effort to address the problem of false concessions must begin by rejecting the

commonly-held but incorrect belief that an innocent person would never confess to a crime he
did not commit. Indeed, experiments demonstrate that innocent people under certain forms of

123 !

Richard A. Leo, et al., Bringing Reliability Back In: False Confessions and Legal Safeguards in the

Twenty-First Century, 2006 Wis. L. Rev. 479 (2006).
124 !

Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).

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stress, including aggressive accusatory questioning, confess to things they did not do.125 To
explain this phenomenon, scholars invoke the “rational choice” theory of false confessions.126
This theory posits that some suspects falsely confess because the process of interrogation
convinces them that confessing is the most rational choice under the circumstances.127 This can
occur under various circumstances:
This can occur, for example, when an innocent suspect believes that the
police have strong evidence against him/her and that confessing is the
only way to avoid the most severe penalty. Or, it can occur if an innocent
suspect, wanting to end a stressful interrogation, believes that she will be
unable to convince the interrogator of her innocence and confesses out
of the belief that she will be able to prove her innocence later in court.128
!

Contrary to what some may suspect, most false confessions do not appear to be the

product of deliberate police misconduct. Rather, honest investigators, using legitimate means in
good faith, may unwittingly encourage false admissions. In fact, researchers have concluded that
time-tested interrogation techniques, widely used by modern law enforcement agencies, increase
the risk of false confessions from innocent suspects.129 These techniques include confrontational
125 !

See generally Sol M. Kassin and Katherine L. Kiechel, The Social Psychology of False Confessions:

Compliance, Internalization, and Confabulation, 7 Psychol. Sci. 125 (1996). In one experiment, students were given
a purported test of their “reaction-time” by typing letters on a computer keyboard as the experimenter read them
out loud. The subjects were admonished not to press the “ALT” key, because doing so would cause the computer to
malfunction. In fact, the computer was programed to shut down part way through the experiment, at which point the
experimenter would accuse the subject of pressing the “ALT” key.

Subjects were then interrogated.

The

techniques included aggressive questioning and the fabrication of alleged “eyewitness” testimony that the subject
had pressed the key. Overall, 69% of all subjects signed a false confession to pressing the forbidden key. Equally
amazingly, 28% of the subjects exhibited “internalization,” i.e. truly believed they had pressed the “ALT” key.
126 !

See, e.g., Richard J. Ofshe and Richard A. Leo, The Decision to Confess Falsely: Rational Choice and

Irrational Action, 74 Denv. U. L. Rev., 979 (1997).
127 !

Wisconsin Criminal Justice Study Commission, Position Paper on False Confessions.

128 !

Id.

129 !

See Paul M. Kassin, On the Psychology False Confessions: Does Innocence Put Innocents at Risk, 60

American Psychologists 215 (2005); Richard P. Conti, The Psychology of False Confessions, The Journal of Credibility Assessment and Witness Psychology, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1999).
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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interrogation, psychological coercion and outright deception, all of which are legally
permissible. While these methods are used because they effectively elicit confessions from guilty
subjects, they unfortunately also elicit false confessions as well.130 The failsafe is supposed to be
the interrogator’s ability to determine whether the subject is telling the truth, a skill experienced
police officers often believe they have. Research demonstrates, however, that such investigators
are no more accurate in detecting deception than the average person.131 At the same time, the
more experienced an investigator, the more likely he or she is to disbelieve any suspect, and the
more confident that investigator will be in his or her opinion.132 The findings of this research are
confirmed by the cases studied by the Task Force, where honest, well-intentioned investigators
unwittingly induced false confessions that they firmly believed were true.
!

The analysis also suggests that false confessions are often extracted from the most

vulnerable suspects.

Juveniles, the mentally disabled and the mentally ill   all particularly

susceptible to aggressive interrogation techniques account for a high percentage of the
documented cases of false confessions.133 This was borne out in the cases studied by the Task
Force, where eight out of the ten false confessions came from suspects who were juveniles and/
or had mental disabilities or mental illnesses. Researchers also believe that members of minority
groups and those from unusual cultural backgrounds are particularly vulnerable to psychological
inducement, and therefore at increased risk to falsely confess.134

130

!

Richard P. Conti, The Psychology of False Confessions, The Journal of Credibility Assessment and Witness

Psychology, Vol. 2, No. 1 (1999).
131 !

Edward J. Sackman, False Confessions: Rethinking a Contemporary Problem, 16-WTR Kan. J.L. & Pub.

Policy 208 (2006-2007).
132 !

Id.

133 !

Steven Drizin and Richard A. Leo, The Problem of False Confessions in the Post-DNA World, 82 No.

Carolina L. Rev. 891 (2004).
134 !

ABA Report; Cynthia K. Lee, Murder and the Reasonable Man: Passion and Fear in the Criminal

Courtroom (New York: New York University Press) (2003).
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Recommendations	
!

Recognizing these realities, the following recommendations are made to address the

problem of false confessions.
!

1.!

Custodial Interrogations of all Felony-Level Crime Suspects Should Be

!

!

Electronically Recorded in Their Entirety.

!

By far the most common reform recommended by those who study the phenomenon of

false confessions is the electronic recording of custodial interrogations in their entirety.135
Proponents of this reform assert that recording the entire interrogation provides the best means
by which a finder of fact can evaluate whether the techniques employed produced a reliable
statement from the accused.
!

Of course, other benefits will flow from a policy of electronic recording. Electronic

recording ensures the integrity of the process by accurately recording the entire interrogation.
Recording should therefore help resolve disputes regarding alleged statements. Recording
should reduce later false denials that incriminating admissions were actually made. As a matter of
judicial economy, recording would likely reduce the time necessary to resolve suppression
issues. With an accurate record of the interrogation, courts should be better equipped to
135 !

Indeed, this very recommendation was adopted by the New York State Bar Association’s House of

Delegates at its meeting in June 2004. The House, the policy-making body of the Association, adopted a resolution
at that time providing:
!

Resolved, that the New York State Bar Association urges all law enforcement agencies to

!

videotape the entirety of custodial interrogations of crime suspects in the most serious !cases at police

!

precincts, courthouses, detention centers, or other buildings where suspects are held for question; and be

!

it

!
!

Further Resolved, that the New York State Bar Association urges the New York State Legislature to enact

!

laws requiring the videotaping of the entirety of custodial interrogations of crime suspects in the most

!

serious cases at police precincts, courthouses, detention centers, or other buildings where suspects are

!

held for questioning, or, where videotaping is impractical, to require the audio taping of the entirety of

!

such custodial interrogations, and to provide appropriate remedies for non-compliance, and to

!

appropriate funds to implement this legislation.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

106

determine whether constitutional and other procedural protections were honored. Recording is
also likely to discourage the police from treating suspects inappropriately and from using
interrogation methods likely to lead to untrustworthy confessions. On the other hand, recording
will provide strong evidence to counter false complaints of physical or psychological abuse.
!

For the above reasons, a growing number of jurisdictions across the country require the

electronic recording of interrogations. At present, 12 states and the District of Columbia require
that interrogations be electronically recorded. Eight of those jurisdictions require recording by
statute:

Illinois, Maine, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Texas, Wisconsin, and the

District of Columbia.136 Five states require recording by judicial decree: Alaska, Massachusetts,
Minnesota, New Hampshire, and New Jersey.137 These jurisdictions impose different sanctions
for noncompliance. Five states impose the penalty of suppression for a willful failure to record
(Alaska, Minnesota, and New Hampshire by judicial decree, Illinois and Texas by statute). Three
states impose the penalty of an adverse jury instruction (Massachusetts by judicial decree,
Nevada and Wisconsin by statute). Two states defer to the trial court to impose a penalty, either
suppression or adverse inference (New Jersey by judicial decree, North Carolina by statute).
Three jurisdictions do not impose any penalty (Maine, New Mexico, and the District of
Columbia).
!

Five states require recording for all crimes (Alaska, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New

Hampshire, and Texas).

Two states require recording for any felony (New Mexico and

Wisconsin). Five jurisdictions require recording only for homicides and other serious felonies
(Illinois, Maine, Nevada, New Jersey, North Carolina, and District of Columbia).

136 !

Illinois - 725 ILCS 5/103-2.1 (adults) and 705 ILCS 405/5-401.5 (juveniles); Maine  25 M.R.S. § 2803-B;

Nevada  Leg. Bill 179, 2008; New Mexico  Chapter 252 of 2005; North Carolina  Art. 8, § 15A-211 N.C. Gen Statute;
Texas  Crim. Proc. Article 38.22; Wisconsin  Wis. Stat. § 968.073 (adults) and Wis. Stat. § 938.195 (juveniles);
District of Columbia   D.C. Code § 5116.01.
137

!

Alaska:   Stephan v. State, 711 P2d 1156 (1985); Massachusetts:   Commonwealth v. DiGiambattista, 813

NE2d 516 (2004); Minnesota:  State v. Scales, 518 NW2d 587 (1994); New Hampshire:  State v. Barnett, 789 A2d 629
(2002); New Jersey:  N.J. Court Rule 3:17.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

107

!

The growing trend in New York State is one of voluntarily implementing recording

programs.138 New York does not currently require electronic recording by statute, but 26 of the
62 counties in the state have voluntarily adopted some form of recording. The New York State
Bar Association currently is monitoring pilot electronic recording programs in four counties
(Broome, Greene, Schenectady and Westchester) through a grant of state-appropriated funding.
!

The trend toward recording interrogations is largely attributable to the willingness of

prosecutors and police to embrace recording as a desirable goal. Indeed, prosecutors and police
favor recording because recordings are powerful evidence of guilt to place before a jury. In fact,
in this day of easy recording, juries will often ask why a confession was not electronically
recorded. Thus, law enforcement appears to support a shift to electronic recording.
!

But even if all agree that confessions should be electronically recorded, there are

ultimate issues about how to encourage and implement recording programs. Many in the law
enforcement community fear that a law mandating immediate recording throughout the state is a
“one-size-fits-all” approach that will be logistically prohibitive and costly. Additionally, some are
concerned that suppression   a remedy traditionally reserved for violations of constitutional or
other important rights  is an inappropriate remedy for the failure to record. And the suppression
of a wholly reliable, properly-obtained confession simply because it was not recorded may not
properly serve the important concern of public safety.
!

Additionally, although electronic recording may be beneficial in identifying false

concessions, it may not be possible to know exactly how effective it will be. Certainly, electronic
recording does little to address voluntary false confessions, perhaps resulting from the suspect’s
mental illness or perverse desire for notoriety (for example, John Mark Karr who falsely
confessed to the killing of Jon Benet Ramsey). As for those false confession cases that are the
result of the use of coercive interrogation tactics, proponents of electronic recording assume that
courts and juries will be able to judge the tactics used, the length of the interrogation, and the
demeanor of the suspect and interrogator therefore evaluating the voluntariness and truthfulness
of the confession. Some commentators have questioned this assumption.139
138 !

New York Prosecutors Training Institute, Recording Interrogations in New York: Past, Present and

Future, July 25, 2008, pp. 1518.
139 !

Kassin, Meissner, Norwick, “I’d Know a False Confession if I Saw One”: A Comparative Study of College

Students and Police Investigators, Law and Human Behavior, Vol. 29, No. 2, April 2005.
• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

108

!

After considering these issues, the Task Force concludes that the electronic recording of

the entirety of all custodial interrogations in felony-level investigations would help prevent and
identify false confessions, and therefore should be required. Indeed, the Task Force believes
that electronic recording of custodial interrogations in all criminal investigations should be
pursued as an aspirational goal. Jurisdictions in New York and across the country that have
implemented recording programs have reported that the experience is positive. At the same
time, the Task Force recognizes that there are significant costs involving equipment, installation,
maintenance, training, copying, storage, record-keeping, transcription and translation.
Encouraging voluntary pilot programs will allow those involved to explore the variables unique to
different regions that impact the cost, feasibility and best practices for the particular jurisdiction.
By identifying potential obstacles up front, all will be in a better position to develop protocols
and practices that effectively meet the special needs of individual counties as well as those that
best guard the rights of those interrogated. We recommend that the New York State Bar
Association urge the Legislature to continue funding pilot programs.
!

2.!

Specific Training About False Confessions Should be Given to Police,

!

!

Prosecutors, Judges and Defense Attorneys.

!

It is clear that specialized training is necessary to educate those who work in the criminal

justice system about the realities of false confessions. The problem simply cannot be addressed
until all participants appreciate that false confessions do occur. With this appreciation, each
participant must then understand what he or she can do to help prevent false confessions, or to
expose them if they do occur.
!

Police should be educated about the dangers of false confessions. They should be

trained to use appropriate interviewing skills to elicit truthful statements from suspects. The
goal of their interrogation techniques should shift from eliciting confessions to eliciting truthful
confessions. Their training should incorporate the most recent social science research on the
topic. The training should inform police about the techniques associated with an increased risk
of eliciting false confessions, such as the use of deception or fabricated claims of incriminating
evidence.140

Special training also should be developed to educate police on the particular

vulnerability of juveniles, the mentally disabled and the mentally ill.
140 !

Sol M. Kassin, On the Psychology of Confessions: Does Innocence Put Innocents at Risk, Am. Psychologist

60 215 (2005).
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!

Of course, the responsibility to address the problem of false confessions does not rest

with the police alone. Therefore, the other participants in the criminal justice system also should
be trained. Once police have elicited a confession from a suspect, the decision whether to charge
the suspect rests with the prosecution. As a preliminary matter, the prosecutors must reach a
determination whether the confession is trustworthy.

Prosecutors need to approach this

decision with an awareness that false confessions do occur, and an understanding of the factors
that are more likely to result in a false confession.
!

Defense attorneys also should be fully informed on the issues involving false confessions.

Without this knowledge, a defense attorney may be reluctant to consider the possibility that a
client’s confession was false and that the client is innocent.

Such an attorney may fail to

challenge the admissibility of the confession aggressively enough or may urge the client to accept
a seemingly favorable plea. Defense attorneys also should be familiar with the latest research on
the psychology of false confessions, and they should learn the most effective means to present
that information to the fact-finder and court.141 Defense attorneys should be trained in the means
to elicit testimony   from the police, the client and possibly expert witnesses   to convey the
process by which a false confession could have occurred.
!

Finally, judges should also be informed about the reality of false confessions and the

factors that can contribute to them to better inform the decisions they must make about the
admissibility of the confession and challenges that may be brought by the defense. Judicial
training should specifically include information relevant to a court’s decision whether to allow
expert testimony on issues relating to false confessions in appropriate cases. In light of the
lessons of wrongful conviction cases, there may be more reason for courts to be open to expert
testimony on false confessions.

And regardless of whether expert testimony is deemed

admissible at trial, the defense may benefit from the assistance of an expert in challenging an
alleged confession as false. Judges need to be educated about the availability of such expert
assistance, so that applications from assigned counsel for court permission to hire such experts
are properly considered.
!

All of the participants in the criminal justice system share the desire to prevent false

confessions from leading to wrongful convictions. Both social science research and anecdotal
evidence of wrongful convictions have demonstrated that false confessions do occur. Those who
141 !

Wisconsin Criminal Justice Study Commission, Position Paper on False Confessions.

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work within the system should be trained in this reality. They must learn the best methods to
prevent false confessions and to identify those that do occur, so that they will not contribute to
wrongful convictions in the future.
!

3.!

Further Study Should be Undertaken on the Impact of the Phenomenon of

!

!

False Confessions on a Defendant’s Willingness to Plead Guilty.

!

Confessions and the circumstances under which they are obtained, are likely to have an

impact on the entry of guilty pleas. The social science research reviewed by the Task Force
suggests that some people, subjected to particular forms of interrogation, will not only falsely
confess, they actually will come to believe that they are guilty.142 Once charged, these people may
feel morally compelled to plead guilty.

Those who know their confession was false may

nevertheless conclude  reasonably  that they have little chance of successfully against charges. In
short, the existence of a confession places extreme pressure on a defendant to plead guilty. In
light of what the Task Force has learned about the reality of false confessions, the Task Force
believes that further study of this pressure is warranted. Therefore, the Task Force recommends
that a qualified panel study this problem and make additional recommendations regarding what
procedures are needed prior to an indictment, while a plea offer is pending, to provide the
defense of any recording of the custodial interrogation and information about the circumstances
under which it was conducted.

142 !

See, e.g., Sol M. Kassin and Katherine L. Kiechel, The Social Psychology of False Confessions:

Compliance, Internalization, and Confabulation, 7 Psychol. Sci. 125 (1996).
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Jailhouse Informants
SUBCOMMITTEE REPORT AND FINAL PROPOSALS

Introduction
!

A large percentage of cases in which wrongful convictions have been documented

involve testimony from informants who are themselves in-custody or facing criminal prosecution
or otherwise receiving incentives such as financial payments for their testimony. According to
Northwestern University Law School Center on Wrongful Convictions, 45.9% of documented
wrongful capital convictions have involved false informant testimony, making jailhouse
informants a leading component of wrongful convictions in capital cases in this country. Most
studies have found that nearly 50% of wrongful murder convictions involve perjury by someone
such as a “jailhouse snitch” or a witness who stood to gain from giving false testimony. Given
this background,

this Subcommittee was asked to recommend procedures to improve the

reliability of informant testimony used in criminal prosecutions.
!

At the outset is important to recognize that there are a wide variety of informants who

may provide information to law enforcement. Every witness to a crime is in effect an informant
whose motives may be pure or suspect. When law enforcement officials speak about informant
testimony they are generally referring either to a participant in a crime who is willing to implicate
others in return for a favorable disposition of the charges relating to his or her participation, or to
an individual who was not a participant in the crime in question but who asserts that he or she has
been told about the crime by one of the participants and who is willing to testify about those
conversations in exchange for some benefit, usually a favorable disposition with respect to
unrelated charges pending against the informant. For the purposes of this report when we speak
of informant testimony we are talking about the latter case, someone, not an accomplice who
seeks to provide information in order to obtain a favorable disposition of pending charges
or some other benefit.

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Our research disclosed certain well-known cases involving informants who receive
substantial benefits for providing false testimony in cases where the defendant was later
exonerated. For example, one individual named Essam Magid, was able not only to avoid
jail for many crimes which the prosecuting attorneys knew he committed, but earned
hundreds of thousands of dollars by serving as an informant, framing dozens of innocent
people before one person he targeted finally refused to plead guilty and revealed the
arrangement.

Another, Leslie White, a prototypical jailhouse snitch, sent dozens of

suspects to prison by fabricating confessions and evidence reducing his own sentences by
years.
!

The Subcommittee recognizes that there is a delicate balance between law enforcement’s

legitimate need for informant testimony, particularly in murder cases where there may be no
eyewitnesses to the crime, and safeguarding the rights of those who stand to be convicted on the
basis of informant testimony.
!

In connection with our task, the Subcommittee reviewed numerous articles written on

the subject, which included the report of the ABA Criminal Justice Section’s “Ad Hoc Innocence
Committee to Ensure the Integrity of the Criminal Process,” the report and recommendations of
the California Commission on the Fair Administration of Justice, certain reported cases and
briefs in cases including informant testimony, including, Florida Bar v. Allen I. Karten (11th
Circuit) and United States v. Singleton, 165 F.3d 1297 (10th Circuit), and “The Snitch System,” a
study of convictions and case histories complied by Northwestern University School of Law
Center on Wrongful Convictions.
!

Subcommittee members spoke with and interviewed several prosecutors relating to the

use of, and their practices regarding the use of informant testimony.
Proposals
!

After review of the materials, the Subcommittee was able to identify six areas where the

use of informant testimony has been addressed and certain safeguards implemented in various
states which the Subcommittee recommends adopting. !
!

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!

1. !

Any Informant’s Testimony Should Be Corroborated

!

As we noted above, one type of individual who provides testimony in a criminal case is an

accomplice who participated in the crime at issue. Section 60.22 of the New York Penal Law
provides:
!

!

A defendant may not be convicted of any offense upon the testimony of an

!

!

accomplice unsupported by corroborative evidence tending to connect the

!

!

defendant with the commission of such offense.

!

The Subcommittee recommends that, at a minimum, the corroboration requirement for

the use of accomplice testimony should be extended to non-accomplice informants.

As with

accomplice testimony the existence of corroboration should be a threshold question for the trial
judge and explained to the jury in the court’s charge. We would go further and recommend that
the extent of corroboration should be considered by the prosecutor in determining the charges
against the defendant. Additionally, given that the overwhelming majority of cases are disposed
of through the plea-bargaining process rather than at trial, we recommend that corroboration be
a threshold requirement that must be found satisfied by the judge and prosecutor in accepting a
plea.

Our recommendation is in accord with the ABA resolution which provides, “No

prosecution should occur based solely upon jailhouse informant testimony.”
!

2. !

!

Our research indicated that a jury instruction appears to be the most common manner in

Jury Instructions

which Courts treat informant testimony. In addition to telling the jury that the informant’s
testimony must be corroborated, at the request of a party, the judge will instruct the jury in any
case in which an informant testifies that the testimony should be viewed with caution and close
scrutiny, and that the jury should consider the extent to which that testimony may have been
influenced by the expectation of any benefit or remuneration or promised favorable treatment in

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connection with a pending criminal prosecution. A great variety of jury instructions appears to
exist in differing states.143
!

The Subcommittee believes that the jury should be instructed to take into account

several factors indicating the extent to which the testimony is credible, including: (i) any explicit
or implied inducements that the informant may have received or will receive; (ii) the prior
criminal history of the informant; (iii) evidence that he or she is a “career informant” who has
testified in other criminal cases; and (iv) any other factors that might tend to render the
witnesses’ testimony unreliable.
!

3. !

!

There has been recognition that often discovery, cross-examination, and even jury

A Pre-Trial Reliability Hearing

instructions do not guaranty a protection of the individual who is facing informant testimony in
connection with a criminal trial.

The Subcommittee recommends that the Court act as a

preliminary “gatekeeper” much in the sense of the civil Daubert v. Merrill line of cases in which
the Court engages in a reliability hearing with respect to testimony of expert witnesses. Where
informant testimony is proffered, the Court would evaluate the reliability of the informant’s
testimony before he or she is permitted to testify at trial. This would permit fuller disclosure of
any promises made to the informant by the government, permit more thorough testing of the
veracity of the informants’ testimony and reduce the opportunities for abuse.
!

Illinois is one state which has enacted a statute that provides a potential blueprint for the

type of reliability inquiry that a trial court should conduct in evaluating informant testimony. The
statute places the burden on the government to prove the reliability by a preponderance of the
evidence and requires the Court to consider factors including (a) the criminal history of the
informant; (b) any deals, promises, or inducements which may have been made; (c) statements
made by the accused; (d) the time and place of the statements and how disclosure to law
enforcement officials was made; (e) whether the informant recanted that testimony or statement
143 !

The ABA Report points out that in Virginia, in the absence of corroboration, it is the duty of the Court to

issue a cautionary instruction; in Mississippi, it is in the Court’s discretion to issue a cautionary instruction but an
abuse of discretion may be found when the state’s evidence rests solely on accomplice testimony and there is a question as to the reasonableness and consistency of that testimony. In Utah, although it is within the discretion of judge
whether to give a cautionary instruction, if the judge finds the testimony “contradictory, uncertain or improbable”
the cautionary instruction becomes mandatory.
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and if so, where and when the recantation took place; (f) other cases in which the informant
testified; and (g) a catch-all factor to include any other relevant information relating to the
informant’s credibility.
!

These considerations permit the Court to examine all manner of the informant’s

testimony relating to its reliability, whether pre-plea or pre-trial, and to exclude testimony found
to be unreliable.
!

4.

Plea Bargains

!

Since the overwhelming majority of cases are disposed of by plea rather than by trial, the

Subcommittee also focused on the risk that wrongful convictions based upon false informant
testimony might occur through plea bargaining and thus be both less likely to be identified and
remedied and more difficult to prevent. There is an inherent tension between the ability of a
defendant to receive a reduced sentence by taking a plea early on in the development of a case,
and the need to prevent wrongful convictions based upon false informant testimony that would
not normally be revealed until later in pre-trial discovery or during trial.
!

The plea bargain process will often provide a strong inducement for a defendant to plead

guilty. Even an innocent individual may decide to plead guilty when faced with a plea offer that
substantially diminishes or even eliminates the prison term he or she would serve if convicted. A
defense lawyer, who is told by a prosecutor that there is a witness who will testify that the
defendant admitted committing the crime, may be skeptical of the client’s protestations of
innocence and strongly recommend that the client plead to a substantially reduced charge.
!

Given these concerns, it seems desirable that a defendant, who is offered a plea bargain,

be given all the relevant information about any informant in the case before being required to
accept the plea. We recognize, however, that there may be legitimate reasons why a prosecutor
would be willing to offer a defendant a favorable plea disposition in order to avoid the disclosure
of the informant’s role in the case that our other recommendations would require, i.e. the
informant is currently participating in an undercover investigation which would have to be
terminated if the identity of the informant were disclosed. Where the prosecutor presents the
judge with such circumstance, and the judge finds the need to protect the identity of the
informant compelling, we recommend that the judge conduct an in camera review of the
information relating to the informant’s credibility, as detailed elsewhere in these

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recommendations, and provide defendant with all such information as may be provided without
disclosing the informant’s identity. In order to balance these interests we recommend that when
taking a plea in any case in which the prosecution would be required to provide the defendant
with information about an informant, the judge should be required to find that the defendant is
aware that if he were to proceed to trial he would have the right to obtain information about any
informant whom the prosecution would call at the trial, and to cross-examine any such informant
and that the defendant is knowingly waiving that right in order to obtain the agreed upon
disposition.
!

5. !

Videotaping, If Possible, of the Informant’s Statements Relating to the

!

!

Accused.

!

We are mindful that recommendations relating to the videotaping of confessions have

been recommended by the Committee of the New York State Bar Association.

The

Subcommittee believes that videotaping, if possible, should also be made of any informant’s
statement given to any law enforcement agent or prosecutor. This would be an additional
safeguard added to the reliability of the testimony and would be useful to the judge in the
“gatekeeper” hearing in advance of determining the admissibility of the informant testimony in
both the pre-trial or pre-plea disclosure which we are recommending.
!

6.!

!

The Subcommittee also recommends as a “best practice” that the prosecution itself

Prosecutor’s Best Practices

check on the reliability of the informant’s testimony and that a “checklist” of factors that
prosecutors should review be provided to them. These would include assessing:
(i)

the extent to which the statement is corroborated;

(ii)

the specificity of the alleged statement;

(iii)

the extent to which the statement contains details of evidence known only to the
perpetrator;

(iv)

the extent to which the statement contains details which could reasonably be
assessed by the in-custody informer, other than through inculpatory statements
by the accused;

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(v)

the informer’s general character;

(vi)

any request the informer has made for benefits or special treatment;

(vii)

whether the informer has, in the past, given reliable information to the
authorities;

(viii)

whether the informer has previously provided information which was shown to
be unreliable;

(ix)

whether the informer has previously testified in any court proceeding;

(x)

whether the informer made some written or other record of the words spoken by
the accused;

(xi)

circumstances under which the informers report of the alleged statement was
taken;

(xii)

the manner in which the report of the statement was taken by the police (written,
interview, investigation of circumstances, etc.);

(xiii)

any other known evidence that may attest to or diminish the credibility of the
informer; and

(xiv)
!

any relevant information contained in any available registry of informers.

These recommendations relating to prosecution screening appeared in the report of the

ABA Criminal Justice Section’s Ad Hoc Innocence Committee to Insure the Integrity of the
Criminal Process, and the Subcommittee believes that its recommendation should be adopted as
part of the use of informant testimony and best practices to be adopted by government agencies
and prosecutors.

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Defense Practices
SUBCOMMITTEE REPORT AND FINAL PROPOSALS
The Nature of the Problem!
The subcommittee reviewed 16 cases in which one of the factors identified by the reporter as
leading to the wrongful conviction was the inadequate representation afforded the defendant by
his attorney. Counsel’s failures in these cases fall into two principal categories: inadequate
pretrial investigation and preparation, and incompetence in the conduct of the trial.
Sixteen Case Studies
The cases in which there was inadequate pretrial investigation and preparation consisted of the
following shortcomings:
(1) a failure to examine or have analyzed the physical evidence (People v. Newton, People v.
Burt);
(2) a failure to investigate defendant’s alibi or other exculpatory evidence (People v. Rojas,
People v. Garcia, People v. Stewart, People v. Coakley, People v. Ramos, People v.
Carter, People v. Tyson, People v. Warney, People v. Martinez, People v. Deskovic,
People v. Faison & Shepard);
(3) a failure to maintain meaningful contact with the client (Rojas, Burt, Warney);
The cases in which there was ineffective representation at trial consisted of
(1) a lack of attentiveness to the facts of the case (People v. Newton, People v. Rojas, People
v. Warney, People v. Martinez); and
(2) a failure to utilize available evidence that would have cast doubt on the defendant’s guilt
(People v. Rojas, People v. Garcia, People v. Burt, People v. Stewart, People v. Ramos).

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In all but two of the cases examined, counsel was either retained or assigned pursuant
Article 18-b of the County Law (Deskovic and Warney).
The Kaye Commission
The structural defects in the delivery of indigent defense services in the State of New York have
been most recently documented in the Final Report to the Chief Judge of New York by the
Commission on the Future of Indigent Defense Services (“the Kaye Commission”), submitted to
Chief Judge Kaye in June 2006. The representational deficiencies in the cases studied herein
transcend structural defects. They predominate, not where large public defender agencies are
involved, but with sole or very small firm practitioners. There is an existing issue in New York as
to whether there is, in fact, any type of quality control as to the qualifications and performance of
non-public defender assigned counsel. There is ample basis for concluding that current assigned
counsel plans do not have such controls in place: this may be due both to a lack of due diligence
by assigned counsel administrators in the initial appointment of private attorneys or in the lack of
assessment in performance of assigned counsel with regard to retention on an 18-b panel.
Even if the current assigned counsel plans throughout the state appointed qualified counsel or
purged incompetent counsel, there exists no mechanism for ensuring that retained counsel will
provide quality representation, and there also appears to be a lack of support and resources
within these plans, both in terms of legal oversight and consultation as well as investigative and
case preparation services.
A Failure of Individual Attorneys
Insofar as the deficiencies in the cases examined emanated from the representation afforded by
both assigned and retained counsel, they are primarily found in the failure of individual attorneys
to comprehend and implement the essential requirements for quality representation in the
defense of a criminal defendant. Consequently, the following recommendations are grounded in
the necessity to ensure that all attorneys who undertake the defense of a person charged with
crime adhere to a well-defined and undisputed protocol for such representation.

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Recommendations
A. Standards
There already exists an abundance of standards that are applicable to defense counsel’s
obligations when undertaking the defense of a criminal case. One can begin with the basic
requirements of the Code of Professional Responsibility, and proceed to the American Bar
Association’s Standards for the Defense Function,

the New York State Bar Association’s

Standards for Assigned Counsel, and the National Legal Aid and Defender Association’s
Performance Guidelines for Criminal Defense Representation.
In light of this heavily traveled ground, there is no reason to create an entirely new set of
standards.

Thus, we endorse the following recommendations made by the American Bar

Association’s Criminal Justice Section’s Ad Hoc Innocence Committee to Ensure the Integrity
of the Criminal Process:
• That governing bodies ensure that defense counsel have adequate resources and training
to fulfill their obligation to conduct thorough and independent investigation into their
clients’ guilt or innocence in every case, including heightened scrutiny into cases that
rely on eye-witness identification, witnesses who receive any benefit in return for their
testimony, and confession by youthful or mentally limited defendants;
• Require defense counsel to investigate circumstances indicating innocence regardless of
the client’s admissions or statements of facts constituting guilt or the client’s stated
desire to plead guilty or dispose of the case without trial;
• Require that defense counsel cooperate fully with successor counsel, including the
preservation and transfer of all pertinent records and information;
• Require defense counsel in all cases, whether or not serious criminal cases, to meet the
requirements enumerated in the ABA Standards for Criminal Justice Providing Defense
Services.
Report of the ABA Criminal Justice Section’s Ad Hoc Innocence Committee to Ensure the
Integrity of the Criminal Process: ACHIEVING JUSTICE: FREEING THE INNOCENT,
CONVICTING THE GUILTY 79, 80 (2006).

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We also endorse Guideline 4.1 of The National Legal Aid and Defender Association’s
Performance Guidelines for Criminal Defense Representation which specifies that:
(a) Counsel has a duty to conduct an independent investigation regardless of the accused’s
admissions or statements to the lawyer of facts constituting guilt. The Investigation should be
conducted as promptly as possible.
(b) Sources of investigative information may include the following:
(1) Charging documents
Copies of all charging documents in the case should be obtained and examined to determine
the specific charges that have been brought against the accused. The relevant statutes and
precedents should be examined to identify:
(A) the elements of the offenses(s) with which the accused is charged;
(B) the defenses, ordinary and affirmative, that may be available;
(C) any defects in the charging documents, constitutional or otherwise, such as statute of
limitations or double jeopardy.
(2) the accused
If not previously conducted, an in-depth interview of the client should be conducted as soon
as possible and appropriate after appointment or retention of counsel. The interview with
the client should be used to:
(A) seek information concerning the incident or events giving rise to the charge(s) or
improper police investigative practices or prosecutorial conduct which affects the
client’s rights;
(B) explore the existence of other potential sources of information relating to the
offense;
!

***

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(3) potential witnesses
Counsel should consider whether to interview the potential witnesses, including any
complaining witnesses and others adverse to the accused. If the attorney conducts such
interviews of potential witnesses, he or she should attempt to do so in the presence of a third
person who will be available, if necessary, to testify as a defense witness at trial.
Alternatively, counsel should have an investigator conduct such interviews.
(4) the police and prosecution
Counsel should make efforts to secure information in the possession of the prosecution or
law enforcement authorities, including police reports. Where necessary, counsel should
pursue such efforts through formal and informal discovery unless a sound tactical reason
exists for not doing so.
(5) physical evidence
Where appropriate, counsel should make a prompt request to the police or investigative
agency for any physical evidence or expert reports relevant to the offense or sentencing.
(6) the scene
Where appropriate, counsel should attempt to view the scene of the alleged offense. This
should be done under circumstances as similar as possible to those existing at the time of the
alleged incident (e.g. weather, time of day, and lighting conditions).
(7) expert assistance
Counsel should secure the assistance of experts where it is necessary or appropriate to:
(A) the preparation of the defense;
(B) adequate understanding of the prosecution’s case;
(C) rebut the prosecution’s case.
National Legal Aid and Defender Association, Performance Guidelines for Criminal Defense
Representation, 54, 55 (1994).

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B. Action Proposals
To ensure that the above standards become an active part of our effort to interdict representation
that puts innocent men and women at risk in a criminal prosecution, we make the following
additional recommendations:
1. The Task Force should generally endorse the specific recommendations made by the
American Bar Association’s Criminal Justice Section’s Ad Hoc Innocence Committee to
Ensure the Integrity of the Criminal Process and Guideline 4.1 of The National Legal Aid
and Defender Association’s Performance Guidelines for Criminal Defense
Representation.
2. Those standards should be widely publicized by the New York State Bar Association and
distributed extensively to the criminal defense bar through the heads of all defender
agencies, the administrators of all assigned counsel plans, and by malpractice insurance
providers to those attorneys whom they insure.
3. The administrators of assigned counsel plans must scrutinize more carefully the
qualifications of attorneys seeking appointment under the plan to represent indigent
defendants.
4. The administrators of assigned counsel plans should be provided with adequate
resources to be allocated for staff to enable those plans to increase their ability to
monitor the performance of attorneys assigned under the plan, and, if possible, to
develop within the plan a structure which offers supervision and legal consultation to
plan attorneys.
5. Bar associations should solicit experienced members of the criminal defense bar to make
themselves available on a designated telephone hotline or in a specific office to fellow
attorneys who seek advice and counsel with regard to their representation of a criminal
defendant and bar associations should give formal recognition in some fashion to
attorneys who provide such mentoring.

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6. The rules governing CLE credits should be amended to provide that attorneys who
undertake the defense of criminal cases must certify that in each calendar year that they
have taken a specified number of CLE hours devoted to subjects pertaining to the
representation of criminal defendants.
7. Organizations which currently operate a resource center for public defenders and
assigned counsel should be given additional resources that would enable them to
increase their ability to provide guidance and counsel to any attorney, assigned or
retained, who seeks assistance.

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Compensation for the
Wrongfully Convicted
SUBCOMMITTEE REPORT AND FINAL PROPOSALS

Introduction
!

Twenty-five states, Washington, DC and the federal government have enacted

provisions to compensate the wrongfully convicted and imprisoned. New York currently allows
claims for unjust conviction and imprisonment to be brought against the state in the Court of
Claims under the Court of Claims Act § 8-b. Any individual who has been convicted and
subsequently imprisoned for one or more felonies or misdemeanors which he or she did not
commit may present a claim for damages against the state.
!

Public policy must strive to strike a balance between properly compensating those

individuals who suffer the horror of being imprisoned even though they are factually innocent
with the ability of law enforcement to discharge its responsibilities without fear of facing fiscal
sanction for every misstep. Unlike in civil law where there is redress for negligent acts, the
process for compensating innocent individuals who have been wrongfully convicted should not
be turned into the equivalent of providing monetary compensation for any error of law
enforcement, but should provide compensation for egregious acts. With this in mind, the
Subcommittee on Compensation for the Wrongfully Convicted: (A) makes the following
comments regarding the Court of Claims Act § 8-b; and (B) makes additional recommendations.
!

Following the recommendations, the Subcommittee provides an overview of how other

states, Washington, DC, and the federal government have approached the issue of compensation
for the wrongfully convicted and imprisoned.

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A. Commentary on the Court of Claims Act § 8-b:
Eligibility (Court of Claims Act § 8-b subdivision 2)
!

The Court of Claims Act § 8-b subdivision 2 provides that “any person convicted and

subsequently imprisoned for one or more felonies or misdemeanors against the state which he
did not commit may…present a claim for damages against the state.”
!

Recommendation: This broad definition of eligibility should remain unchanged to offer

the opportunity for legal redress to all individuals who have been imprisoned and subsequently
found innocent.!
Disqualifications (Court of Claims Act § 8-b subdivision 5)
!

The Court of Claims Act § 8-b subdivision 5 requires the claimant to prove by clear and

convincing evidence that:
!

“…(c) he did not commit any of the acts charged in the accusatory instrument or his acts

!

or omissions charged in the accusatory instrument did not constitute a felony or

!

misdemeanor against the state; and

!

(d) he did not by his own conduct cause or bring about his conviction.”

!

Under provision (c) the claimant must prove that he or she has been exonerated on every

charge initially brought in the accusatory instrument, regardless of whether or not a charged
offense was dismissed prior to submission to the fact-finder.
!

Recommendation: This provision should be amended to require that the claimant only

prove that he or she has been exonerated on every charge submitted to the fact-finder.
!

In addition, under provision (d) any individual who has by his or her own conduct caused

or brought about their conviction is disqualified from seeking redress. This section precludes
any individual who pled guilty, failed to present evidence due to the negligence of his or her
attorney or made a confession that was coerced from seeking compensation. The New York
State Bar Association Task Force on Wrongful Conviction found negligent defense practices in
34% of cases reviewed and false confessions in 23% of the cases reviewed.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

127

!

Recommendation: Contributing to the conviction in cases of attorney negligence or

coerced confession should not be a factor in determining appropriate compensation. This
provision should be amended. Entering a plea of guilty should not automatically deter an
innocent individual from seeking compensation, if the claimant is able to prove the plea was
entered due to negligence on the part of his or her attorney or was entered under duress. A
finding of duress, however, shall not attach if the plea was entered in an effort to mitigate the risk
of a longer sentence being imposed should the defendant choose to go to trial.
Compensation (Court of Claims Act § 8-b subdivision 6) !
!

The Court of Claims Act § 8-b subdivision 6 does not set a minimum or maximum amount

of compensation to be provided. It states that the court “shall award damages in such sum of
money as the court determines will fairly and reasonably compensate him.” Of cases that have
been decided or settled, the compensation provided to wrongfully convicted individuals is
disparate. In a decided case a claimant was awarded the total sum of $500,000 for nonpecuniary losses, plus $30,658.43 for past lost wages. Claimants in cases that have been settled
have received up to $3.5 million.
!

Recommendation: A fixed minimum guaranteed amount per year of incarceration

should be set with the option to seek more, upon satisfying the requirements outlined in the
Court of Claims Act § 8-b. If the claimant opts to seek additional compensation he or she forfeits
the guaranteed amount.
!

Recommendation: Many state statutes include a provision prohibiting the state from

offsetting the total compensation awarded by any expenses incurred related to securing or
maintaining the claimant’s custody or to feed, clothe or provide medical services for the claimant,
it is our recommendation that such a provision be included in the New York State statute.
Filing Term (Court of Claims Act § 8-b subdivision 7)!
!

The Court of Claims Act § 8-b subdivision 7 requires claims to be filed within two years

after the pardon or dismissal of an accusatory instrument. The majority of states who stipulate a
filing term for claims against the state to seek damages for wrongful conviction and
imprisonment require the claim to be filed within two years of the individual’s exoneration.
!

Recommendation: This provision should remain unchanged.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

128

B. Additional Recommendations:
!

The Subcommittee on Compensation for the Wrongfully Convicted recommends the

following additions to the Court of Claims Act § 8-b:
Supplemental Awards
!

Innocent persons are often released from prison with no assistance. Ironically, this

directly contrasts with convicted felons who receive a broad panoply of support services
!

Recommendation: Based on need, the immediate provision of subsistence funds and

access to services to assist in reentry should be provided to all individuals who have been released
from prison after receiving a pardon on the grounds of innocence. Such services should include
assistance in acquiring affordable housing, job training, education, health care, and child custody
assistance. Innocent persons should at a minimum receive the same post-release services as a
felon.
Disqualifications
!

Recommendation: The claimant should not be eligible for compensation for any term

of incarceration that was attributable to a separate and lawful conviction resulting in a concurrent
term of imprisonment.
Beneficiary Provisions
!

Recommendation:

State law should specify that upon the death of a wrongfully

imprisoned individual, any compensation awarded will be paid to his or her estate.
Records Expungement
!

Recommendation:

The state should automatically order the expungement of all

criminal records related to the wrongful arrest, conviction and sentence at the expense of the
state upon exoneration. Such records shall only be available to a claimant and the State in an
unjust conviction and imprisonment claim upon application to the court.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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Legislative Provisions for the Compensation of the Wrongfully Convicted and Incarcerated
!

Twenty-five states, Washington, DC and the Federal Government have enacted

provisions to compensate the wrongfully convicted and imprisoned.
!

Statutes include the following components:
• Eligibility requirements
-

Any person who has been wrongfully convicted of a felony and imprisoned

-

Any person convicted and imprisoned found to be innocent through DNA
analysis

-

Persons imprisoned who receive a pardon from the governor on the ground of
innocence of the crime

• Amount of monetary compensation per year or day of wrongful incarceration
(minimum amount, maximum amount, period of payment)
-

$50 per day (IA, MO)

-

$50,000 per year (FL)

-

Not to exceed $300,000 per year (ME)

-

Maximum of $2 million including costs of supplemental awards (FL)

-

Sum of money the court determines will fairly and reasonably compensate him
(NY, WV)

-

90 percent of the state per capita personal income per year (VA)

-

Twice the amount of the claimant’s income in the year prior to his incarceration
(NJ)

-

Increased compensation if sentenced to death (US, TX)

-

Only educational aid (MT)

-

Provided up to 20 years (VA)

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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• How compensation is distributed
-

Lump sum or installments

-

Initial sum then installments

-

TN: “equal monthly installments calculated by dividing the non-commuted
amount by the estimated number of months the claimant will live based on the
claimant’s life expectancy”

• Available term after release to file for compensation
-

Within 6 months (CA)

-

Within 5 years (NC)

-

Majority of states requiring filing within 2 years of exoneration

• Jurisdiction for determining innocence and appropriate compensation
-

Claims Court (IL, NY, US)

-

State Board of Control (CA)

-

Board of Public Works (MD)

-

District Court (IA, LA, UT)

-

Superior Court (ME, MA, NJ)

-

Sentencing Court (MO)

-

Department of Legal Affairs (FL)

-

Comptroller (TX)

-

Industrial Commission (NC)

-

Court of Common Pleas (OH)

-

Board of Claims (TN, WI)

-

Committee on Compensation for Wrongful Incarceration (AL)

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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• Burden of proof that must be met to receive compensation
-

Preponderance of Evidence

-

Clear and Convincing Evidence

• Disqualifications
-

Person contributed to the bringing about of his arrest or conviction for the crime
with which he was charged

-

Non-DNA exonerations

-

Subsequent felony conviction

-

Entered a guilty plea

-

Serving a concurrent sentence for an unrelated offense

• Supplemental awards
-

Tuition and fees

-

Medical or counseling services

-

Job or skill training

-

Compensation for child support payments

-

Attorney’s fees

• Tax
-

Provision to exclude compensation from state income tax

• Records expungement provisions
-

Automatic order to expunge criminal records at expense of the state

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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• Allocation of state funds for compensation dollars
-

Legislature appropriations (AL, CA, TX)

-

Innocence Compensation Fund (LA)

-

General Emergency Fund (MD, NC)

-

Crime Victim Reparations Fund (UT)

• Eligibility for further civil redress
-

Provision to prohibit the wrongfully imprisoned individual from seeking further
civil redress from the state or its employees and agencies

• Prohibition of offsetting reward for expenses incurred by the state
-

Provision to prohibit the state from offsetting the total compensation by any
expenses incurred related to securing or maintaining the claimant’s custody or
to feed, clothe or provide medical services for the claimant

• Beneficiary provisions
-

Upon death of the wrongfully imprisoned individual compensation will cease or
will be paid to surviving spouse and/or minor children

• Other issues to consider
-

-

Further supplemental awards
‣

Family reunification assistance

‣

Housing assistance

‣

Benefits assistance – proof of identity, public assistance

Many reentry service providers are bound by contracts that restrict clientele to
those who have been convicted, excluding exonerees from services

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

133

-

Proffer a guaranteed minimum amount of compensation with the option to sue
for more. If the claimant opts to sue for additional compensation he or she
forfeits the guaranteed compensation.

-

The wrongfully convicted individual shall receive the same post-release services
as a released felon is provided

• Compensation Provided in NY
-

Victor Ortiz
‣

Awarded the total sum of $500,000 for non-pecuniary losses, plus
$30,658.43 for past lost wages

-

Most cases have been denied due to the inability to meet the burden of proof
(clear and convincing evidence) or the “contribution” clause

-

Settlements
‣

Shih-Wei Su: $3.5 million – served 12 years of 16 to 50 year sentence for
ordering a gang member to shoot a rival gang member, case was overturned
in by US Court of Appeals (Bronx)

‣

Vincent Jenkins: $2 million – served 17 years for rape, exonerated by DNA
(Buffalo)

‣

Anthony Faison and Charles Shepherd: $1.65 million each – served 14 years
for shooting death of a cab driver, hired investigator found the actual
perpetrator who later confessed and pleaded guilty (Kings)

• Lawyer Interviews (the following comments were provided by attorneys who have
represented claimants in Unjust Conviction and Imprisonment Act claims.
Representatives from the Attorney General’s Office have been contacted and the
Subcommittee is awaiting their comments)
-

Should previous convictions be considered in compensation
‣

Liability vs. damages issue – potential to bifurcate decisions

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

134

-

Remove jurisdiction from Court of Claims because judges are appointed and
have an interest in protecting the state. Compensation cases should be decided
by a jury.

-

-

Reform NYPD policies regarding destruction of evidence
‣

21 cases where NYPD has lost evidence

‣

Set guidelines to control how long evidence is maintained

The burden of proof is too high and unfair in some cases. Claimants should not
have to prove they did nothing at all to contribute to their conviction if there was
police or prosecutorial misconduct involved.

-

Create a sliding scale of burden of proof in which the more there is misconduct
by police or prosecution a lesser burden of proof be required by the claimant.

-

Certain rules of evidence should be eliminated in Unjust Conviction and
Incarceration claims. Hearsay and police reports should come in as the events
generally took place so long ago that it is difficult to find witnesses or if memory
of events is not always good.

-

The common theme is that the procedural requirements of the statute are quite
difficult to navigate and cause many litigants to be denied relief. 

The

requirement that the claimant establish factual innocence is quite a high hurdle. 
It is difficult to establish unless the underlying case had such a concession at the
time of dismissal (such as where the prosecution confirmed that the client was
innocent).
-

The lawyers also felt that the Court of Claims sometimes interpreted the
exclusion that the claimant did not contribute to or bring about his own
conviction in a very restrictive manner.  This may be utilized to dismiss cases
involving false confessions.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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National Survey Comparison of the Minimum and Maximum Compensation Offered to the
Wrongfully Convicted and Imprisoned
State
Alabama

Compensation per term of
incarceration

Maximum Compensation

Minimum of $50,000 per

No maximum; the Committee

year

may recommend
supplemental compensation
to the Legislature in bill form
Maximum of $100 per day

California
Connecticut

Discretion of the Claims
Commissioner

Florida

$50,000 per year

$2 million total including
supplemental awards
For imprisonment of 5 years

Illinois

or less: not more than
$15,000; for imprisonment
5-14 years: not more than
$30,000; for imprisonment
of over 14 years: not more
than $35,000 - with a cost-of
living adjusted increase for
every year since 1945
Iowa

$50 per day

Louisiana

$15,000 per year

$300,000

Maine
Maryland

$150,000

A reasonable amount for any
financial or other appropriate
counseling for the individual

Massachusetts

$500,000

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

136

State
Missouri

Compensation per term of
incarceration
$50 per day for post-

Maximum Compensation
$36,500 per year

conviction incarceration
Montana

No monetary compensation;
Education aid only

New Hampshire

$20,000

New Jersey

Shall not exceed twice the
amount of the claimant’s
income in the year prior to
his incarceration or $20,000
for each year of incarceration,
whichever is greater

New York

Sum of money as the court
determines will fairly and reasonably compensate him

North Carolina

$20,000 per year

Ohio

$40,300 per year, or the

$500,000

adjusted amount determined
by the auditor of state
Oklahoma

$175,000

Tennessee

$1,000,000

Texas

$50,000 per year;

$500,000 excluding child

If sentenced to death

support payments and

$100,00 per year

interest on child support
arrearages

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

137

State
Utah

Compensation per term of
incarceration

Maximum Compensation

The monetary equivalent of

Compensation provided for a

the average annual

maximum of 15 years of

nonagricultural payroll in

incarceration

Utah at time of release per
year
Vermont

Virginia

Minimum of $30,000 per

Maximum of $60,000 per

year

year

Amount equal to 90 percent

Compensation provided for

of the Virginia per capita

up to 20 years of

personal income as reported

incarceration

by the Bureau of Economic
Analysis of the United States
Department of Commerce
for each year of incarceration
West Virginia

Sum of money as the court
determines will fairly and
reasonably compensate him
Not to exceed $25,000 and

Wisconsin

at a rate of compensation not
greater than $5,000 per year
of imprisonment
Washington, DC

No provision

No provision

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

138

State

Compensation per term of
incarceration

Maximum Compensation
The amount of damages
awarded shall not exceed
$100,000 for each 12-month
period of incarceration for
any plaintiff who was unjustly
sentenced to death and
$50,000 for each 12-month
period of incarceration for
any other plaintiff.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

139

National Survey of Wrongful Conviction and Imprisonment Provisions
Alabama (2001 Alabama Laws Act 2001-659)
Eligibility

• Have been convicted by the State of one
or more felony offenses, all of which the
person was innocent, and have served
time in prison as a result of the
conviction(s).
• Have been incarcerated pretrial on a state
felony charge, for at least two years
through no fault of his or her own, before
having charges dismissed based on
innocence.

Where Filed

Division of Risk Management of the
Department of Finance

Who Decides

Committee on Compensation for Wrongful
Incarceration

Compensation per term of incarceration

Minimum of $50,000 per year

Maximum Compensation

No maximum; the Committee may recommend supplemental compensation to the
Legislature in bill form.

Payment Form

Committee discretion: either lump sum or in
installments

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 2 years

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

140

Disqualifications

• A person serving a term of imprisonment
for a crime other than a crime for which
the person was wrongfully incarcerated.
• If the sentence for the crime of which the
person was mistakenly convicted was
served concurrently with sentence for the
conviction of another crime.
• If convicted of any of the acts charged
with in conjunction with the charge which
resulted in the wrongful conviction or his
or her acts or omissions constituted a
felony or misdemeanor against the state.
• Individual shall not have been the subject
of an act of the Legislature that
authorized an award of compensation for
his or her wrongful conviction.
• A person awarded compensation and
subsequently convicted of a felony crime
will not be eligible to receive any unpaid
amounts from any compensation
authorized.

Burden of Proof

Preponderance of evidence

Tax

No provision

Records of Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

Any available state funds or legislature
appropriate distributed by the Comptroller

Definitions of Innocence

• The conviction vacated or reversed and
the accusatory instrument dismissed on
grounds of innocence; or
• The accusatory instrument dismissed on a
ground consistent with innocence.

Upon Death

The person’s estate is eligible to receive any
remaining compensation

Civil Redress against state

No provision

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

141

Deduction of award for state expenses

Prohibited

California (Penal Code Section 4900 - 4906)
Eligibility

Any person who, having been convicted of
any crime against the State amounting to a
felony, and having been imprisoned therefore
in a State prison granted a pardon by the
Governor for the reason that the crime with
which he was charged was either not
committed at all or, if committed, was not
committed by him, or who being innocent of
the crime with which he was charged for
either of the forgoing reasons, shall have
served the term or any part thereof for which
was imprisoned.

Where Filed

State Board of Control

Who Decides

Legislature

Compensation per term of incarceration

No provision

Maximum Compensation

Maximum of $100 per day

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 6 months

Disqualifications

By any act or omission on his part, either
intentionally or negligently, contribute to the
bringing about of his arrest or conviction for
the crime with which he was charged.

Burden of Proof

Preponderance of evidence

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

Not treated as gross income

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

Legislature determines appropriations to be
distributed by the Comptroller

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

142

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

Connecticut (Public Act No. 08-143)
Eligibility

• Such person has been convicted by this
state of one or more crimes, of which the
person was innocent, has been sentenced
to a term of imprisonment for such crime
or crimes and has served all or part of
such sentence; and
• Such person’s conviction was vacated or
reversed and the complaint or
information dismissed on grounds of
innocence or the complaint or
information dismissed on a ground
consistent with innocence.

Where Filed

Claims Commissioner

Who Decides

Claims Commissioner

Compensation per term of incarceration

Discretion of the Claims Commissioner

Maximum Compensation

No provision

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 2 years

Disqualifications

No provision

Burden of Proof

Preponderance of evidence

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

143

Supplemental Awards

Payment for the expenses of employment
training and counseling, tuition and fees at
any constituent unit of the state system of
higher education and any other services such
person’s reintegration into the community.

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

Permitted

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

Florida (Laws of Florida Chapter 2008-39)
Eligibility

A person whose felony conviction and
sentence have been vacated by a court of
competent jurisdiction and the original
sentencing court has issued its order finding
that the person neither committed the act nor
the offense that served as the basis for the
conviction and incarceration and that the
person did not aid, abet, or act as an accomplice or accessory to a person who committed
the act or offense.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

144

Where Filed

• Petition for determination of status of
wrongfully incarcerated person and
eligibility for compensation: Original
sentencing court.
• Application for compensation:
Department of Legal Affairs

Who Decides

Department of Legal Affairs

Compensation per term of incarceration

$50,000 per year

Maximum Compensation

$2 million total including supplemental
awards

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

• Petition for determination of status of
wrongfully incarcerated person and
eligibility for compensation: Within 90
days of order vacating conviction and
sentence.
• Application for compensation: Within 2
years of original sentencing court order
finding that the person meets the
definition of wrongfully incarcerated and
eligible for compensation.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

145

Disqualifications

• Before the person’s wrongful conviction
and incarceration, the person was
convicted of, or pled guilty or nolo
contendere to, regardless of adjudication,
any felony offense, or a crime committed
in another jurisdiction the elements of
which would constitute a felony in this
state, or a crime committed against the
US which is designated a felony,
excluding any delinquency disposition;
• During the person’s wrongful
incarceration, the person was convicted
of, or pled guilty or nolo contendere to,
regardless of adjudication, any felony
offense; or
• During the person’s wrongful
incarceration, the person was also serving
a concurrent sentence for another felony
for which the person was not wrongfully
convicted.
• A wrongfully incarcerated person who
commits a felony law violation that results
in revocation of the parole or community
supervision is ineligible for any
compensation.
• If the person has a lawsuit pending
against the state or any agency,
instrumentality, or any political
subdivision thereof, in state of federal
court requesting compensation arising
out of the the facts in connection with the
claimant’s conviction and incarceration.
• If the person is the subject of a claim bill
pending for claims subject out of the facts
in connection with the claimant’s
conviction and incarceration.

Burden of Proof

Preponderance of evidence

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

146

Supplemental Awards

• Waiver of tuition and fees for up to 120
hours of instruction at any career center,
community college, or state university.
• Amount of any fine, penalty or court costs
imposed and paid by wrongfully
incarcerated person.
• The amount of any reasonable attorney’s
fees and expenses incurred and paid in
connection with all criminal proceedings
and appeals.
• Waiver of fees associated with the
expunction of the person’s criminal
record.

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

Immediate administrative expunction of the
person’s criminal record resulting from his or
her wrongful arrest; Administratively expunge the claimant’s criminal record arising
from his or her wrongful arrest, wrongful
conviction and wrongful incarceration.

Fund Allocations

General Revenue Fund or another source
designated by the Legislature in the form of
an annuity is purchased by the Chief
Financial Officer

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

Beneficiary provisions to be drawn before
annuity is purchased

Civil Redress against state

Prohibited

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

147

Illinois (705 ILCS 505/8)
Eligibility

Persons imprisoned who receive a pardon
from the governor on the ground of
the crime.

Where Filed

Court of Claims

Who Decides

Court of Claims

Compensation per term of incarceration

• For imprisonment of 5 years or less: not
more than $15,000
• For imprisonment of 5 - 14 years: not
more than $30,000
• For imprisonment of over 14 years: not
more than $35,000
• With a cost-of living adjusted increase for
every year since 1945

Maximum Compensation

• For imprisonment of 5 years or less: not
more than $15,000
• For imprisonment of 5 - 14 years: not
more than $30,000
• For imprisonment of over 14 years: not
more than $35,000
• With a cost-of living adjusted increase for
every year since 1945

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

Disqualifications

No provision

Burden of Proof

No provision

Supplemental Awards

Attorney’s fees not to exceed 25% of the
award granted

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

148

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

Iowa (ICA Section 663A.1)
Eligibility

• The individual charged by indictment or
information with the commission of a
public offense classified as an aggravated
misdemeanor or felony.
• The individual did not plead guilty to the
public offense charged, or to any lesser
included offense, but was convicted by
the court or by a jury of an offense
classified as an aggravated misdemeanor
or felony.
• The individual was sentenced to
incarceration for a term of imprisonment
not to exceed two years if the offense was
an aggravated misdemeanor or to an
indeterminate term of years under
Ch 902 if the offense was a felony, as a
result of the conviction.
• The individual’s conviction was vacated
or dismissed, or was reversed, and no
further proceedings can be or will be held
against the individual on any facts and
circumstances alleged in the proceedings
which had resulted in the conviction.
• The individual was imprisoned solely on
the basis of the conviction that was
vacated, dismissed, or reversed and on
which no further proceedings can be or
will be had.

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

149

Where Filed

District Court - civil

Who Decides

District Court

Compensation per term of incarceration

$50 per day

Maximum Compensation

No provision

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 2 years

Disqualifications

Plead guilty

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

• The amount of restitution for any fine,
surcharge, other penalty, or court costs
imposed and paid and any reasonable
attorney’s fees and expenses incurred in
connection with all criminal proceedings
and appeals regarding the wrongfully
imposed judgment and sentence and such
fees and expenses incurred in connection
with any civil actions and proceedings for
post-conviction relief.
•

The value of any lost wages, salary, or
other earned income which directly
resulted from the individual’s conviction
and imprisonment, up to $25,000 per
year.

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

Prohibited

incurred

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

150

Louisiana (LSA-RS 15:572.8)
Eligibility

If he has served in whole or in part a sentence
of imprisonment under the laws of this state
for a crime for which he was convicted and: (1)
the conviction of the applicant has been
reversed or vacated; and (2) the applicant has
proved by clear and convincing scientific or
non-scientific evidence that he is factually
innocent of the crime for which he was
convicted.

Where Filed

Nineteenth Judicial District Court

Who Decides

Nineteenth Judicial District Court

Compensation per term of incarceration

$15,000 per year

Maximum Compensation

Maximum total $150,000

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 2 years

Disqualifications

Any term served under a concurrent sentence.

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

• Costs of job-skills training for one year
• Appropriate medically necessary medical
and counseling services for three years
• Tuition and fees at any community
college or unit of the public university
system of the state of Louisiana

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

Innocence Compensation Fund

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

151

Definition of Innocence

Factual innocence - The application did not
commit the crime for which he was convicted
and incarcerated nor did he commit any crime
based upon the same set of facts used in his
original conviction.

Upon Death

If an annuity is purchased to provide
compensation, the contract will provide for
survivors benefits.

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

Prohibited

incurred

Maine (14 MRSA Section 8241)
Eligibility

• The person was convicted of a criminal
offense;
• As a result of that conviction, the person
was sentenced to a period of
incarceration and was actually
incarcerated;
• Subsequent to the conviction and as a
condition precedent to suit, the person
received a full and free pardon, which is
accompanied by a written finding by the
Governor who grants the pardon that the
person is innocent of the crime for which
that person was convicted; and
• The court finds that the person is
innocent of the crime for which the
person was convicted.

Where Filed

Superior Court

Who Decides

Superior Court

Compensation per term of incarceration

No provision

Maximum Compensation

$300,000

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

152

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

Disqualifications

No provision

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

Court costs, interest and “all other costs that
a court may assess”

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

General Fund

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

Maryland (MD Code State Finance and Procurement Section 10-501)
Eligibility

If the individual has received from the
Governor a full pardon stating that the
individual’s conviction has been shown
conclusively to be in error.

Where Filed

Board of Public Works

Who Decides

Board of Public Works

Compensation per term of incarceration

Reasonable amount for any financial or other
appropriate counseling for the individual.

Maximum Compensation

No provision

Payment Form

Lump sum or installments

Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

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Disqualifications

No provision

Burden of Proof

No provision

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

General Emergency Fund or money that the
Governor provides in the annual budget

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

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Massachusetts (MGLA 258D Section 1)
Eligibility

• Those that have been granted a full
pardon, if the governor expressly states in
writing his belief in the individual’s
innocence; or
• Those who have been granted judicial
relief by a state court of competent
jurisdiction on grounds which tend to
establish the innocence of the individual,
and if (a) the judicial relief vacates or
reverses the judgment of a felony
conviction, and the felony indictment or
complaint used to charge the individual
or complaint used to charge the
individual with such felony has been
dismissed, or if a new trial was ordered,
the individual was not retried and the
felony indictment or complaint was
dismissed or a nolle proseqi was entered,
or if a new trial was ordered the individual
was found not guilty at the new trial; and
(b) at the time of the filing of an action
under this chapter no criminal
proceeding is pending or can be brought
against the individual by a district
attorney or the attorney general for any
act associated with such felony
conviction.

Where Filed

Superior Court

Who Decides

Superior Court

Compensation per term of incarceration

No provision

Maximum Compensation

$500,000

Payment Form

Lump sum or installments

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 2 years

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Disqualifications

• Plead guilty to the offense charged, or to
lesser included offense, unless such guilty
plea was withdrawn, vacated or nullified
by operation of law on a basis other than a
claimed deficiency in the plea warnings.
• Was sentenced to less than 1 year in state
prison.
• Any term served under a concurrent
sentence.

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

• Physical or emotional evidence
• 50 percent reduction of tuition and fees
for education services from any state or
community college

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

Upon the entry of a judgment in favor of a
claimant and following a separate hearing on
the matter, the court shall enter an order
either directing the expungement or sealing
of those records of the claimant maintained by
the criminal history systems board, the
probation department, and the sex offender
registry that directly pertain to the claimant’s
erroneous felony conviction case, including
documents and other materials and any
samples obtained from the claimant.

Fund Allocations

Funds appropriated by the general court

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

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Deduction of award for state expenses

Prohibited

incurred
Missouri (Missouri Statues Title XL Section 650.058)
Eligibility

Any individual who was found guilty of a
felony in a Missouri court and was later
determined to be actually innocent of such
crime solely as result of DNA Profiling
analysis.

Where Filed

Sentencing Court

Who Decides

Sentencing Court

Compensation per term of incarceration

$50 per day for post-conviction incarceration

Maximum Compensation

$36,500 per year

Payment Form

Determined by the Department of
Corrections

Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

Disqualifications

If the individual was serving any term of a
sentence for any other crime concurrently
with the sentence for which he or she is
determined to be actually innocent, unless
such individual was serving another
concurrent sentence because his or her
parole was revoked by a court or the board of
probation and parole in connection with the
crime for which the person has been
exonerated.

Burden of Proof

No provision

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

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Records Expungement

An individual who is determined to be actually innocent of a crime shall automatically be
granted an order of expungement from the
court in which he or she pled guilty or was
sentenced to expunge from all official records
all recordations of his or her arrest, plea, trial,
or convictions.

Fund Allocations

Department of Corrections appropriations

Definition of Innocence

Actually innocent - (1) The individual was
convicted of a felony for which a final order of
release was entered by the court; (2) All appeals of the order of release have been exhausted; (3) The individual was not serving
any term of a sentence for any other crime
concurrently with the sentence for which he
or she is determined to be actually innocent,
unless such individual was serving another
concurrent sentence because his or her parole was revoked by a court or the board of
probation and parole in connection with the
crime for which the person has been exonerated; and (4) Testing ordered demonstrates a
person’s innocence of the crime for which the
person is in custody.

Upon Death

The state’s obligation to pay restitution shall
cease upon the individual’s death.

Civil Redress against state

Prohibited

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

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Montana (MCA 53-1-214)
Eligibility

A person who was convicted in the state of a
felony offense, who was incarcerated in a state
prison for any period of time, and whose
judgment was overturned by a court based on
the results of postconviction forensic DNA
testing that exonerates the person of the
crime for which the person was convicted.

Where Filed

Department of Corrections

Who Decides

Department of Corrections

Compensation per term of incarceration

Only Education aid

Maximum Compensation

No provision

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 10 years of release

Disqualifications

Non-DNA exoneration

Burden of Proof

DNA testing

Supplemental Awards

Educational aid including tuition, fees,
books, board, and room at any: (a) Montana
community college; (b) unit of the Montana
university system; or (c) accredited Montana
tribally controlled community college

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

Legislature appropriations

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

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Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred
New Hampshire (NH Rev Stat Section 541-B:14)
Eligibility

A person found to be innocent of the crime
for which he was convicted an unjustly served
time in the state prison.

Where Filed

Board of Claims

Who Decides

Board of Claims

Compensation per term of incarceration

Up to $20,000 for the entirety of the
individual’s wrongful imprisonment

Maximum Compensation

$20,000

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

Disqualifications

No provision

Burden of Proof

No provision

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

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New Jersey (NJ ST 52:4c-1)
Eligibility

Innocent persons who can demonstrate by
clear and convincing evidence that they were
mistakenly convicted and imprisoned.

Where Filed

Superior Court against the Department of the
Treasury

Who Decides

Superior Court

Compensation per term of incarceration

Not to exceed the amount of the claimant’s
income in the year prior to his incarceration
of $20,000 per year of incarceration, whichever is greater.

Maximum Compensation

Twice the amount of the claimant’s income in
the year prior to his incarceration or
$20,000 per year of incarceration, whichever
is greater.

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 2 years

Disqualifications

• By his own conduct cause or bring about
his conviction; is serving a term of
imprisonment for a crime other than a
crime of which the person was mistakenly
convicted.
• If the sentence for the crime of which the
person was mistakenly convicted was
served concurrently with the sentence for
the conviction of another crime.

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

Reasonable attorney fees

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

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Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

New York (Laws of New York Court of Claims Act Section 8-b)
Eligibility

Any person convicted and subsequently
imprisoned for one or more felonies or
misdemeanors against the state which he did
not commit.

Where Filed

Court of Claims

Who Decides

Court of Claims

Compensation per term of incarceration

Sum of money as the court determines will
fairly and reasonably compensate him.

Maximum Compensation

No provision

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 2 years

Disqualifications

By his own conduct cause or bring about his
conviction.

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

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Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred
North Carolina (NC GS Article 8 Section 148-82-84)
Eligibility

Any person who, having been convicted of a
felony and having been imprisoned therefore
in a State prison of this State, and who has
thereafter or who shall hereafter be granted a
pardon of innocence by the Governor upon
the grounds that the crime with which the
person was charged either was not committed
at all or was not committed by that person.

Where Filed

Industrial Commission

Who Decides

Industrial Commission

Compensation per term of incarceration

$20,000 per year

Maximum Compensation

$500,000

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 5 years

Disqualifications

No provision

Burden of Proof

Preponderance of evidence

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

Contingency and Emergency Fund or out of
any other available State funds distributed by
the Director of the Budget

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

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Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

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Ohio (Ohio RC Section 2743.49)
Eligibility

• The individual was charged with a
violation of a section of the Revised Code
by an indictment or information and the
violation charged was an aggravated
felony or felony.
• The individual was found guilty of, but
did not plead guilty to, the particular
charge or a lesser-included offense by the
court or jury involved, and the offense of
which the individual was found guilty was
an aggravated felony or felony.
• The individual was sentenced to an
indefinite or definite term of
imprisonment in a state correctional
institution for the offense of which the
individual was found guilty.
• The individual’s conviction was vacated
or was dismissed, or reversed on appeal,
the prosecuting attorney in the case
cannot or will not seek any further appeal
of right or upon leave or court, and no
criminal proceeding is pending, can be
brought, or will be brought by any
prosecuting attorney, city director of law,
village solicitor, or other chief legal
officer of a municipal corporation against
the individual for any act associated with
that conviction.
• Subsequent to sentencing and during or
subsequent to imprisonment, an error in
procedure resulted in the individual’s
release or it was determined by a court of
common pleas that the offense of which
the individual was found guilty, including
all lesser-included offenses, either was
not committed by the individual or was
not committed by any person.

Where Filed

Court of Claims

Who Decides

Court of Claims

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Compensation per term of incarceration

$40,300 per year, or the adjusted amount
determined by the auditor of state

Maximum Compensation

No provision

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 2 years

Disqualifications

Plead guilty to the particular charge or a
lesser-included offense

Burden of Proof

The claimant shall be irrebuttably presumed
to be a wrongfully imprisoned individual.

Supplemental Awards

• Any fine or court costs imposed and paid,
and the reasonable attorney’s fees and
other expenses incurred by the
wrongfully imprisoned individual in
connection with all associated criminal
proceedings and appeals, and if
applicable, in connection with obtaining
the wrongfully imprisoned individual’s
discharge from confinement in the state
correction institution.
• Any loss of wages, salary, or other earned
income that directly resulted from the
wrongfully imprisoned individual’s arrest,
prosecution, conviction, and wrongful
imprisonment.
• Any user fee or copayment for services at
a detention facility.
• The cost of housing and feeding in a
detention facility.
• The cost of supervision.
• The cost of any ancillary services
provided to the wrongfully imprisoned
individual.

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

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Fund Allocations

Contingency and Emergency Fund or out of
any other available State funds distributed by
the Director of the Budget

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

Permitted

Deduction of award for state expenses

Prohibited

incurred

Oklahoma (51 Okla. St. Ann. Section 154)
Eligibility

Claimant has received a full pardon on the
basis of a written finding by the Governor of
actual innocence for the crime for which the
claimant was sentenced or has been granted
judicial relief absolving of guilt on the basis of
actual innocence of the crime for which the
claimant was sentenced.

Where Filed

No provision

Who Decides

No provision

Compensation per term of incarceration

No provision

Maximum Compensation

$175,000

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

Disqualifications

• Plead guilty to the offense charged or to
any lesser-included offense.
• Any term of a sentence in prison during
which the claimant was also serving a
concurrent sentence.

Burden of Proof

No provision

• New York State Bar Association • Task Force on Wrongful Convictions

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Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

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Definition of Innocence

Actual innocence - (a) The individual was
charged, by indictment or information, with
the commission of a public offense classified
as a felony: (b) the individual did not plead
guilty to the offense charged, or to any lesser
included offense, but was convicted of the
offense; (c) The individual was sentenced to
incarceration for a term of imprisonment as a
result of the conviction; (d) The individual
was imprisoned solely on the basis of the
conviction for the offense; and (e) (1) In the
case of a pardon, a determination was made
by either the Pardon and Parole Board or the
Governor that the offense for which the
individual was convicted, sentenced and
imprisoned, including any lesser offenses,
was not committed by the individual, or (2) In
the case of judicial relief, a court of
competent jurisdiction found by clear and
convincing evidence that the offense for
which the individual was convicted, sentenced
and imprisoned, including any lesser
included offenses, was not committed by the
individual and issued an order vacating,
dismissing or reversing the conviction and
sentence and providing that no further
proceedings can be or will be held against the
individual on any facts and circumstances
alleged in the proceedings which had resulted
in the conviction.

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

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169

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

Tennessee (TCA Section 9-8-108)
Eligibility

Persons wrongfully imprisoned and granted
exoneration.

Where Filed

Board of Claims

Who Decides

Board of Claims

Compensation per term of incarceration

No provision

Maximum Compensation

$1,000,000

Payment Form

Equal monthly installments calculated by
dividing the non-commuted amount by the
estimated number of months the claimant will
live based on the claimant’s life expectancy;
or lump sum

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 1 year

Disqualifications

No provision

Burden of Proof

No provision

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

Any monthly installments left remaining shall
be paid to the claimant’s surviving spouse and
surviving minor children until spouse dies or
remarries and or children reach majority
status or die.

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Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

Texas (Civil Practice and Remedies Code Title 5 Section 103)
Eligibility

• The person has served in whole or in part
a sentence in prison under the laws of this
state; and
• The person: (A) has received a full pardon
on the basis of innocence for the crime
for which the person was sentenced; or
(B) has been granted relief on the basis of
actual innocence of the crime for which
the person was sentenced.

Where Filed

Comptroller’s judiciary section

Who Decides

Comptroller

Compensation per term of incarceration

$50,000 per year. If sentenced to death
$100,000 per year

Maximum Compensation

$500,000 excluding child support payments
and interest on child support arrearages

Payment Form

Two equal annual installments

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 3 years

Disqualifications

• Any part of a sentence in prison during
which the person was also serving a
concurrent sentence.
• If convicted of a subsequent felony.

Burden of Proof

Preponderance of evidence

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Supplemental Awards

• Compensation for child support
payments owed by the person that
became due and interest on child support
arrearages that accrued during the time
served in prison but were not paid.
• Counseling for one year.
• Expenses incurred in connection with all
associated criminal proceedings and
appeals including fine or court costs paid
and reasonable attorney’s fee.
• Wages, salary or other earned income
that was lost.
• Medical and counseling expenses
incurred by the petitioner as a direct
result of the arrest, prosecution,
conviction, or wrongful imprisonment.

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

Appropriation by the legislature distributed
by the comptroller

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

Compensation is terminated

Civil Redress against state

Prohibited

Deduction of award for state expenses

Prohibited

incurred

Utah (Section 78-35a)
Eligibility

A person who has been found factually
innocent and has served a period of
incarceration.

Where Filed

District Court

Who Decides

District Court

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Compensation per term of incarceration

The monetary equivalent of the average
annual nonagricultural payroll wage in Utah
at time of release per year of imprisonment.

Maximum Compensation

Provided for a maximum of 15 years

Payment Form

Initial payment of 20% then quarterly installments paid within 10 years

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 1 year

Disqualifications

• Term of incarceration that was
attributable to a separate and lawful
conviction.
• If the person was already serving a prison
sentence in another jurisdiction at the
time of the conviction of the crime for
which that person has been found
factually innocent.

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

Not subject to any Utah state taxes

Records Expungement

If found factually innocent the court shall
issue an order of expungement of the
petitioner’s criminal record for all acts in the
charging document upon which the payment
is based.

Fund Allocations

The Office of Crime Victim Reparation shall
pay from the Crime Victim Reparations Fund
an initial sum equal to either 20% of the total
financial assistance payment or an amount
equal to two years of incarceration; the
Legislature shall appropriate from the
General Fund a separate line item on the
Commission on Criminal and Juvenile Justice
the remainder.

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Definition of Innocence

Factually innocent - A person did not (a)
engage in the conduct for which the person
was convicted; (b) engage in conduct relating
to any lesser included offenses; or (c) commit
any other felony arising out of or reasonably
connected to the facts supporting the
indictment or information upon which the
person was convicted.

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

Prohibited

incurred

Vermont (13 VSA Section 5574)
Eligibility

• The complainant was convicted of a
crime, was sentenced to a term of
imprisonment, and served all or any part
of the sentence.
• As a result of DNA evidence: (A) The
complainant’s conviction was reversed or
vacated, the complainant’s information or
indictment was dismissed, or the
complainant was acquitted after a second
or subsequent trial; or (B) The
complainant was pardoned for the crime
for which he or she was sentenced.
• DNA evidence establishes that the
complainant did not commit the crime for
which he or she was sentenced.
• The complainant did not fabricate
evidence or commit or suborn perjury
during any proceedings related to the
crime with which he or she was charged.

Where Filed

Civil Court

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Who Decides

Civil Court

Compensation per term of incarceration

Minimum of $30,000 per year

Maximum Compensation

Maximum of $60,000 per year

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 3 years

Disqualifications

• If fabricated evidence or committed or
suborned perjury during any proceedings
related to the crime.
• Any term served under another sentence.

Burden of Proof

Preponderance of evidence

Supplemental Awards

• Economic damages, including lost wages
and costs incurred by the claimant for his
or her criminal defense and for efforts to
prove his or her innocence.
• Up to ten years of eligibility for the
Vermont Health Access Plan using stateonly funds.
• Compensation for any reasonable
reintegrative services and mental and
physical health care costs incurred by the
claimant for the time period between his
or her release from mistaken
incarceration and the date of the award.
• Reasonable attorney’s fees and costs for
the action seeking compensation.

Tax

Not subject to any state taxes, except for the
portion of the judgment awarded as attorney’s
fees

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

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Civil Redress against state

Prohibited

Deduction of award for state expenses

Prohibited

incurred

Virginia (Tort Claims Act Section 8.01-195.10)
Eligibility

Incarceration for a felony conviction for
which (i) the conviction has been vacated, (ii)
the person incarcerated must have entered a
final plea of not guilty, or regardless of the
plea, any person sentenced to death, or
convicted of a Class 1 felony, a Class 2 felony,
or any felony for which the maximum penalty
is imprisonment for life, and (iii) the person
incarcerated did not by any act or omission on
his part intentionally contribute to his
conviction for the felony for which he was
incarcerated.

Where Filed

Civil Court

Who Decides

Legislature

Compensation per term of incarceration

Amount equal to 90 percent of the Virginia
per capita personal income as reported by the
Bureau of Economic Analysis of the US
Department of Commerce for each year, or
portion thereof, of incarceration.

Maximum Compensation

Provided for up to 20 years of incarceration.

Payment Form

Initial lump sum equal to 20 percent of the
compensation award with the remaining paid
in equal monthly payments for a period
certain of 25 years.

Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

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Disqualifications

• Any act or omission on his part that
intentionally contributed to his
conviction.
• Any subsequent conviction of a felony.

Burden of Proof

No provision

Supplemental Awards

• $15,000 (deducted from compensation
award) transition assistance grant
• Up to $10,000 reimbursement for career
and technical training within the Virginia
community college system

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

General Assembly appropriations distributed
by the Comptroller

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

Waived

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

West Virginia (W. Va. Code Section 14-2-13a)
Eligibility

Any person arrested or imprisoned or
convicted and subsequently imprisoned for
one or more felonies or misdemeanors
against the state which he did not commit.

Where Filed

Claims Court

Who Decides

Claims Court

Compensation per term of incarceration

Sum of money as the court determines will
fairly and reasonably compensate him.

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Maximum Compensation

No provision

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

Within 2 years

Disqualifications

By his own conduct cause or bring about his
conviction.

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

Wisconsin (WSA 775.05)
Eligibility

Any person who is imprisoned as the result of
his or her conviction for a crime in any court
of this state, of which crime the person claims
to be innocent and is released from
imprisonment.

Where Filed

Claims Board

Who Decides

Claims Board

Compensation per term of incarceration

Not greater than $5,000 per year

Maximum Compensation

No provision

Payment Form

No provision

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Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

Disqualifications

No provision

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

Attorney’s fees, costs and disbursements

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

Legislature appropriations

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

Washington, DC (DC ST Section 2-421)
Eligibility

Any person unjustly convicted of and
subsequently imprisoned for a criminal
offense.

Where Filed

Civil Court

Who Decides

Civil Court

Compensation per term of incarceration

No provision

Maximum Compensation

No provision

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

Disqualifications

Entered a plea of guilty

Burden of Proof

Clear and convincing evidence

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

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Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

Federal (28 USCS Section 2513)
Eligibility

• His conviction has been reversed or set
aside on the ground that he is not guilty
of the offense of which he was convicted,
or on new trial or rehearing he was found
not guilty of such offense, as appears
from the record or certificate of the court
setting aside or reversing such
conviction, or that he has been pardoned
upon the stated ground of innocence and
unjust conviction; and
• He did not commit any of the acts
charged or his acts, deeds, or omissions
in connection with such charge
constituted no offense against the United
States, or any State, Territory or the
District of Columbia, and he did not by
misconduct or neglect cause or bring
about his own prosecution

Where Filed

US Court of Federal Claims

Who Decides

US Court of Federal Claims

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Compensation per term of incarceration

The amount of damages awarded shall not
exceed $100,000 for each 12-month period
of incarceration for any plaintiff who was unjustly sentenced to death and $50,000 for
each 12-month period of incarceration for any
other plaintiff.

Maximum Compensation

The amount of damages awarded shall not
exceed $100,000 for each 12-month period
of incarceration for any plaintiff who was unjustly sentenced to death and $50,000 for
each 12-month period of incarceration for any
other plaintiff.

Payment Form

No provision

Filing Term After Exoneration

No provision

Disqualifications

By misconduct or neglect cause or bring
about his own prosecution

Burden of Proof

No provision

Supplemental Awards

No provision

Tax

No provision

Records Expungement

No provision

Fund Allocations

No provision

Definition of Innocence

No provision

Upon Death

No provision

Civil Redress against state

No provision

Deduction of award for state expenses

No provision

incurred

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Appendix A
Task Force Members
• Richard Aborn, Esq. – President, Constantine & Aborn Advisory Services LLC and
President of the Citizen’s Crime Commission of New York City
• Jack Auspitz, Esq. – Morrison & Foerster LLP, New York City
• Hon. Phylis Skloot Bamberger - Retired Court of Claims Judge, New York City
• Thomas Belfiore – Commissioner-Sheriff, Westchester County Department of Public
Safety, Hawthorne
• David Louis Cohen, Esq. - Law Office of David L. Cohen, Esq., Kew Gardens
• Tracee Davis, Esq. – Zeichner, Ellman & Krause LLP, New York City
• Hon. Janet DiFiore – Westchester County District Attorney, White Plains
• Vincent E. Doyle, III, Esq. – Connors & Vilardo LLP, Buffalo
• Mark Dwyer, Esq. - New York County District Attorney’s Office, Manhattan
• Anthony Girese, Esq. – Bronx County District’s Attorney Office, Bronx
• Robert C. Gottlieb, Esq. – Law Offices of Robert C. Gottlieb, New York
• Prof. William Hellerstein – Brooklyn Law School, Garrison
• Hon. Charles J. Hynes – Kings County District Attorney, Brooklyn
• Hon. Barry Kamins - Judge, Criminal Court, New York County and Chair of the Task
Force on Wrongful Convictions
• Hon. Howard Levine – Retired Court of Appeals Judge, Whiteman Osterman & Hanna
LLP, Albany

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• Hon. John Martin – Former U.S. District Judge for the Southern District, Martin &
Obermaier, New York City
• JoAnne Page, Esq. – President and Chief Executive Officer, the Fortune Society, New
York City
• Matthew Scott Peeler, Esq. - Arent Fox LLP, New York City, and Secretary of the Task
Force on Wrongful Convictions
• Norman L. Reimer, Esq. – Executive Director, National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, Washington, DC
• Prof. Laurie Shanks – Clinical Professor of Law, Albany Law School, Albany
• Hon. George Bundy Smith – Retired Court of Appeals Judge, Chadbourne & Parke
LLP, New York City
• Lauren Wachtler, Esq. – Mitchell, Silberberg & Knupp LLP, New York City

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Appendix B
Case Studies - Wrongful Convictions in New York

1. Jeffrey Blake

20. Dennis Halstead

39. Luis Rojas

2. Clarence Braunskill

21. Gerald Harris

40. Yusef Salaam

3. Roy Brown

22. John Kogut

41. Raymond Santana

4. Lazaro Burt

23. Kerry Kotler

42. Charles Shepherd

5. Leonard Callace

24. Dan Lackey

43. Arthur Stewart

6. Anthony Capozzi

25. Lee Long

44. Betty Tyson

7. Napolean Cardenas

26. Angelo Martinez

45. John Vera

8. Nathanial Carter

27. William Maynard

46. Habib Wahir Abdal

9. Terry Chalmers

28. Antron McCray

47. James Walker

10. Marion Coakley

29. Robert McLaughlin

48. Collin Warner

11. Timothy Crosby

30. Michael Mercer

49. Douglas Warney

12. Charles Dabbs

31. Ruben Montalvo

50. George Whitmore

13. Charles Daniels

32. Jose Morales

51. Korey Wise

14. Lynn DeJac

33. Alan Newton

52. David Wong

15. Jeff Deskovic

34. James O'Donnell

53. Collin Woodley

16. Anthony Faison

35. Victor Ortiz

17. Scott Fappiano

36. Albert Ramos

18. Jose Garcia

37. John Restivo

19. Hector Gonzalez

38. Kevin Richardson

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