Homes Not Handcuffs:
The Criminalization of Homelessness in
U.S. Cities

A Report by
The National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty
and
The National Coalition for the Homeless

July 2009

ABOUT THE NATIONAL LAW CENTER
ON HOMELESSNESS & POVERTY
The National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty is a 501(c)3 nonprofit
organization based in Washington, DC and founded in 1989 to serve as the legal arm of
the national movement to end and prevent homelessness. To carry out this mission, the
Law Center focuses on the root causes of homelessness and poverty and seeks to meet
both the immediate and long-term needs of homeless and poor people. The Law Center
addresses the multifaceted nature of homelessness by: identifying effective model laws
and policies, supporting state and local efforts to promote such policies, and helping
grassroots groups and service providers use, enforce and improve existing laws to protect
homeless people’s rights and prevent even more vulnerable families, children, and adults
from losing their homes. By providing outreach, training, and legal and technical support,
the Law Center enhances the capacity of local groups to become more effective in their
work. The Law Center’s new Homelessness Wiki website also provides an interactive
space for advocates, attorneys, and homeless people across the country to access and
contribute materials, resources, and expertise about issues affecting homeless and lowincome families and individuals.
You are invited to join the network of attorneys, students, advocates, activists, and
committed individuals who make up NLCHP’s membership network. Our network
provides a forum for individuals, non-profits, and corporations to participate and learn
more about using the law to advocate for solutions to homelessness. For more
information about our organization, membership, and access to publications such as this
report, please visit our website at www.nlchp.org.

2

Board of Directors
William Breakey,
M.D., Chair
Johns Hopkins
University
Vasiliki Tsaganos,
Vice-Chair
Fried, Frank, Harris,
Shriver & Jacobson LLP
Edward McNicholas,
Secretary
Sidley Austin LLP
Michael Allen,
Treasurer
Microsoft Corporation

Greek Orthodox
Archdiocese

Bruce J. Casino
Katten Muchin
Rosenman LLP

Pamela Malester
Community Volunteer

Roderick DeArment
Covington & Burling
Howard Godnick
Schulte Roth & Zabel
LLP

Tashena Middleton
Moore
Jones Day
Margaret Pfeiffer
Sullivan & Cromwell

Kirsten Johnson-Obey
Porterfield & Lowenthal
LLC

Jeffrey Simes
Goodwin Procter LLP

Father Alexander
Karloutsos

Mona Touma
Goldman, Sachs & Co
*Affiliations for identification purposes only

LEAP Members
Honorary Chairperson
John Grisham, Author
Chair
Goodwin Procter LLP
Jeffrey Simes
Thomas Mikula
Members
Akin, Gump, Strauss,
Hauer, & Feld LLP
Steven Schulman
Blank Rome, LLP
Michael Cioffi
Bruce Rosenblum
The Carlyle Group*

Covington & Burling
LLP
Roderick DeArment
Dechert LLP
Suzanne Turner
DLA Piper
Elizabeth Dewey
Roberta Ritvo
Fried, Frank, Harris,
Shriver & Jacobson LLP
Vasiliki Tsaganos
Greenberg Traurig LLP
Harold Iselin
Hogan & Hartson LLP
Patricia Brannan

3

Jenner & Block LLP
Thomas Perrelli
Jones Day
Donald Ayer
Latham & Watkins LLP
Roger Goldman
Katten, Muchin,
Rosenman LLP
John Muir
Morrison & Foerster
Foundation
W. Stephen Smith
O’Melveny & Myers
LLP
John Beisner

Schulte Roth & Zabel
LLP
Daniel Greenberg

Simpson Thacher &
Bartlett LLP
Peter Thomas

Sidley Austin LLP
Carter Phillips

Sullivan & Cromwell
LLP
Margaret Pfeiffer

WilmerHale
Chris Herrling

Staff of NLCHP
Catherine Bendor
Legal Director
Vibha Bhatia
Director of Operations
Katherine Bittner
Grant Writer/
Communications
Assistant

Jessica Gustin
Human Rights Fellow
Steffi Jose
Development &
Communications Intern
Jessica Libbey
Development Assistant

Jamison Brewer
Legal Intern

Marion Manheimer
Volunteer

Maria Foscarinis
Executive Director

Raquel Oriol
Congressional Hunger
Fellow

Cecelia Friedman
Levin
Domestic Violence Staff
Attorney

Tulin Ozdeger
Civil Rights Program
Director

4

Jordan Railsback
Development &
Communications
Manager
Jennifer Rodrigue
Legal Intern
Eric Tars
Human Rights Director/
Children & Youth
Attorney
Laurel Weir
Policy Director

ABOUT THE NATIONAL COALITION FOR THE HOMELESS
Founded in 1982, the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) is a private, non-profit,
national advocacy organization that exists to educate all levels of society in order to
identify and put to an end the social and economic causes of homelessness. NCH is the
nation’s oldest and largest national homelessness advocacy organization, comprised of
activists, service providers, and persons who are, or have been, homeless and are striving
toward a single goal – to end homelessness. It is the mission of NCH to create the
systemic and attitudinal changes necessary to prevent and end homelessness, while
concurrently working to increase the capacity of local supportive housing and service
providers to better meet the urgent needs of those families and individuals now homeless
in their communities.
NCH focuses its work on four policy areas: civil rights of those who are without homes,
housing that is affordable to those with the lowest incomes, accessible/comprehensive
health care and other needed support services, and livable incomes that make it possible
to afford the basic necessities of life. The strategies we use to implement our mission
are: litigation, lobbying, policy analysis, public education, community organizing,
research, and providing technical assistance.
For more information about our organization, membership, and access to publications
such as this report, please see the form at the end of this report or visit our website at
www.nationalhomeless.org

2

Board of Directors
Barbara Anderson, EC
Board Secretary
Haven House Service
Jeffersonville, IN

Memphis, TN

Denver, CO

Bob Erlenbusch, EC
Sacramento, CA

Glorin Ruiz Pastush
La Fondita de Jesus
San Juan, PR

Anita Beaty, EC
Executive Director, Metro
Atlanta Task Force for the
Homeless
Atlanta, GA

Diana V. Figueroa
Primavera Foundation
Tucson, AZ

Ed Bell
Operation Get Down
Detroit, MI
Ben Burton, EC
Executive Director, Miami
Coalition for the Homeless
Miami, FL
Michael Chesser, EC
Development Committee
Chair
Executive Director, Upstate
Homeless Coalition of South
Carolina
Greenville, SC
Michael Dahl
Public Policy Director
Homeline
Minneapolis, MN
Brian Davis, EC
Board Vice President
Northeast Ohio Coalition for
the Homeless
Cleveland, OH
Sherrie Downing, EC
Montana Council on
Homelessness
Helena, MT
Grace Dryness
Interim Director
LA Coalition to End Hunger
and Homelessness
Los Angeles, CA
Bill Duncan
VP of Marketing and Sales,
Homewood Suites by Hilton

Hugh Grogan
Minnehaha County
Department of Human
Services
Sioux Falls, SD
Jeremy Haile
Lawyer
Washington, DC
Laura Hansen
C.E.O., Coalition to End
Homelessness
Fort Lauderdale, FL
Rey Lopez
President, The King’s
Outreach
Cabot, AR
Patrick Markee
Coalition for the Homeless,
Inc.
New York, New York
Phoebe Nelson
Executive Director, Women’s
Resource Center of North
Central Washington
Wenatchee, WA
Gordon Packard
Honorary Board Member
Primavera Foundation
Tucson, AZ
Phillip Pappas, EC
Pittsburgh, PA
John Parvensky, EC
Board President
Colorado Coalition for the
Homeless
*Affiliations for identification purposes only

3

Sue Watlov Phillips
Board Treasurer
Elim Transitional Housing,
Inc.
Minneapolis, MN
David Pirtle
Faces of Homelessness
Speakers’ Bureau
Washington, DC
Greg Sileo
Baltimore Homeless Services
Baltimore, MD
Louisa Stark
Honorary Board Member
Phoenix Consortium for the
Homeless
Phoenix, AZ
Sandy Swank
Inter-Faith Ministries
Wichita, KS
Richard Troxell, EC
President, House the
Homeless, Inc.
Austin, TX
Matias J. Vega
Albuquerque Health Care for
the Homeless
Albuquerque, NM
Dana Woolfolk
Faces of Homelessness
Speakers’ Bureau
Washington, DC
John Zirker
Nashville Homeless Power
Project
Nashville, TN

Staff of NCH

Kara Bane
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Daytona Beach, FL)

Allison Estes
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Orlando, FL)

JacobReiter
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Talahassee, FL)

Phillip Banze
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Macon,
GA)

Linda Gaines
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Bradenton, FL)

Emily Richburg
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Miami,
FL)

Tiffany Barclay
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Atlanta, GA)

Amanda Gunn
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Gainesville, FL)

R. Dawn Riley
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Atlanta, GA)

Jonathan Bell
Homeless Challenge Director

Megan Hustings
Development Director

G.W. Rolle
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Pinellas Park, FL)

Annie Bittick
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Macon,
GA)

Travis Kass
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Pensacola, FL)

Charles Bontrager
Policy Advocate

Steve Kever
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Ft.
Lauderdale, FL)

Joshua Castro
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Jacksonville, FL)
Tracey Crocker
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Tampa,
FL)
Joan Davis
Administrative Assistant
Margaret Djekovic
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Tampa,
FL)
Carolyn Douglas
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Ocala,
FL)
Jacqueline Dowd
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Orlando, FL)
Hugo Esquival
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Oviedo, FL)

Caitlin Kilgallin
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Daytona Beach, FL)
Michelle Lee
Webmaster/ Graphic
Designer
Daniel “Kevin” May
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Key
West, FL)
Ronald “Preston” Montes
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Naples,
FL)
Michael O’Neill
Director, Faces of
Homelessness Speakers’
Bureau

Taloria Rush
Administrative Assistant
Michael Stoops
Executive Director
Crystell Sullivan
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Ft.
Lauderdale, FL)
Christina Swanson
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Sarasota, FL)
Christina Tudhope
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Oviedo, FL)
John Wages
AmeriCorps*VISTA (Ft.
Meyers, FL)
Samuel Waite
AmeriCorps*VISTA (DC)
Stephany Whitaker
Congressional Hunger Fellow

Jessica Randolph
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Athens, GA)

Janis Wilson
AmeriCorps*VISTA
(Pensacola, FL)

Bob Reeg
Public Policy Director

Patrick Wright
AmeriCorps*VISTA (New
Port Richey, FL

4

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements......................................................................................... 6
Executive Summary ........................................................................................ 8
Introduction................................................................................................... 14
Trends in Addressing Panhandling: The Donation Meter ............................ 16
The Cost of Homelessness: Permanent Housing is Cheaper than
Criminalization ............................................................................................. 19
Legal Problems with Criminalization Measures .......................................... 23
Criminalization Measures Violate Human Rights........................................ 26
Constructive Alternatives to Criminalization ............................................... 30
Ten Meanest Cities ....................................................................................... 33
Narratives of the Meanest Cities................................................................... 34
Narratives of Other Cities ............................................................................. 47
Case Summaries............................................................................................ 85
Prohibited Conduct Chart ........................................................................... 165
Appendix..................................................................................................... 172
Sources for Narratives ............................................................................ 172

5

Acknowledgements
Published by the National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty (NLCHP) and
the National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH), with outreach and organizing work
by NCH’s National Homeless Civil Rights Organizing Project (NHCROP).
The National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty would like to thank the
following individuals for their tremendous contributions to the research, writing,
and layout of the report.
NLCHP would like to thank Emily Zarins Mason and Donald Saelinger of Covington &
Burling, who researched and drafted a significant portion of the case summaries section
of the report. NLCHP also thanks Cristin Zeisler, Ted Harrison, Tara Kaushik, Kelly
Knudson, and Deniz Haupt of Manatt, Phelps, Phillips, who researched and updated the
prohibited conduct chart.
NLCHP gives special thanks to NLCHP legal interns Luis Rodriguez, Taran Nadler,
Matthew Korn, Denise St. Just, Kim Evans, and Jessica Gustin for their assistance in
researching, drafting, and editing various portions of the report. NLCHP also thanks
NLCHP intern Zoe Black for her work formatting the report. Tulin Ozdeger, NLCHP
Civil Rights Director, oversaw the project and conducted research, drafting, and editing
for the report. Catherine Bendor, NLCHP Legal Director, and Maria Foscarinis, NLCHP
Executive Director, provided editorial assistance and guidance.
NLCHP wishes to thank the W. K. Kellogg Foundation for its support to enhance the
National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty's capacity by providing general support
of its programs. Established in 1930, the W. K. Kellogg Foundation supports children,
families and communities as they strengthen and create conditions that propel vulnerable
children to achieve success as individuals and as contributors to the larger community
and society. Grants are concentrated in the United States, Latin America and the
Caribbean, and southern Africa.
NLCHP would also like to thank the Herb Block Foundation, the Oakwood Foundation,
and our anonymous donors for their financial support of the organization’s programs.
Along with these grants, the annual contributions of NLCHP’s LEAP members have
made the publication of this report possible.
The National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) would like to thank the following
NCH board members, staff, and interns who contributed greatly to the research,
writing, and layout of the report.
NCH thanks many unnamed student interns who wrote narratives, did research, and
edited sections throughout the report. NCH also thanks student intern Caitlin Schultz and
Stephany Whitaker, Bill Emerson Hunger Fellow, who worked on the report through the
editing stages.
NCH also thanks Anita Beaty and Brian Davis, Co-Chairs of NCH’s Civil Rights Work
Group, who provided guidance in the production of this report from beginning to end.
NCH also gives thanks to the members of NCH’s Civil Rights Work Group/Grassroots
Organizing Committee, who met monthly via conference call over the past year. These
6

members provided input about the civil rights abuses that were happening in their
respective cities/states. Michael Stoops, Executive Director of NCH, served as an
advisor and co-editor. NCH also would like to thank the numerous advocates, NCH
Board Members, and friends across the country for their feedback and support, without
which this report would not be possible.
NCH also thanks Presbyterian Church (USA)/National Ministries Division, Sidney Stern
Memorial Trust for their financial support of this project.

7

Executive Summary
The housing and homelessness crisis in the United States has worsened over the past two
years, particularly due to the current economic and foreclosure crises. On March 27,
2008, CBS News reported that 38 percent of foreclosures involved rental properties,
affecting at least 168,000 households.1 The Sarasota, Florida, Herald Tribune noted that,
by some estimates, more than 311,000 tenants nationwide have been evicted from homes
this year after lenders took over the properties.2 People being evicted from foreclosed
properties and the economic crisis in general have contributed to the growing homeless
population.3
As more people fall into homelessness, local service providers are seeing an increase in
the demand for services. In Denver, nearly 30% of the homeless population is newly
homeless. The Denver Rescue Mission has reported a 10% increase in its services.4 The
State of Massachusetts reports that the number of families living in shelters has risen by
33% in the past year.5 In Atlanta, Georgia, the Metro Atlanta Task Force for the
Homeless reports that 30% of all people coming into the Day Services Center daily are
newly homeless.6 In Concord, New Hampshire, the food pantry at First Congregational
Church serves about 4,000 meals to over 800 people each month, around double the rate
from 2007.7
Of the 25 cities surveyed by the US Conference of Mayors for its annual Hunger and
Homelessness Report, 19 reported an increase in homelessness in 2008.8 On average,
cities reported a 12 percent increase.9 The lack of available shelter space leaves many
homeless persons with no choice but to struggle to survive on the streets of our cities.
1

National Coalition for the Homeless, NCH Public Policy Recommendations: Foreclosure and
Homelessness Prevention, available at
www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/facts/2008Policy/Foreclosure.pdf; National Law Center on
Homelessness & Poverty, Indicators of Increasing Homelessness Due to the Foreclosure and Economic
Crises (2009), available at http://www.nlchp.org/view_report.cfm?id=288.
2
Kate Spinner, You’re Paying; Is Your Landlord?, Herald Tribune, Dec. 1, 2008, available at
http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20081201/ARTICLE/812010376/2055/NEWS?Title=You_re_paying
__Is_the_landlord_.
3
For more information about renters living in foreclosed properties see National Law Center on
Homelessness & Poverty and National Low Income Housing Coalition, Without Just Cause: A 50-state
Review of the (Lack of) Rights of Tenants in Foreclosure (2009), available at
http://www.nlchp.org/content/pubs/Without_Just_Cause1.pdf.
4
Nelson Garcia, Economy goes down, service to homeless goes up, KUSA-TV CHANNEL 9 NEWS, Nov.
15, 2008, available at http://www.9news.com/news/article.aspx?storyid=103973.
5
Laura Crimaldi, Evictions Spike Leaving More Bay Staters Out in the Cold, Boston Herald, Nov. 23,
2008, available at http://news.bostonherald.com/news/regional/view.bg?articleid=1134253.
6
Daily reports from the Metro Atlanta Task Force for the Homeless, April, 2009.
7
Shira Shoenberg, Homeless Rolls Grow, Worry Local Agencies: Needs May be Greater than Resources,
The Concord Monitor, Oct. 19, 2008, available at
http://www.concordmonitor.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?Date=20081019&Category=FRONTPAGE&ArtNo=
810190337&SectionCat=s&Template=printart.
8
U.S. Conference of Mayors, Hunger and Homelessness Survey: A Status Report on Hunger and
Homelessness in America’s Cities, A 25-City Survey, (December 2008).
9
Id.

8

Even though most cities do not provide enough affordable housing, shelter space, and
food to meet the need, many cities use the criminal justice system to punish people living
on the street for doing things that they need to do to survive. Such measures often
prohibit activities such as sleeping/camping, eating, sitting, and/or begging in public
spaces and include criminal penalties for violation of these laws. Some cities have even
enacted food sharing restrictions that punish groups and individuals for serving homeless
people. Many of these measures appear to have the purpose of moving homeless people
out of sight, or even out of a given city.
As criminalization measures can be counterproductive in many ways, the U.S. Congress
recently passed and the President signed legislation, the Helping Families Save Their
Homes Act of 2009, which requires the federal Interagency Council on Homelessness to
devise constructive alternatives to criminalization measures that can be used by cities
around the country.
Homes Not Handcuffs is the National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty’s
(NLCHP) ninth report on the criminalization of homelessness10 and the National
Coalition for the Homeless’ (NCH) fifth report on the topic.11 The report documents
cities with the worst record related to criminalizing homelessness, as well as initiatives in
some cities that constitute more constructive approaches to street homelessness. The
report includes the results of research regarding laws and practices in 273 cities around
the country; as well as descriptions of lawsuits from various jurisdictions in which those
measures have been challenged.
Types of Criminalization Measures
The criminalization of homelessness takes many forms, including:
•

Enactment and enforcement of legislation that makes it illegal to sleep, sit, or
store personal belongings in public spaces in cities where people are forced to live
in public spaces.

10

NLCHP, Go Directly to Jail: A report analyzing local anti-homeless ordinances (1991) (nine cities); The
Right to Remain Nowhere: A report on anti-homeless laws and litigation in 16 U.S. cities (1993); No
Homeless People Allowed: A report on anti-homeless laws, litigation and alternatives in 49 U.S. cities
(1994); Mean Sweeps: A report on anti-homeless laws, litigation and alternatives in 50 U.S. cities (1996);
Out of Sight, Out of Mind? A report on anti-homeless laws, litigation and alternatives in 50 U.S. Cities;
National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty
(NLCHP), Illegal to Be Homeless: The criminalization of homelessness in the U.S. (2002); Punishing
Poverty: The Criminalization of Homelessness, Litigation, and Recommendations for Solutions (2003);
NCH and NLCHP, A Dream Denied: The Criminalization of Homelessness in U.S. Cities (2006).
11
National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty
(NLCHP), Illegal to be Homeless: The Criminalization of Homelessness in the United States (2002); NCH,
Illegal to be Homeless: The Criminalization of Homelessness in the United States (2003); NCH, Illegal to
be Homeless: The Criminalization of Homelessness in the United States (2004); NCH and NLCHP, A
Dream Denied: The Criminalization of Homelessness in U.S. Cities (2006).

9

•

Selective enforcement of more neutral laws, such as loitering, jaywalking, or open
container laws, against homeless persons.

•

Sweeps of city areas in which homeless persons are living to drive them out of
those areas, frequently resulting in the destruction of individuals’ personal
property such as important personal documents and medication.

•

Enactment and enforcement of laws that punish people for begging or
panhandling in order to move poor or homeless persons out of a city or downtown
area.

•

Enactment and enforcement of laws that restrict groups sharing food with
homeless persons in public spaces.

•

Enforcement of a wide range of so-called “quality of life” ordinances related to
public activities and hygiene (i.e. public urination) when no public facilities are
available to people without housing.

Prevalence of Laws that Criminalize Homelessness and Poverty
City ordinances frequently serve as a prominent tool for criminalizing homelessness. Of
the 235 cities surveyed for our prohibited conduct chart (see p.159):
•

33% prohibit “camping” in particular public places in the city and 17% have citywide prohibitions on “camping.”

•

30% prohibit sitting/lying in certain public places.

•

47% prohibit loitering in particular public areas and 19% prohibit loitering
citywide.

•

47% prohibit begging in particular public places; 49% prohibit aggressive
panhandling and 23% have citywide prohibitions on begging.

The trend of criminalizing homelessness continues to grow. Based on information
gathered about the 224 cities that were included in our prohibited conduct charts in both
our 2006 report and this report:
•

There has been a 7% increase in laws prohibiting “camping” in particular public
places.

•

There has been an 11% increase in laws prohibiting loitering in particular public
places.

10

•

There has been a 6% increase in laws prohibiting begging in particular public
places and a 5% increase in laws prohibiting aggressive panhandling.

Examples of Mean Cities
Since the beginning of 2007, among others documented in this report, measures taken in
the following cities stand out as some of the worst examples of cities’ inhumane
treatment of homeless and poor people:
•

Los Angeles, CA. According to a study by UCLA released in September 2007,
Los Angeles was spending $6 million a year to pay for fifty extra police officers
as part of its Safe City Initiative to crack down on crime in the Skid Row area at a
time when the city budgeted only $5.7 million for homeless services. Advocates
found that during an 11-month period 24 people were arrested 201 times, with an
estimated cost of $3.6 million for use of police, the jail system, prosecutors,
public defenders and the courts. Advocates asserted that the money could have
instead provided supportive housing for 225 people. Many of the citations issued
to homeless persons in the Skid Row area were for jaywalking and loitering -“crimes” that rarely produce written citations in other parts of Los Angeles.

•

St. Petersburg, FL. Since early 2007, St. Petersburg has passed 6 new
ordinances that target homeless people. These include ordinances that outlaw
panhandling throughout most of downtown, prohibit the storage of personal
belongings on public property, and make it unlawful to sleep outside at various
locations. In January 2007, the Pinellas-Pasco Public Defender announced that he
would no longer represent indigent people arrested for violating municipal
ordinances to protest what he called excessive arrests of homeless individuals by
the City of St. Petersburg. According to numbers compiled by the public
defender’s office, the vast majority of people booked into the Pinellas County Jail
on municipal ordinances were homeless individuals from St. Petersburg.

•

Orlando, FL. In 2006, the Orlando City Council passed a law that prohibited
groups sharing food with 25 or more people in downtown parks covered under the
ordinance from doing so more than twice a year. A member of one of the groups
that shares food regularly with homeless and poor people in Orlando parks was
actually arrested under the ordinance for sharing food. A federal district court
found the law unconstitutional; however, the City of Orlando has appealed the
decision.

Policy and Legal Concerns
These common practices that criminalize homelessness do nothing to address the
underlying causes of homelessness. Instead, they drastically exacerbate the problem.
They frequently move people away from services. When homeless persons are arrested
and charged under these ordinances, they may develop a criminal record, making it more
difficult to obtain the employment and/or housing that could help them become selfsufficient.
11

Criminalization measures also raise constitutional questions, and many of them violate
the civil rights of homeless persons. Courts have found certain criminalization measures
to be unconstitutional. For example:
•

When a city passes a law that places too many restrictions on begging, such
restrictions may raise free speech concerns as courts have found begging to be
protected speech under the First Amendment.

•

When a city destroys homeless persons’ belongings, such actions may violate the
Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures.

•

When a city enforces a law that imposes criminal penalties on a homeless person
for engaging in necessary life activities such as sleeping in public, such a law
could violate that person’s Eighth Amendment right to be free from cruel and
unusual punishment if the person has nowhere else to perform the activity.

•

When a city passes a law that does not give people sufficient notice of what types
of conduct it prohibits, or allows for arbitrary enforcement by law enforcement
officials, such a law can be determined to be overly vague in violation of the
Constitution. Courts have found certain loitering and vagrancy laws to be
unconstitutionally vague.

In addition to violating domestic law, criminalization measures can also violate
international human rights law.
Constructive Alternatives to Criminalization
While many cities engage in practices that exacerbate the problem of homelessness by
criminalizing it, some cities around the country have pursued more constructive
approaches. The following examples illustrate more constructive approaches to
homelessness:
•

Daytona Beach, FL. In order to reduce the need for panhandling, a coalition of
service providers, business groups, and the City of Daytona Beach began a
program that provides homeless participants with jobs and housing. While in the
Downtown Street Team program, participants are hired to clean up downtown
Daytona Beach and are provided initially with shelter and subsequently with
transitional housing. A number of participants have moved on from the program
to other full-time jobs and housing.

•

Cleveland, OH. Instead of passing a law to restrict groups that share food with
homeless persons, the City of Cleveland has contracted with the Northeast Ohio
Coalition for the Homeless to coordinate outreach agencies and food sharing
groups to prevent duplication of food provision, to create a more orderly food

12

sharing system, and to provide an indoor food sharing site to groups who wish to
use it.
•

Portland, OR. As part of its 10-year plan, Portland began “A Key Not a Card,”
where outreach workers from five different service providers are able to
immediately offer people living on the street permanent housing rather than just a
business card. From the program’s inception in 2005 through spring 2009, 936
individuals in 451 households have been housed through the program, including
216 households placed directly from the street.

Recommendations
Instead of criminalizing homelessness, local governments, business groups, and law
enforcement officials should work with homeless people, providers, and advocates for
solutions to prevent and end homelessness.
Cities should dedicate more resources to creating more affordable housing, permanent
supportive housing, emergency shelters, and homeless services in general. To address
street homelessness, cities should adopt or dedicate more resources to outreach programs,
emergency shelter, and permanent supportive housing.
Business groups can play a positive role in helping to address the issue of homelessness.
Instead of advocating for criminalization measures, business groups can put resources
into solutions to homelessness.
When cities work with homeless persons and advocate for solutions to homelessness,
instead of punishing those who are homeless or poor, everyone benefits.

13

Introduction
The housing and homelessness situation in the United States has worsened over the past
two years, particularly due to the current economic and foreclosure crises. On March 27,
2008, CBS News reported that 38 percent of foreclosures involved rental properties,
affecting at least 168,000 households.12 The Sarasota, Florida, Herald Tribune noted
that, by some estimates, more than 311,000 tenants nationwide have been evicted from
homes this year after lenders took over the properties.13 People being evicted from
foreclosed properties and the economic crisis in general have contributed to the growing
homeless population.
As more people are falling into homelessness, local service providers are seeing an
increase in the demand for services. In Denver, nearly 30% of the homeless population is
newly homeless. The Denver Rescue Mission has reported a 10% increase in its
services.14 The State of Massachusetts reports that the number of families living in
shelters has risen by 33% in the past year.15 In Atlanta, Georgia, the Metro Atlanta Task
Force for the Homeless reports that 30% of all people coming into the Day Services
Center daily are newly homeless.16 In Concord, New Hampshire, the food pantry at First
Congregational Church serves about 4,000 meals to over 800 people each month, around
double the rate from 2007.17
Of the 25 cities surveyed by the US Conference of Mayors for its annual Hunger and
Homelessness Report, 19 reported an increase in homelessness in 2008.18 On average,
cities reported a 12 percent increase.19 The lack of available shelter space leaves many
homeless persons with no choice but to struggle to survive on the streets of our cities.
Even while most cities cannot provide enough affordable housing, shelter space, and food
to meet the need, many cities use the criminal justice system to punish people living on
the street for doing things they need to do to survive. Such measures often prohibit
activities such as sleeping/camping, eating, sitting, and/or begging in public spaces and
include criminal penalties for violation of these laws. Some cities have even enacted
12

National Coalition for the Homeless, NCH Public Policy Recommendations: Foreclosure and
Homelessness Prevention, available at
www.nationalhomeless.org/publications/facts/2008Policy/Foreclosure.pdf.
13
Kate Spinner, You’re Paying; Is Your Landlord?, Herald Tribune, Dec. 1, 2008, available at
http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20081201/ARTICLE/812010376/2055/NEWS?Title=You_re_paying
__Is_the_landlord_.
14
Nelson Garcia, Economy goes down, service to homeless goes up, KUSA-TV CHANNEL 9 NEWS, Nov.
15, 2008, available at http://www.9news.com/news/article.aspx?storyid=103973.
15
Laura Crimaldi, Evictions Spike Leaving More Bay Staters Out in the Cold, Boston Herald, Nov. 23,
2008, available at http://news.bostonherald.com/news/regional/view.bg?articleid=1134253.
16
Daily reports from the Metro Atlanta Task Force for the Homeless, April, 2009.
17
Shira Shoenberg, Homeless Rolls Grow, Worry Local Agencies: Needs May be Greater than Resources,
The Concord Monitor, Oct. 19, 2008, available at
http://www.concordmonitor.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?Date=20081019&Category=FRONTPAGE&ArtNo=
810190337&SectionCat=s&Template=printart.
18
U.S. Conference of Mayors, Hunger and Homelessness Survey: A Status Report on Hunger and
Homelessness in America’s Cities, A 25-City Survey, (December 2008).
19
Id.

14

food sharing restrictions that punish groups and individuals for serving food to homeless
people.
As criminalization measures can be counterproductive in many ways, the U.S. Congress
recently passed and the President signed legislation, the Helping Families Save Their
Homes Act of 2009, which requires the federal Interagency Council on Homelessness to
devise constructive alternatives to criminalization measures that can be used by cities
around the country.
Homes Not Handcuffs is the National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty’s
(NLCHP) ninth report on the criminalization of homelessness20 and the National
Coalition for the Homeless’ (NCH) fifth report on the topic.21 The report documents
cities with the worst record related to criminalizing homelessness and trends in the
criminalization of homelessness, as well as initiatives in some cities that constitute more
constructive approaches to street homelessness. The report includes the results of
research regarding laws and practices in 273 cities around the country, as well as
descriptions of lawsuits from various jurisdictions in which those measures have been
challenged. The report also includes information about some of the policy and legal
problems with criminalization measures.
Instead of criminalizing homelessness, local governments, business groups, and law
enforcement officials should work with homeless people, providers, and advocates for
solutions to prevent and end homelessness. Cities should dedicate more resources to
creating more affordable housing, permanent supportive housing, emergency shelters,
and homeless services in general. To address street homelessness, cities should adopt or
dedicate more resources to outreach programs, emergency shelter, and permanent
supportive housing. Business groups can play a positive role in helping to address the
issue of homelessness. Instead of advocating for criminalization measures, business
groups can put resources into solutions to homelessness.
When cities work with homeless persons, service providers, and advocates toward
solutions to homelessness, instead of punishing those who are homeless or poor,
everyone can benefit.
20

NLCHP, Go Directly to Jail: A report analyzing local anti-homeless ordinances (1991) (nine cities); The
Right to Remain Nowhere: A report on anti-homeless laws and litigation in 16 U.S. cities (1993); No
Homeless People Allowed: A report on anti-homeless laws, litigation and alternatives in 49 U.S. cities
(1994); Mean Sweeps: A report on anti-homeless laws, litigation and alternatives in 50 U.S. cities (1996);
Out of Sight, Out of Mind? A report on anti-homeless laws, litigation and alternatives in 50 U.S. Cities;
National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty
(NLCHP), Illegal to Be Homeless: The criminalization of homelessness in the U.S. (2002); Punishing
Poverty: The Criminalization of Homelessness, Litigation, and Recommendations for Solutions (2003);
NCH and NLCHP, A Dream Denied: The Criminalization of Homelessness in U.S. Cities (2006).
21
National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) and National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty
(NLCHP), Illegal to be Homeless: The Criminalization of Homelessness in the United States (2002); NCH,
Illegal to be Homeless: The Criminalization of Homelessness in the United States (2003); NCH, Illegal to
be Homeless: The Criminalization of Homelessness in the United States (2004); NCH and NLCHP, A
Dream Denied: The Criminalization of Homelessness in U.S. Cities (2006).

15

Trends in Addressing Panhandling: The Donation Meter
Over the years, cities have attempted to address community concerns regarding
panhandling in a variety of ways. One of the usual responses has been the passage of
laws that make it illegal to panhandle in public places. However, panhandling
restrictions have not been proven to reduce panhandling, as they do not address the
underlying reasons why a poor or homeless individual may need to ask for money.
Recently, some cities have taken another approach to manage the issue of panhandling.
A number of cities have installed meters that resemble parking meters to accept money
from people who would otherwise give that change to panhandlers. The proceeds from
the meters are then usually distributed to local homeless service providers.
While these solutions appear to be an improvement over panhandling restrictions because
they do not involve criminally punishing panhandlers, the use of parking meters as a
mechanism to discourage panhandling still has some flaws. When coupled with more
aggressive criminalization efforts and crafted to push out panhandlers, these campaigns
can quickly become counterproductive.
Much like panhandling restrictions, meters do not necessarily eliminate the needs of a
poor person asking for money, but may merely move the person asking for money to
another location. Further, if meter programs are combined with campaigns telling people
not to give to people asking for money, they can have a detrimental impact on people
who are in dire need of assistance and can discourage the human connection that occurs
when one person gives to another person in need. Finally, the amount of money raised by
the meters may not be significant enough to make an actual impact on the larger issue of
poverty in any given community.
The following cities have implemented donation meter programs as a way to discourage
panhandling within their communities.
Albuquerque, NM
The city initially converted old parking meters into meters that accepted donations. It is
now slowly phasing out these curbside meters, in favor of donation kiosks that accept
paper money, credit cards, and coins, and print a receipt.
Atlanta, GA
Atlanta unveiled a donation meter program in September 2008 that when reevaluated by
city officials in March 2009, only raised $500. The city decided to create thirteen more
donation meters despite the low funds brought in by the program. This program created
meters with attached resource cards that provide information about shelters and other
places to find help.

16

Baltimore, MD
The city created meters that, instead of counting down minutes, count down from “Hope”
to “Despair.” This program raised nearly $5,000 in its first year.
Chattanooga, TN
Thirteen donation meters were installed as part of the city’s “Art of Change” program.
The initial meters were reinforced with heavier materials in November 2007 after two
were stolen.
Cleveland, OH
Cleveland’s campaign will place 15 lime green and red parking meters in the city to raise
money for the Downtown Cleveland Alliance's Downtown Homeless Fund. Alliance
President Joe Marinucci said that the number of meters will eventually grow to 40. This
program marks a partnership between the Alliance, the City of Cleveland, the faith-based
community and property owners.
Dallas, TX
Dallas City Hall, the Downtown Dallas association, and the Metro Dallas Homeless
Alliance sponsored the city government’s “Lend a Hand” campaign, which includes
conversion of parking meters into donation receptacles.
Denver, CO
The “Denver Road Home” campaign began with 36 meters in March 2007; by October
2008 there were 86 meters. This initiative is part of Denver’s 10-year plan to end
homelessness. The idea behind the meters is to funnel the $4 million given to homeless
individuals in the city annually, as estimated by the Downtown Denver Partnership,
toward agencies better equipped to distribute resources without the fear of money being
used for counterproductive purposes. The meters serve two purposes - to be donation
receptacles and to raise public awareness. The meters have raised close to $15,000 in
coins, in addition to nearly $100,000 through private donors and businesses “adopting” a
meter. This model has had national influence and more cities have looked to emulate
Denver’s example.
Little Rock, AR
Little Rock installed 25 orange “Change for the Better” boxes. The funds from the boxes
are distributed to five area organizations: Friendly Chapel, Our House, River City
Ministries, The Salvation Army, and the Union Rescue Mission/Dorcas House.
Portland, OR

17

Initiated by the Portland Business Alliance several years ago, Portland’s “Real Change,
Not Spare Change” meter program has raised nearly $10,000 to-date.
San Francisco, CA
San Francisco initiated a meter program, advertised as “Be a part of change. Don’t give
change.”
A failed proposal sought to create credit card machines, to which passersby could apply
their funds, 80% of which would automatically go to homeless programs and the
remaining 20% would go directly to homeless individuals. This example illustrates how
meters can remove the human interaction component that brings to light the reality of
poverty.
Seattle, WA
An experimental program between the city, service providers, and businesses is using
green “giving meters” as part of a city-wide campaign, whose slogan is “Have a heart.
Give Smart.”
St. Louis, MO
The Central West End Association acquired a decommissioned parking meter to collect
donations.
Tempe, AZ
Bright red refurbished meters were installed in March 2008. Funds gathered from the
meters are distributed to 4 different agencies. This program, titled “Change for Change,”
grew out of a program created by a Tempe Leadership class that initially raised $8,000 to
procure meters.

A photo of a Denver meter.

18

The Cost of Homelessness: Permanent Housing is Cheaper
than Criminalization
In 2004, the Lewin Group issued the results of a nine-city survey that compared jail costs
to emergency shelter and permanent supportive housing costs, among other things.
According to the survey results, jail costs were two to three times higher than permanent
supportive housing or shelter costs.22 While advocates have had anecdotal evidence for
years that suggested it is actually more costly to arrest and convict homeless individuals
of misdemeanors relating to their homelessness than it is to provide housing for them, a
number of service providers have conducted cost studies that have confirmed that
housing is not only the more humane option but also more economical. Below are
descriptions of five such studies.
Cincinnati, OH
In May 2007, the Greater Cincinnati Coalition for the Homeless and its partners
announced the results of a study23 in which the groups studied public records from
Hamilton County Jails from the period between October 1, 2005 and September 30, 2006.
In addition, the groups studied the jail roster on an almost daily basis for the period
between August 28, 2006 and November 2, 2006. After examining the public records,
the groups identified 2,900 public records that included information about 840 homeless
individuals’ interactions with the criminal justice system.
The study found that some of the most common charges associated with homeless
individuals were for the following violations: open container in public, public indecency
due to public urination, sitting on the sidewalk, spitting in a public place, upsetting public
and private garbage receptacles (dumpster diving), littering, loitering, solicitation
(commonly improper solicitation for panhandling), trespassing, and disorderly conduct.
The study noted that these charges are considered the big homeless “crimes” because
either they are the most common charges homeless people face or no one other than
homeless people is ever arrested on these charges. In addition, based on the review of
Hamilton County Jail’s rosters, the groups estimated that an average of 5 percent of the
jail population between August 28, 2006, and November 2, 2006 were identified as
homeless.
The study noted that using the criminal justice system to deal with the consequences of
street homelessness is a rather expensive approach, since it costs $65 per bed per day in
the jail. The study pointed to a Lewin Group study that estimated permanent supportive
housing costs on average only $30 a day, a much less costly and productive way of
approaching homelessness.24 This cost difference is particularly significant given that
supportive housing is permanent, unlike emergency shelters or even transitional housing,
22

Lewin Group, Costs of Serving Homeless Individuals in Nine Cities,
http://documents.csh.org/documents/ke/csh_lewin2004.PDF (2004).
23
Greater Cincinnati Coalition for the Homeless, Criminalization of Homeless Individuals in Cincinnati,
http://www.cincihomeless.org/ (2007).
24
Lewin Group, supra note 22.

19

and allows residents to continue working with their case managers as well as receive
needed mental health and substance abuse treatment.
Indianapolis, IN
In partnership with the Coalition for Homelessness Intervention and Prevention and other
partners, the Center for Health Policy at Indiana University-Purdue University
Indianapolis (IUPU) conducted a study of 96 chronically homeless individuals.25
Participants in this study were 95 percent male, 55 percent African American or black
individuals, 39 percent white individuals, and 6 percent from other racial categories and
participants had an average age of 45. IUPU reviewed data from January 2003 through
June 2006. Over the three and a half year period, researchers noted an increase in both
inpatient and outpatient visits over time, suggesting that as people remain on the streets
over time, their health suffers and they have an increase in their number of medical visits
and health care costs. Similarly, when examining criminal justice encounters, researchers
found an increase in costs over time.
The study found that at least three-fourths of study participants who had the most
encounters with the criminal justice and health care systems had also been diagnosed
with a mental illness or substance abuse problem. Due to this fact, the researchers
postulated that each year the city of Indianapolis and Marion County expend between at
least $5,912 and $15,560 per person in the criminal justice and public health care
systems. For the estimated 500 people on the streets of Indianapolis or in shelters,
researchers estimate that the collective expenditures are $3 million to $7 million
annually.
Minneapolis, MN
The Hennepin County Criminal Justice Coordinating Committee (HCCJCC), a working
group of the Hennepin County Board of Commissioners released a study in 2005 that
evaluated the effectiveness of a downtown Minneapolis public safety initiative.26 The
study included information about 1,891 individuals who had 2,691 police contacts during
the time period examined – April 17, 2005 through August 30, 2005. Of the 1,891
individuals included in the study, 291 or 15 percent had more than one contact with
police.
In addition to the larger group of people included in the study, HCCJCC focused on 33
homeless individuals who had four or more police contacts in the city’s newly established
Safe Zone during the period of April 17, 2005 through June 17, 2005. In addition, these
25

Eric Wright, Laura Littlepage & Courtney Federspiel, Serving the Homeless Could Save Taxpayer
Dollars, Indiana University Center for Public Policy (2007), available at
http://www.policyinstitute.iu.edu/PubsPDFs/251_Homeless.pdf.
26
Hennepin County Criminal Justice Coordinating Committee, Downtown Minneapolis Safe Zone
Collaborative Final Report (2005), available at
http://www.co.hennepin.mn.us/images/HCInternet/Static%20Files/146365432Downtown%20Minneapolis
%20Safe%20Zone%20FINAL%20REPORT.pdf. Information on both the larger group of 1,891 as well as
the 33 known as the Downtown 33 can be found in this report.

20

33 individuals incurred disproportionately high expenditures for minimal desirable results
within an otherwise successful public safety initiative. Upon closer examination,
HCCJCC estimated the following costs resulting from these 33 individuals’ interactions
with the criminal just system as of September 2005:
¾
¾
¾
¾

$876,741 for Hennepin County Jail Costs Since 1994
$184,200 for Hennepin County Law Enforcement Costs Since 1994
$140,251 for Hennepin County Court Costs Since 1985
$2,651,732 Total Criminal Justice Related Costs (including $829,790 in
Minnesota State Prison Costs Since 1991)27

San Francisco, CA
The organization Religious Witness with Homeless People (RWHP) originally released a
report in August 2006 to raise awareness regarding the excessive cost and ineffectiveness
of “quality of life” ordinances, particularly when compared to successful supportive
housing initiatives. 28
RWHP completed an extensive review of multiple city documents from the police and
sheriff’s departments, the district attorney’s and public defender’s offices, as well as the
Traffic Division and Criminal Division of San Francisco Superior Court. RWHP
determined that the City of San Francisco spent $9,847,027 on 56,567 “quality of life”
citations between January 2004 and March 2008 that targeted homeless individuals for
activities ranging from blocking the sidewalk to camping in the park.
Seattle, WA
In a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, researchers
concluded that it is cheaper to provide supportive housing to chronically homeless
individuals with severe alcohol problems than to have them live on the streets.29
Chronically homeless individuals with severe alcohol problems often have multiple
medical and psychiatric problems and incur high costs in the healthcare and criminal
justice systems.
Researchers designed a study to evaluate the effect of a Housing First intervention for
chronically homeless individuals with severe alcohol problems on the use and costs of
services, including jail bookings, days incarcerated, shelter and sobering center use,
hospital-based medical services, publicly funded alcohol and drug detoxification and
27

While HCCJCC acknowledges the difficulty of determining cost estimates for government services on a
per person or per service level, they consider these and other estimates to be conservative ones.
28
Religious Witness with Homeless People, A Study To Determine the Extent and Cost of the Enforcement
of ‘ Quality of Life’ Ordinances Against Homeless Individuals in San Francisco during the Newsom
Administration (January 2004-March 2008), available at http://www.religiouswitnesshome.org (last
visited March 4, 2009).
29
Mary E. Larimer et al., Health Care and Public Service Use and Costs Before and After Provision of
Housing for Chronically Homeless Persons With Severe Alcohol Problems, JAMA. 2009;301(13):13491357.

21

treatment, emergency medical services, and Medicaid-funded services. Researchers used
a quasi-experimental design comparing 95 participants who were housed against a
control group of 39 participants on a housing wait-list between November 2005 and
March 2007. According to the study, the median costs of Housing First participants
before the study were $4,066 per person per month. When participating in the Housing
First program, median monthly costs decreased to $1,492 per person per month after 6
months and $958 after 12 months. The costs of Housing First participants decreased 53%
compared to the wait-list control group over the first six months. Participants in the
Housing First program used $2,449 less of services per person per month after accounting
for the housing program costs. The benefits of Housing First increased the longer the
participants stayed in housing.

22

Legal Problems with Criminalization Measures
Homeless persons and advocates throughout the country have worked to prevent the
passage of laws and to halt policies and practices that criminalize homelessness.
Unfortunately, cities and police departments sometimes do not respond to such advocacy
in a productive way. When local governments fail to respond to policy advocacy,
homeless persons and their advocates have turned to litigation to put a stop to these
practices and enforcement of these laws.
As successful litigation has shown, many of the practices and policies that punish
homeless people for the public performance of life-sustaining activities violate homeless
persons’ constitutional rights.30
Anti-Panhandling Ordinances
One way that cities have targeted poor and homeless individuals is by passing laws that
prohibit panhandling, solicitation, or begging. Depending on the scope of the ordinance,
these types of laws can infringe on the right to free speech under the First Amendment, as
courts have found begging to be protected speech. Laws that restrict speech too much,
target speech based on its content, or do not allow for alternative channels of
communication can violate the First Amendment.31
In addition, some courts have found laws that prohibit begging or panhandling to be
unconstitutionally vague.32 A law is unconstitutionally vague if its language is not clear
enough to give people notice of what conduct is prohibited and police could enforce it in
an arbitrary manner.
Anti-Camping or Anti-Sleeping Measures
Since many cities do not have adequate shelter space, homeless persons are often left
with no alternative but to sleep and live in public spaces, such as sidewalks and parks.
Even though they are not dedicating enough resources to give homeless persons access to
housing or shelters, some cities have enacted laws that impose criminal penalties upon
people for sleeping outside.
The practice of punishing people for sleeping outside has been challenged in courts as a
violation of homeless persons’ civil rights. Some courts have found that arresting
30

For more information about legal problems with criminalization measures see Maria Foscarinis,
Downward Spiral: Homelessness & Its Criminalization, 14 YALE L. & POL’Y REV. 1 (1996); Tulin
Ozdeger, Targeting the Homeless: Constructive Alternatives to Criminalization Measures in U.S. Cities, 41
CLEARINGHOUSE REV. 202 (2007).
31
See Loper v. New York City Police Department, 999 F.2d 699 (2nd Cir. 1993); Blair v. Shanahan, 775 F.
Supp. 1315 (N.D. Cal. 1991), vacated on other grounds, 919 F. Supp. 1361 (N.D.Cal. 1996); Benefit v.
Cambridge, 679 N.E.2d 184 (Mass. 1997).
32
See, e.g., Atchison v. City of Atlanta, No 1:96-CV-1430 (N.D. Ga. July 17, 1996) (order granting
preliminary injunction).

23

homeless people for sleeping outside when no shelter space exists violates their Eighth
Amendment right to be free from cruel and unusual punishment.33
Advocates also have contended that arresting people for sleeping outside violates the
fundamental right to travel. In at least one case, a court found that if people are arrested
for sleeping in public, those arrests have the effect of preventing homeless people from
moving within a city or coming to a city, thereby interfering with their right to travel.34
Loitering Measures
Another tool that cities have used to target people who live outside and on the streets is
enforcement of laws that prohibit loitering. Due to the broad scope of prohibited
behavior under loitering laws, cities have used these to target homeless people in public
spaces. Fortunately, cities have found these laws less useful, as the Supreme Court has
overturned some loitering laws for being unconstitutionally vague.
In cases overturning vagrancy and loitering ordinances, the Supreme Court found these
laws unconstitutional due to vagueness, in violation of the Due Process Clause of the
Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution.35 Since many loitering laws have similarly
broad and vague language, homeless persons and advocates have a strong argument that
such laws violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Sweeps
Cities also target people experiencing homelessness by conducting sweeps of areas where
one or more individuals are living outside. Sometimes, police or local government
employees will go through an area where people are living and confiscate and destroy
their belongings in an attempt to “clean up” an area. While city workers may have the
right to clean public areas, they must take certain measures to avoid violating people’s
right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures guaranteed by the Fourth
Amendment and due process rights.
A seizure of property violates the Fourth Amendment when a governmental action
unreasonably interferes with a person’s person or property. Courts have found that police
practices of seizing and destroying personal property of homeless people violate these
constitutional rights under the Fourth Amendment.36 Further, governments may also

33

See Jones v. City of Los Angeles, 444 F.3d 1118 (9th Cir. 2006) vacated per settlement 505 F.3d 1006
(9th Cir. 2007); Pottinger v. City of Miami, 810 F. Supp. 1551 (S.D. Fla. 1992).
34

Pottinger v. Miami, 810 F. Supp. at 1583 (S.D. Fla. 1992).
City of Chicago v. Morales, 527 U.S. 41 (1999); Papachristou v. City of Jacksonville, 405 U.S. 156
(1972).
36
See Pottinger, 810 F. Supp. at 1571-1572; Kincaid v. Fresno, 2006 WL 3542732 (E.D. Cal. Dec. 8,
2006) (order granting preliminary injunction); Justin v. City of Los Angeles, 2000 WL 1808426 (C.D. Cal.
Dec. 5, 2000) (order granting preliminary injunction).
35

24

violate due process rights by failing to follow certain procedures when managing
people’s private property.37
Restrictions on Food Sharing Activities
Recently, cities have indirectly targeted homeless people by restricting service providers’
food sharing programs.38 Historically, cities have attempted to restrict food sharing on
providers’ property through zoning laws. More recently, some cities have passed laws to
restrict food sharing in public spaces, such as parks. Some courts have found that food
sharing restrictions can violate religious groups’ right to freely exercise their religious
beliefs.39 Further, at least one court found that one food sharing restriction also infringed
on the right to free speech.40
Conclusion
Litigation can protect the rights of homeless persons and pave the way for better city
approaches to homelessness. Homeless persons bringing a civil action can receive
monetary damages or obtain injunctive or declaratory relief. In addition, many cases
settle and result in policies or protocols that ensure homeless persons’ rights will be
protected.
For more information about individual cases challenging criminalization measures, please
see the case summaries section of this report.

37

See, e.g., Kincaid, 2006 WL at 39.
For more information about trends in food sharing restrictions, see National Law Center on
Homelessness & Poverty and National Coalition for the Homeless, Feeding Intolerance (2007).
39
See e.g,. First Vagabonds Church of God v. City of Orlando, 578 F. Supp.2d 1353, (M.D. Fla. 2008);
Abbott v. City of Fort Lauderdale, 783 So. 2d 1213 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 2001).
40
First Vagabonds Church of God, 578 F. Supp. at 1361.
38

25

Criminalization Measures Violate Human Rights
In addition to violating U.S. constitutional law, laws and practices that criminalize
homelessness violate international human rights law.
Using Human Rights Law in the U.S.
The United States has signed and/or ratified several different human rights treaties that
prohibit governmental actions that could include measures that target homeless people
living in public spaces. The human rights framework can serve as a useful tool in the
fight against criminalization as it recognizes a full range of rights that protect the
fundamental human dignity of people experiencing homelessness.41
Human rights legal arguments can serve as aides in interpreting domestic law, give
content to general concepts in domestic law, and support domestic legal arguments. U.S.
courts can use human rights law as guidance in interpreting domestic law in order to
ensure that domestic law does not conflict with customary international law or ratified
treaties, whether or not they are enforceable on their own in courts in the U.S.42
Under the U.S. Constitution, ratified treaties are binding laws that have the same force of
law as federal law.43 Under international law, once the U.S. signs a treaty, it is obligated
not to pass laws that would “defeat the object and purpose of [the] treaty.”44
Right to Freedom of Movement
Many laws that target homeless people living in public spaces violate their human right to
freedom of movement by keeping them out of certain areas or forcing them to move to
other spaces in a city. Although the U.S. Supreme Court has not ruled explicitly to
protect the right to intrastate travel, the human right to freedom of movement is
recognized in customary international law.
The U.S. has signed and ratified two treaties that protect the human right to freedom of
movement -- the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the
International Covenant on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (ICERD). While
these two treaties may not be enforceable on their own in domestic courts, they can
provide guidance for similar domestic legal arguments. The Human Rights Committee
(HRC), which oversees the member states’ compliance with the ICCPR, has emphasized
41

For more information about the human rights framework in relation to homelessness see Maria
Foscarinis and Eric Tars, Housing Rights and Wrongs: The U.S. and the Right to Housing, in Human
Rights At Home, edited by Cynthia Soohoo, Catherine Albisa and Martha Davis (Praeger Publishers,
December 30, 2007); Maria Foscarinis, Brad Paul, Bruce Porter, and Andrew Scherer, The Human Right to
Housing: Making the Case in U.S. Advocacy, 38 CLEARINGHOUSE REV. 97 (2004); NLCHP, Homelessness
in the United States and the Human Right to Housing (2004).
42
See Murray v. Schooner Charming Betsy, 6 U.S. (2 Cranch) 64 (1804).
43
U.S. Const. art. VI, § 2; Id. art. II, § 2, cl. 2.
44
The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, May 23, 1969, art. 18(a), 1155 U.N.T.S 331.

26

that the right to movement and the freedom to choose your own residence are important
rights that should only be breached by the least intrusive means necessary to keep public
order.45 In Koptova v. Slovak Republic,46 the Committee on the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination (CERD), which oversees the ICERD, held that municipal resolutions in
villages in the Slovak Republic, which explicitly forbade homeless Roma families from
settling in their villages, and the hateful context in which the resolutions were adopted,
violated the right to freedom of movement and residence within the border of a country in
violation of the ICERD.
International law related to the human right to freedom of movement can serve as an
interpretative aide in U.S. cases related to the right to travel. For example, in In Re
White, the California Court of Appeals cited the human right to freedom of movement
recognized in international law.47 The petitioner in the case challenged a condition of her
probation that barred her from being in certain defined areas of the city. The court turned
to concept of the freedom of movement in international law to support its conclusion that
both the U.S. and California Constitutions protect the right to intrastate and intramunicipal travel.
Discrimination
Laws that criminalize aspects of homelessness, such as bans on sleeping or sitting in
public, or the selective enforcement against homeless people of neutral laws such as laws
against loitering or public intoxication can violate human rights law as they discriminate
against homeless persons on the basis of their homeless and/or racial status.
Both the ICCPR, which the U.S. has signed and ratified, and the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights, a non-binding U.N. declaration, prohibit discrimination on the basis of
property and “other status,” which can include homelessness.48 Laws that have a
disparate impact on homeless individuals who are African-American violate the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(ICERD) and the ICCPR, both of which the U.S. has signed and ratified. The ICERD
defines “racial discrimination” as “any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference
based on race…which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition,
enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in
the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.”49 The ICERD
protects the right of homeless people who are African-American to access public space

45

Human Rights Committee, General Comment 27, Freedom of movement (Art.12), U.N. Doc
CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9 (1999).
46
Koptova v. Slovak Republic, (13/1998), CERD, A/55/18 (8 August 2000) 136.
47
In Re White, 158 Cal. Rptr. 562, 567 (Ct. App. 1979).
48
See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp.
(No. 16) at 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171, entered into force Mar. 23, 1976 [hereinafter
“ICCPR”]; Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. res. 217A (III), U.N. Doc A/810 at 71 (1948).
49
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 660 U.N.T.S. 195,
entered into force Jan. 4, 1969 [hereinafter “ICERD”].

27

and obligates the U.S. to ensure that cities do not engage in racial discrimination.50 In
response to reports that “some 50 % of homeless people are African American although
they constitute only 12 % of the U.S. population,” CERD said that the “[U.S.] should take
measures, including adequate and adequately implemented policies, to ensure the
cessation of this form of de facto and historically generated racial discrimination.”51
Forced Evictions
Many cities conduct “sweeps” that remove people from public spaces or outdoor
encampments, frequently without notice or relocation to other housing. These forced
evictions can violate homeless people’s human right under international law to freedom
from forced evictions.
Forced evictions are “the permanent or temporary removal against their will of
individuals, families and/or communities from the homes and/or land which they occupy,
without the provision of, and access to, appropriate forms of legal or other protection.”52
According to human rights law, “[e]victions should not result in rendering individuals
homeless or vulnerable to the violation of other human rights.”53 In addition,
“[n]otwithstanding the type of tenure [including the illegal occupation of land or
property],” under human rights law “all persons should possess a degree of security of
tenure which guarantees legal protection against forced eviction, harassment and other
threats.”54 For homeless individuals affected by sweeps who are unable to provide for
themselves, human rights law requires that cities “take all appropriate measures, to the
maximum of its available resources, to ensure that adequate alternative housing,
resettlement or access to productive land, as the case may be, is available.”55 For
example, a line of cases from South Africa established that homeless people could not be
evicted from sheltered spaces unless alternative sheltered public spaces are available to
them.56
50

Article 2(1)(a) states that, “Each [country] undertakes to … ensure that all public authorities and public
institutions, national and local, shall [engage in no act or practice of racial discrimination against persons,
groups of persons or institutions].”
51
Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee on the Second and Third U.S. Reports to the
Committee (2006). For an example of how advocates have used international human rights mechanisms in
homelessness advocacy, go to http://wiki.nlchp.org/display/Manual/Los+Angeles.
52
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 7, Forced evictions and the right
to adequate housing (Sixteenth session, 1997), U.N. Doc. E/1998/22, annex IV at 113 (1998), reprinted in
Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty
Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 45 (2003) [hereinafter “General Comment No. 7”].
53
General Comment No. 7 (Forced evictions and the right to adequate housing), supra note 11.
54
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 4, The right to adequate housing
(Sixth session, 1991), U.N. Doc. E/1992/23, annex III at 114 (1991), reprinted in Compilation of General
Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc.
HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 18 (2003).
55
General Comment No. 7 (Forced evictions and the right to adequate housing), supra note 11.
56
The South Africa Constitutional Court has decided several cases about evicting homeless people from
public and private spaces in the context of South Africa’s constitutional right to housing. See Government
of the Republic of South Africa & Ors v Grootboom & Ors 2000 (11) BCLR 1169; Port Elizabeth
Municipality v. Various Occupiers 2004 (12) BCLR 1268 (CC); President of the Republic of South Africa
and Anor. v Modderklip Boerdery (Pty) Ltd. 40 2005 (5) SA 3 (CC) (S. Afr.); Occupiers of 51 Olivia

28

Conclusion
The United States has continued to shield itself from direct enforcement of international
human rights treaties in its courts, yet it continues to be a consenting party to such treaties
when they are drafted. Many of the rights found in these treaties are not explicitly
addressed in United States law, making the treaties useful to support domestic legal
arguments. Because the criminalization of homelessness violates many rights protected
by international law, advocates can use such law as a framework within which to fight
criminalization.

Road, Berea Township and Another v. City of Johannesburg and Others, (24/07) [2008] ZACC 1 (19 Feb.
2008).

29

Constructive Alternatives to Criminalization
While many cities are pursuing criminalization measures, there are some examples of
governmental entities and service provider groups that are working to address street
homelessness in a more productive way. Although no city has completely ended
homelessness or completely eliminated all criminalization measures, the models below
can serve as positive examples of how to address the issue.
Alternative to food sharing restrictions, Cleveland, OH
While many cities are imposing restrictions on groups that share food with homeless
individuals in public, Cleveland has pursued a more productive approach to help
homeless persons obtain food. The City of Cleveland contracted with the Northeast Ohio
Coalition for the Homeless (NEOCH) to bring individuals and groups who serve food to
homeless people together to talk about how to improve services. The coordination effort
stemmed from a long-standing public debate related to serving food in downtown areas
of the city, especially the center of downtown called Public Square.
As part of the project, NEOCH coordinates all the professional outreach teams providing
services to homeless people who are living outside. NEOCH began this process by
organizing monthly meetings with outreach workers. The goal was to develop one
contact number so that individuals could call an outreach worker in lieu of calling law
enforcement about any concerns over a homeless person in a public space.
In addition, NEOCH coordinated a disjointed food sharing system with the goal of
eventually moving all the food providers indoors, but still supporting the right of groups
to share food with individuals who would like to eat outside. For example, NEOCH
found that on Sundays on Public Square in the center of downtown over 700 meals are
served by six different groups. However, on Monday nights no groups regularly shared
food on the Square. The first step was to eliminate duplication and to get every food
provider to agree to a uniform set of standards on the preparation and distribution of food.
The next step was to relocate the food distribution from the heavily traveled center of
downtown to a parking lot 18 blocks east. This was a hardship especially for those living
on the near west side of Downtown. In exchange for agreeing to the move, the food
sharing groups were given access to bathrooms as well as an indoor location during bad
weather.
The final step was making available an overnight indoor location in which any church
can bring food or provide warm clothing or spiritual counseling. Cleveland advocates
have thus far opened this indoor location only for two nights a week and only in the
winter on a trial basis. In 2009, advocates hope to find the funding for a seven day a
week overnight drop in center to serve those who choose not to go to shelters.
For more information, please contact the Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless at
neoch@neoch.org or 216.432.0540.

30

Downtown Street Team, Daytona Beach, FL
The Downtown Street Team officially kicked off the program in January 2009 with the
goal of reducing panhandling and homelessness in Daytona Beach. In order to reduce the
need for panhandling, the program provides participants with jobs and housing. To
participate in the program, a homeless individual must fill out an application that is
available at all local service providers and go through an interview process. Upon
admission to the Street Team, each individual not only has a job, but also may stay at the
Salvation Army and then may move to a transitional housing program. Under the
program, participants are hired to clean up the downtown area of Daytona Beach.
Though the program is relatively new, a number of participants have already left the
program to move on to other full-time jobs and housing.
The program was influenced by a similar program in Palo Alto, California, that
developed “kits” that other cities could purchase to help implement comparable
programs. Volusia/Flagler County Coalition for the Homeless, the city of Daytona
Beach, and Bo Brewer of People Business, Inc. purchased the kit to start the program and
city commissioner Rick Shiver currently heads the program. Participating organizations
include the Volusia/Flagler County Coalition for the Homeless, the Salvation Army, the
Daytona Beach Chamber of Commerce, and the Downtown Business Partners. The
Downtown Development Authority, the city of Daytona Beach, local businesses, and
private donations currently fund the program.
For more information, please contact the Volusia/Flagler County Coalition for the
Homeless at (386) 258-1855 or http://www.vfcch.org/.
“A Key Not a Card,” Portland, OR
As part of its ten year plan to end homelessness, the City of Portland has funded an
initiative, called “A Key Not a Card,” that enables outreach workers at various agencies
to offer permanent housing immediately to people living on the street. Five different
service provider agencies participate in the program. The funding from the city for
housing is flexible in that it can be used to pay rent, back rent, security deposits, and can
vary in the level of subsidy. The goal is to get people housed for 1 to 2 years while they
can secure permanent subsidies, public benefits, or employment, as appropriate.
From the program’s inception in 2005 through spring 2009, 936 individuals in 451
households have been housed through the program, including 216 households placed
directly from the street. At twelve months after placement, at least 74% of households
remain housed. At three and six months after placement, at least 93% and 87% remain
housed, respectively.
For fiscal year 2008/2009, the program was funded with $1.93 million in city general
funds.

31

For more information, visit http://www.portlandonline.com/bhcd/index.cfm?c=30140.
1811 Eastlake Project, Seattle, WA
1811 Eastlake project provides supportive housing for 75 formerly homeless men and
women living with chronic alcohol addiction. The project operator worked with county
officials to identify people who were the most frequent users of crisis services.
Placement in the housing was offered to 79 people and 75 of those individuals accepted
placement. Residents benefit from 24-hour, seven day a week supportive services
including onsite mental health and chemical dependency treatment, health care services,
daily meals and weekly outings to food banks, case management and payee services,
medication monitoring, and weekly community-building activities. Residents are
encouraged but not required to participate in treatment.
A first year analysis of the program found that it saved the county $2.5 million dollars in
one year by significantly cutting residents’ medical expenses, county jail bookings,
sobering center usage, and shelter usage. The savings dwarfed the project’s $1.1 million
operating costs. After one year, 66% of the residents remained in the housing. Residents
have voluntarily cut their alcohol consumption in half.
For more information, visit http://www.desc.org/1811.html.

32

Ten Meanest Cities
While most cities throughout the country either have laws or engage in practices that
criminalize homeless persons, some city laws or practices stand out as more egregious
than others in their attempt to criminalize homelessness. The National Law Center on
Homelessness & Poverty and the National Coalition for the Homeless have chosen the
following top 10 meanest cities during 2007 and 2008 based on one or more of the
following criteria: the number of anti-homeless laws in the city, the enforcement of those
laws and severity of penalties, the general political climate toward homeless people in the
city, local advocate support for the meanest designation, the city’s history of
criminalization measures, and the existence of pending or recently enacted
criminalization legislation in the city. Although some of the report’s top 10 meanest
cities have made some efforts to address homelessness in their communities, the punitive
practices highlighted in the report impede true progress toward solving the problem.

1. Los Angeles, CA
2. St. Petersburg, FL
3. Orlando, FL
4. Atlanta, GA
5. Gainesville, FL
6. Kalamazoo, MI
7. San Francisco, CA
8. Honolulu, HI
9. Bradenton, FL
10. Berkeley, CA

33

Narratives of the Meanest Cities
#1 Los Angeles, CA
A study by UCLA released in September 2007 found that Los Angeles was spending $6
million a year to pay for fifty extra police officers to crack down on crime in the Skid
Row area at a time when the city budgeted only $5.7 million for homeless services.
Advocates found that during an 11-month period 24 people were arrested 201 times, at an
estimated cost of $3.6 million for use of police, the jail system, prosecutors, public
defenders and the courts. Advocates asserted that the money could have instead provided
supportive housing for 225 people. Many of the citations issued to homeless persons in
the Skid Row area were for jaywalking and loitering, “crimes” that rarely produce written
citations in Los Angeles outside of Skid Row.
Crime apparently dropped 18 percent in 2006 due to the Safer City Initiative, the formal
name for the crackdown that added fifty extra patrols to the Skid Row area, and is
ongoing. According to the Los Angeles Times, crime declined 35 percent in the first
month of 2007. Nevertheless the Skid row “crackdown” promised by Los Angeles Police
Chief William J. Bratton has come under fire by advocates for homeless individuals, civil
rights attorneys, and homeless service providers. City leaders promised a strategy to end
homelessness, including housing and services to go along with clean-up efforts in Skid
Row. However, they have been slow to provide the promised housing.
Police brutality against homeless people intensified during the crackdown on crime in
Skid Row. In June 2007, the Los Angeles County Community Action Network reported
one example: two L.A. Police officers attacked a petite homeless woman, who may have
been mentally disabled, with clubs and pepper spray. Police reportedly beat her and tied
her down.
Though many business owners in the Skid Row area believe that the streets are cleaner
and safer due to the Safer City Initiative, the changes come at a substantial cost to the
homeless population. Advocates believe homeless residents have dispersed to areas
without services. According to an Associated Press article, in January 2006, an estimated
1,345 people were living on the streets in Skid Row. A year later, only 875 people
remained. Moving homeless individuals from Skid Row not only takes them away from
a familiar area, but also moves them farther from service providers. Around the time of
the police crackdown on Skid Row the providers in surrounding neighborhoods, such as
Santa Monica and Hollywood, noticed an increase in their homeless populations, a
problem for which they were unprepared. Richard, a homeless man interviewed by
Tidings Online, described the problem: “Unless you get [the homeless] a place to go,
they’ve got to go somewhere… They’re going to disperse. You hit a bunch of marbles in
the middle, they splatter.”
In June 2009, a UN Expert on Racism, Mr. Githu Muigai, introduced his report to the
United Nations Human Rights Council regarding his visit to the United States in May and
June of 2008, condemning the disparate law enforcement efforts against African

34

American homeless persons in Los Angeles’ Skid Row. The report, issued by the UN
Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination,
Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, drew special attention to the Skid Row area of Los
Angeles where law enforcement officers are increasingly arresting homeless persons for
minor violations under the Safer Cities Initiative. The report says racial disparities in
enforcement result in a “disproportionately high number of African-American homeless
persons [taken into] the criminal justice system.”
The tactics used by police officers in Skid Row have raised legal questions and have been
the target of legal scrutiny in court. In April 2007, a federal district court judge extended
an injunction that was originally issued in 2003 in a lawsuit, Fitzgerald v.City of Los
Angeles, filed by the ACLU to stop police from searching homeless people without
probable cause. Many homeless advocates feel that Los Angeles’ most vulnerable
population is being pointlessly targeted. When homeless individuals are cited for crimes,
even for the most innocent violations such as jaywalking or loitering, they are rarely able
to pay their fines. As a result, many are jailed and end up with a criminal record. Once a
person has a criminal record, it is more difficult for them to get access to housing
assistance and other services.
In December 2008, the ACLU and the city agreed to a settle the Fitzgerald case.
According to the settlement, police officers may not search anyone caught jaywalking or
sleeping on the street, and may not place handcuffs on anyone unless the officer is truly
concerned that the detainee may be harmful, compromise evidence, or may try to escape.
Due to the new mandate, Skid Row-placed officers are also required to attend trainings to
educate themselves about the constitutional requirements for searching and detaining
people.
In October 2007, the city settled another lawsuit – Jones v. City of Los Angeles -- in
which six homeless plaintiffs challenged a law that makes it illegal to sit or lay on
sidewalks. The city agreed not to enforce the law between the hours of 9 p.m. and 6 a.m.
until it builds 1,250 units of permanent supportive housing. The parties reached the
settlement after the plaintiffs, who had not been t successful in District Court, prevailed
before the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. The Ninth Circuit found that
enforcement of the law amounted to cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the 8th
Amendment, as there were thousands more homeless people in L.A. County than there
were shelter beds. Jones v. City of Los Angeles, 444 F.3d 1118 (9th Cir. 2006) vacated
per settlement 505 F.3d 1006 (9th Cir. 2007)
Officials say it will take three to five years to create the new housing contemplated by the
settlement agreement, at a cost of $125 million. The New York Times reported that City
Council officials applauded the settlement, which they said will help the local
government, advocacy groups, and homeless residents “move… forward toward our
shared goal of ending homelessness.” Bob Erlenbusch, former Executive Director of the
Los Angeles Coalition to End Homelessness and Hunger, was less optimistic, observing
that the 1,250 new units of housing would only aid 2.6 percent of the city’s homeless
population.

35

In February 2007, Los Angeles began a formalized program to decentralize the provision
of shelter and services for homeless people. The project had a price tag of $100 million
and called for the development of five centers throughout Los Angeles County to provide
shelter and other services for homeless individuals. The goal of the project was to
improve conditions on Skid Row. However, these efforts were temporarily halted
because many residents did not want the shelters and other services in their
neighborhoods.
Later in 2007, the California Senate passed, and Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger
signed into law the Fair Share Zoning Bill, which forces all California cities and counties
to make room in their zoning plans for transitional housing and homeless shelters. The
bill distributes housing and other services throughout the state instead of keeping them
centralized on Skid Row in Los Angeles. Although the bill does not force local
governments to build shelters, it prevents them from deterring organizations that do so.
Locations for these services are also unspecified, but the bill says that once a local
government chooses a site it cannot be re-revaluated or re-zoned even if local residents
complain.
#2 St. Petersburg, FL
On January 19, 2007, police and fire officials raided two homeless camps located near a
service provider after giving encampment residents a week’s notice to relocate. During
the raid, police destroyed and slashed tents, ruining nearly 20. A video was posted on
youtube.com showing the police cutting tents, some still occupied, with scissors and
knives. Writer Abhi Raghunathan of tampabay.com said that the video turned “St.
Petersburg … [into] a national poster child for cruelty against the homeless.”
A spokesman for the Fire and Rescue Department tried to justify the actions by saying,
“[The camps] were all in violation of [fire] codes.” Mayor Baker said he did not know
the police chief and a deputy mayor planned this action. According to the Orlando
Sentinel, a city council member called the raid an “embarrassment.”
During the raid, police slashed tents if the owners would not take them down. The
Sentinel quoted Police Chief Harmon as saying, “In hindsight, we didn’t discuss the
actual property issue, and we probably should have taken that into consideration.” After
the tent slashing, the City authorized a temporary tent city to be opened on a vacant lot
next to St. Vincent de Paul, a homeless service provider. That tent city was closed in
May 2007. In December 2007, a new tent city, Pinellas Hope, was established on the
outskirts of the city and is run by Catholic Charities.
Since early 2007, St. Petersburg has passed 6 new ordinances that target homeless people.
These ordinances include prohibitions on panhandling throughout most of downtown,
prohibit the storage of personal belongings on public property anywhere in the city, and
make it unlawful to sleep outside at various locations.

36

In January 2007, the Pinellas-Pasco Public Defender announced that he would no longer
represent indigent people arrested for violating municipal ordinances to protest what he
called excessive arrests of homeless individuals by the City of St. Petersburg. According
to numbers compiled by the public defender’s office, the vast majority of people booked
into the Pinellas County Jail on municipal ordinances were homeless individuals from St.
Petersburg.
Since the passage of an ordinance prohibiting outdoor storage of personal property in
2008, police officers and city workers have swept through the city with signs that tell
homeless individuals they have a couple of days to remove their belongings from the
street. These sweeps have concentrated on areas where homeless people often converge.
People who have had their property seized have 30 days to claim their personal items or
they will be discarded.
Also in 2008, the St. Petersburg Times reported that City Hall “kicked off the ‘Give a
Hand Up, Not a Hand Out’ education campaign in January 2008, which consisted of a
flier advising residents to redirect panhandlers to local shelters.”
#3 Orlando, FL
In 2006, the Orlando City Council passed a law that restricted groups sharing food with
25 or more people from doing so more than twice a year in each of the public parks
covered by the ordinance. The city claimed that homeless people who gathered weekly
for meals created safety and sanitation problems for the community.
City Commissioner Patty Sheehan originally pushed for the ordinance following
grievances from business owners and residents who complained about homeless people
causing problems at a downtown park popular with joggers and dog walkers.
Shortly after the ordinance was passed, the ACLU sued the city on behalf of First
Vagabonds Church and Orlando Food Not Bombs, two groups that share food with
homeless individuals on a weekly basis. Along with other national advocacy groups, the
National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty and the National Coalition for the
Homeless filed an amicus brief with the court in support of the ACLU’s position. While
the litigation was ongoing, Eric Montanez of Food Not Bombs was arrested for serving
“30 unidentified people food from a large pot utilizing a ladle.” After being held for
three hours, he was released on $250 bond and continued serving food. He explained that
the government’s inability to provide for homeless people is the reason Food not Bombs
and other organizations are helping homeless and hungry individuals. He believes the
community should fill in the gaps the government leaves until the government takes on
the responsibility. Montanez was eventually acquitted at trial.
Additionally, Matt Houston, a University of Central Florida student, was banned from
Lake Eola Park for a year because he violated Orlando’s group food sharing ordinance.
Houston said he will not let the ban stop him from continuing his service with Food Not

37

Bombs. The group has been sharing food with homeless people once a week since 2005
and does not plan to stop, despite the ordinance.
First Vagabonds Church of God and Orlando Food Not Bombs were victorious in their
lawsuit against the city, which argued that the ordinance violated their civil rights.
According to the Orlando Sentinel, in September 2008 a federal judge permanently
barred Orlando from enforcing the law prohibiting large group feedings of homeless
individuals in Lake Eola Park because it violates the groups’ First Amendment rights to
free speech and to freely exercise their religious beliefs. The Orlando Sentinel reported
that U.S. District Judge Gregory A. Presnell criticized the city’s ordinance saying it had
no rational basis. However, in January 2009, the City of Orlando appealed the District
Court decision. The appeal is pending.
Over the past several years, the city has passed increasingly severe restrictions on
panhandling. For a time, all panhandling was illegal in Orlando, but the city revised that
ordinance when courts began declaring similar ordinances in other cities unconstitutional.
At a September 2007 meeting, the city council approved a ban on panhandling at night.
Now, panhandling is legal only in rectangular boxes painted on the sidewalk during the
day. Police insist this ordinance is for the safety of all people and Mayor Buddy Dyer
stressed the importance of all residents feeling safe. In an Orlando Sentinel news report
Dyer stated, “we get reports just about every day of a panhandler using abusive language
or threatening people.” Violators can be charged with a $500 fine and/or 60 days in jail
for breaking the anti-panhandling laws even if the violator is not abusive.
#4 Atlanta, GA
After passing an ordinance in 2007 making panhandling illegal in the “tourist triangle,”
Atlanta’s Central Atlanta Progress, an alliance of downtown businesses, succeeded in
persuading Mayor Shirley Franklin to present an ordinance outlawing panhandling in
heavily visited downtown areas. The ban made panhandling illegal within the "tourist
triangle" and anywhere after dark. The ordinance also prohibits panhandling within 15
feet of an ATM, bus stop, taxi stand, pay phone, public toilet, or train station anywhere in
the city. Not even the police could describe the areas included in the “tourist triangle.”
As a result, enforcement has been sporadic except for “street sweeps,” demanded by the
developers of the Georgia Aquarium, the Atlanta Convention and Visitors Bureau, and
other businesses.
On August 2nd 2008, police officers in Atlanta began dressing as tourists in order to catch
people “aggressively begging” for money. This undercover effort was part of a “30-day
crackdown” conceived and implemented by the commander of the police, Maj. Khirus
Williams, who, according to the Atlanta Journal-Constitution, had “received letters from
visitors who said the begging was so bad that they were never going to come back to
Atlanta.” The newspaper noted that while under normal circumstances a tourist typically
did not return to testify in court against the defendant, Maj. Williams expressed hope that
“having officers pose as tourists or office workers” would result in more convictions
because the officers were certain to testify. By August 22, 2008, the officers arrested 44

38

people for panhandling and warned another 51. The Washington Post reported in
October 2008 that the sting resulted in 50 arrests.
In early September 2008, city officials announced a plan to install parking meters in five
downtown Atlanta locations as part of its “Give Change That Makes Sense” campaign.
The meters are meant to collect donations for selected organizations that aid homeless
people, such as United Way and the city owned Gateway Homeless Services Center.
Mayor Shirley Franklin was quoted in the Atlanta Journal-Constitution saying that the
meters would be an “alternative to panhandling.” The campaign was launched in
response to a study conducted by the convention and visitor’s bureau and Central Atlanta
Progress, an organization funded by downtown businesses, which found panhandling to
be a top complaint of tourists. Other studies report that tourism, Atlanta’s $11.4 billion
industry feeds the hotel-motel industry and has shown no decrease in the past two years.
Evaluation of the meter program in March did not provide very successful results, but the
city has decided to expand the program to include more meters across the city.
#5 Gainesville, FL
In September 2007, despite opposition from homeless advocates and city officials, the
Gainesville City Commission closed down all publicly owned portions of a large
homeless encampment – “Tent City” – as part of its 10-year plan to end homelessness. As
part of the plan, the City Commission approved a plan to spend up to $75,000
constructing a fence to keep people off the property, and only $20,000 to address the
housing and service needs of those impacted by the forced eviction (the City ultimately
committed $67,000 to fund additional beds, though only a handful of people were able to
meet the strict conditions attached to the assistance offered.)
Jon DeCarmine, Director of the Gainesville/Alachua County Office of Homelessness,
stressed the need to focus on “sheltering the residents of Tent City after they leave the
campsite.” Similarly, Theresa Harrison, chairwoman of the Alachua County Coalition
for the Homeless and Hungry, argued that it was “unrealistic for the city to assume that
housing [would] become available for those displaced from Tent City.” Harrison was
quoted by the Gainesville Sun prior to the closure of Tent City explaining that “the reality
is that [service providers are] stretched to the brink. There’s not enough emergency
shelter beds. There is not enough affordable housing space in this community.”
Finally, City Commissioner Jack Donovan, the only city official to vote against the
closure, argued that “relocating the residents from the camp was ‘premature and
unnecessary’ in light of concerns about shelter space in the county.”
By September 12th, 2007, the day on which Tent City was to be officially closed, most
homeless campers had already left following a week-long sweep of the site conducted by
armed, uniformed police officers. The exodus from Tent City was short-lived, however.
In November 2008, the Gainesville Sun reported that hundreds were residing in Tent
City. As of April 2009, the number of homeless people living on Tent City land has more
than doubled.

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In July 2007, the City of Gainesville unanimously passed an ordinance prohibiting
“pedestrians from receiving money from motorists.” More specifically, the ordinance
“ban[s] all transactions between a motorist and a pedestrian on streets, in bike lanes and
on bike paths within the city limits.” Thus, in Gainesville, it is a crime for an occupant of
a vehicle to donate money to panhandlers if the transaction occurs while the vehicle is in
traffic on a public street. Both the panhandler and motorist can be charged with a
“municipal ordinance violation, a crime that carries a potential penalty of $500 [or] six
months in jail [or both] per offense.” According to the Gainesville Sun, city officials
believed that the law was necessary to prevent aggressive panhandling and to ensure
panhandlers’ safety near major roadways. Gainesville’s current laws prohibit “aggressive
panhandling, panhandling in a transportation area such as a bus stop or bike path,
panhandling in public buildings, panhandling within 12 feet of an outdoor cafe, ATM,
pay phone or entrance to a building, and solicitation on public right of way.”
Southern Legal Counsel, a non-profit public interest law firm, challenged the ordinance
as a violation of a settlement agreement it had reached with the city in 2006. That lawsuit
had challenged two state statutes and an ordinance that prohibited homeless individuals
from standing on public sidewalks while holding signs soliciting donations. The
resulting settlement from that lawsuit enjoined the city from amending or enacting “any
ordinances which prohibit plaintiffs or other persons from engaging in protected First
Amendment activity of standing on a public sidewalk, peacefully holding a sign soliciting
charitable donations on behalf of or for their own personal benefit and not otherwise
violating any lawful statute, ordinance, or order.”
Southern Legal Counsel challenged the ordinance prohibiting transactions between
motorists and pedestrians as a violation of the 2006 settlement on the grounds that it
made it a crime to seek donations from a motorist while standing on a sidewalk. In
response, the city argued that the ordinance was legally permissible because it did not
prohibit individuals from engaging in conduct the 2006 settlement was meant to protect “holding signs peacefully on the sidewalk.” Ultimately, the U.S. District Court for the
Northern District of Florida found that the city had not violated the terms of 2006
agreement.
Most recently, the City Planning Board voted to enforce restrictions on the number of
daily meals that could be served by St. Francis House, one of two downtown shelters and
soup kitchens. A recent surge in need had the shelter serving approximately 250 meals a
day, despite previously unenforced restrictions capping daily meals at 130. In March
2009, the Board voted to begin enforcing those restrictions with no additional plans in
place to accommodate the 120+ hungry people who are now turned away each day once
the facility reaches its limit. Lynch Park sits across the street from the shelter, and has
historically absorbed the overflow of people who cannot access shelter or services at St.
Francis House. The City has recently proposed to turn that public space into a fenced-in
dog park that could also accommodate additional meal services for homeless individuals
that currently take place elsewhere downtown.

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#6 Kalamazoo, MI
In the summer of 2007, several members of Michigan People’s Action were arrested for
sleeping in public parks following the enactment of an ordinance prohibiting such
activities. In addition, homeless individuals who have been ticketed for sleeping in
public parks have been unable to obtain housing. Those homeless individuals and
Michigan People’s Action members who were ticketed or arrested for sleeping in public
parks challenged their arrests in court. By early September 2008, all charges had been
dropped against the homeless individuals and activists.
During the same period, homeless advocates and homeless persons began having
difficulty accessing the Kalamazoo Transportation Center (a public transportation bus
station). Public Safety Chief James Mallery said that due to a large number of calls
regarding drugs, fights, loitering, and panhandling, they were attempting to move people
out of there that did not appear to be using the buses. However, Michigan People’s
Action claimed that law enforcement was particularly targeting people who appeared to
be homeless. Michigan People’s Action said that homeless people were being harassed at
the Transportation Center by officers who asked for their identification and proof that
they were waiting for a bus to arrive.
Even after being urged by Michigan People’s Action to stop the police sweeps at the
Transportation Center, the police continued to do so and arrested and jailed dozens of
homeless people and activists for violation of the local anti-loitering law. Activists and
the homeless individuals arrested in the Transportation Center challenged the arrests in
court arguing the loitering law used to arrest them is unconstitutionally vague. Those
charges were eventually dismissed. Kalamazoo has instituted a new set of transportation
center rules. Michigan People’s Action is concerned these new rules will be used to
continue to target people who appear to be homeless. Mike Evans of Michigan People’s
Action reported in an email to NCH that “Over 60 poor and homeless people have been
arrested in police sweeps at the transportation center in 2008.”
#7 San Francisco, CA
According to a San Francisco Chronicle article, San Francisco police issue about 10,000
citations each year for quality-of-life crimes such as camping, blocking sidewalks, and
drinking in public. Violations typically require a court appearance and failing to appear
results in issuance of a misdemeanor warrant. About 90% of violators fail to appear.
However, people who do appear in court and challenge their citations often have their
fines reduced, or their cases dismissed, in part because the city does not send prosecutors
to the hearings. The San Francisco Chronicle reported that Paul Henderson, Assistant
District Attorney, said as a result of absences, “defendants weren’t being held
accountable for transgressions.” The city planned to change that, and started assigning
prosecutors to cases to ensure that the accused did not get off easily.
Homeless advocates said the approach is a misuse of resources. They argued that
criminalizing these activities is unfair when there is a shortage of affordable housing and

41

social services. Many people cannot afford to pay fines, and warrants prevent them from
accessing government aid for which they might qualify. Responding to this criticism,
prosecutors decided to dismiss fines if the defendant had proof that he or she had
received 20 hours of social services per citation. However, prosecutors do not actually
offer any services to defendants or help defendants enroll in any program. Moreover,
defendants are still prosecuted if they do not have proof that they are currently receiving
services because they are on waiting lists for services. Thus, the presence of prosecutors
in court increases the city’s efforts to punish people for violations that they cannot avoid.
Advocates also argue that it is unfair for the city to spend money on public prosecutors
when it does not provide defense attorneys to represent people facing these charges.
Homeless people are not entitled to a public defender when they face infraction charges.
The organization Religious Witness with Homeless People (RWHP) originally released a
report in August 2006 to raise awareness regarding the excessive cost and ineffectiveness
of “quality of life” ordinances, particularly when compared to successful supportive
housing initiatives.57 RWHP completed an extensive review of multiple city documents
from the police and sheriff’s departments, the district attorney’s and public defender’s
offices, as well as the Traffic Division and Criminal Division of San Francisco Superior
Court. RWHP determined that the City of San Francisco spent $9,847,027 on 56,567
“quality of life” citations between January 2004 and March 2008 that targeted homeless
individuals for activities ranging from blocking the sidewalk to camping in the park.
Rabbi Peretz Wolf-Prusan said that, “[t]he Administration has become addicted to using
the police as social service agencies.” The group reported that the issuance of citations
sent otherwise innocent people into the criminal justice system, making it more difficult
for them to escape homelessness and poverty. Michael Bien of RWHP explained, “[a]
quality-of-life citation begins an extremely expensive process . . . that includes police
officers, police clerks, court commissioners, and court deputies. Then there’s scheduling,
copying, filing, data entry, testifying, booking, reporting, and completing voluminous
forms.” The group pointed out that the money used in issuing quality of life citations
could be used to provide supportive housing to 492 people, put 300 people in a three
month detox center, or pay the salaries of 113 psychiatric outreach workers.
The city also toughened its stance on homeless encampments by prohibiting cooking and
modifying any landscaping area. This included putting up shelters. These measures
allowed the police to arrest campers at any time of day. The San Francisco Chronicle
reported that the city already had a park code that did not allow modifying “the landscape
in any way in order to create a shelter or accumulate household furniture or appliances or
construction debris in any park.” Additionally, homeless people are not allowed to sleep
in the parks between 8 p.m. and 8 a.m., which Mayor Gavin Newsom believes will rid
parks of homeless people and the trash and debris they sometimes leave behind.
57

Religious Witness with Homeless People, A Study To Determine the Extent and Cost of the Enforcement
of ‘ Quality of Life’ Ordinances Against Homeless Individuals in San Francisco during the Newsom
Administration (January 2004-March 2008), available at http://www.religiouswitnesshome.org (last
visited March 4, 2009).

42

However, if the individual does not have an outstanding citation and accepts social
services (addiction treatment, other medical attention, or temporary housing assistance)
within 30 hours of issuance of the sleeping citation, they will not be considered in
violation of the new sleeping code.
In order to discourage people from giving spare change directly to homeless people, and
to keep the panhandlers out of sight, San Francisco’s parking department donated
“homeless parking meters.” Street Sheet, the local street newspaper, reported that the
message on the meters read, “Be a part of the change, don’t give change.” The change
was distributed to different agencies serving homeless people. The author of the article,
TJ Johnston, argued that he found this to be an ineffective idea. After all the costs of
installing and paying a PR person, the city may not have even generated that much
money. He ended the article by writing, “better yet, how about promoting real change
instead of just collecting it?”
#8 Honolulu, HI
Since 2006, the City Council has closed a large number of beach parks on the leeward
coast of Oahu for “cleaning,” sending teams of police officers to remove people from
their temporary homes; the Council has also banned overnight sleeping in at least seven
leeward coast parks in two years. According to the Honolulu Advertiser, a local
newspaper, City Council Member Todd Apo said it was important that homeless
individuals not get too closely attached to certain beaches or parks because it makes it
harder to move them when the time comes. “When they put up structures and really
move in, it’s just more difficult to deal with them later,” Apo said. In response to a
Hawaii Supreme Court decision striking the City and County of Honolulu’s anti-camping
law, the Honolulu City Council simply passed yet another anti-camping law in August
2008 to make it easier to move homeless campers out of public parks.
The ban on overnight sleeping has not worked – homeless individuals simply stay up at
night and sleep during the day, making it even more difficult for them to find
employment. Because tourism is so important to the economy of Honolulu, city officials
feel that it is important to clear the major parks of homeless people: according to the
Honolulu Advertiser, Council Member Charles Djou said, “Having it go on at such a
prominent park is bad for the economy.”
The City Council seems particularly aggrieved at the sleeping habits of the homeless
population: they have proposed bills making it a crime to sleep at a bus stop and have
spent thousands of dollars retrofitting bus stops to discourage sleeping. In November
2008, the City and County of Honolulu replaced benches at bus stops with round concrete
stools in response to complaints about homeless individuals sleeping at the stops. Street
Roots, a street newspaper located in Portland, Oregon, reported that bus officials said that
the problem is not new, just “more visible as more people ride the bus.” According to
Street Roots, the city spent $11,000 on the seating initiative as of November 2008. The
Honolulu Advertiser reported that city employees offer help to displaced homeless people
when benches are removed. Street Roots reported that advocates feel that the new
initiative is part of a series of city policies designed to “push the homeless out of sight.”
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However, as Street Roots reports, “the city says its effort to reclaim everything from
parks to benches to bus stops is about making sure everyone has equal access to public
spaces.”
Homeless service providers spoke out against the new ordinance voicing their concerns
about the lack of adequate shelter space and the criminalization of homelessness. The
Honolulu Advertiser reported that Bob Erb, founder of the Waikiki Beach Outreach
Ministry, thinks homelessness is “getting worse” in Waikiki and believes the city should
find more positive ways to help homeless individuals. “Let’s find them a shelter so they
don’t have to sleep on the bus stop,” said Erb. Doran Porter, Executive Director of the
Affordable Housing and Homeless Alliance, an advocacy agency and homeless service
provider, similarly explained that, “we’re dealing with the side effects of the problem
rather than finding solutions to the actual problem.” The ACLU also voiced concern
about the new ordinance. The Honolulu Advertiser reported that an ACLU attorney,
Laurie Temple, said that this bill was “criminalizing homelessness and exacerbating the
problem.”
Both the City Council and the Hawaii State Legislature have also been considering
legislation to purchase one-way airplane tickets for homeless individuals to send them to
other states.
#9 Bradenton, FL
In early 2007, a Bradenton police officer was punished for attempting to help a homeless
woman he arrested maintain her possessions. Officer Nicholas Evans arrested a homeless
woman, whose entire collection of possessions was in a shopping cart. Evans moved the
cart by pulling it alongside his patrol car for the entire 12-mile drive to the county jail.
Evans was criticized by supervisors for bringing negative attention upon himself and the
department. Supervisors condemned him for failing to follow state laws and for unsafely
operating a vehicle.
While homeless advocates praised Evans’ actions, Police Chief Michael Radzilowski
responded, “I think they are misguided. I don’t think they understand a police officer’s
responsibility in protecting the public safety.” In the February 2, 2007 issue of the
Bradenton Herald, Adrian Lazeroff, Executive Director of the Suncoast Partnership to
End Homelessness replied, “I am not in a position to decide whether a person did the
correct thing as a police officer. But I am certainly supportive of respecting the rights of
homeless individuals, including the right they have to have their possessions taken to
corrections facilities.” Evans was suspended for 30 days for his misconduct.
In October 2007, three homeless men won a legal battle when the state decided not to
prosecute them for violating Bradenton’s lodging ordinance. The law requires police to
drive homeless persons to a shelter, but it does not make clear what actions police should
taken when a shelter is full. Furthermore, as The Herald Tribune noted, “a person who
refuses a ride can be arrested for violating the ordinance.” Because police did not offer to

44

take the three men to a shelter, and because the men did not have bedding, the state
decided to drop the charges.
Homeless advocates say the law has been ineffective in reducing homelessness. City
leaders and police say the law is helpful, and police are fair. Court records reveal that
since the law was enacted in August 2006, there have been only 24 court cases for people
who have violated the ordinance. According to the Herald Tribune, City Council
member Bemis Smith said, “It appears to me that the police have shown pretty restrained
use of the ordinance.”
#10 Berkeley, CA
On June 12, 2007, Berkeley’s City Council unanimously passed the “Public Commons
for Everyone” initiative to “clear the streets of aggressive and disruptive behavior.” This
law targets a wide range of behavior, including lying on or blocking the sidewalk,
smoking near doorways, having a shopping cart, tying animals to fixed objects, littering,
drinking in public, public urination and defecation and shouting in public.
The two-part law authorizes penalties for minor public offenses while extending funding
for services including public restrooms. Critics say the law is unfairly aimed at homeless
individuals, but defenders argue that it will affect everyone: college students are caught
doing these acts as often as homeless people. Berkeley has long had a reputation as a
liberal, open-minded town that provided plenty of social services, which in turn attracted
a large homeless population. According to one study, although it represents just 7% of
Alameda County’s total population, Berkeley now hosts 40% of the county’s chronically
homeless people.
Osha Neumann, an attorney who defends homeless individuals, told Indybay.org that
homeless people are frightened by these measures and many are thinking about leaving
town. He also indicated that funding for meals and other services for homeless people
have been reduced, and there are not enough shelter beds.
Homeless advocates fought vehemently to stop the Public Commons initiative because
they believe it victimizes the defenseless. Additionally, they argue that the $2 million in
annual funding for the initiative would be better spent on homeless services. The Los
Angeles Times reported that council member Dona Spring abstained from several votes
because “there is no detox available, there are no (new) services. I see no place in this
package to help people get out of poverty.”
On June 8, 2008, the Berkeley City Council passed an ordinance repealing a 1946
loitering ordinance, which made it “unlawful for any person to loiter about any school or
public place at or near which schoolchildren attend.” The City Council acted after Kim
Nemirow filed a suit challenging the law as unconstitutional. Nemirow was issued a
citation in 2007 for loitering while resting on a blanket in Berkeley’s Willard Park with
her wheelchair nearby. After the repeal, the Oakland Tribune quoted Nemirow saying,
“It makes it a little more difficult to criminalize homeless people.” Osha Neumann,

45

Nemirow’s attorney with the East Bay Community Law Center, agreed and said, “This
one just didn’t make any sense at all. What the heck are parks for, if not for loitering?
It’s only poor people who loiter. The rich never loiter. They just engage in leisure time
activities.”

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Narratives of Other Cities
In addition to the cities referenced above, many of the following cities have also passed
laws or implemented practices that target homeless individuals. The narratives below
provide examples of both positive and negative ways in which cities around the country
approached street homelessness in 2007 and 2008.
Anne Arundel County, MD
In 2007, the Maryland General Assembly passed a law that prohibits panhandling by
roadways. According to the Washington Post, Anne Arundel County joined a growing
list of “counties that have adopted such measures” to eliminate panhandling.
Ashland, OR
In October 2008, the Ashland City Council passed an anti-camping ordinance,
prohibiting camping “in or on any sidewalk, street, alley, land, public right-of-way, park,
or any other publicly-owned property or under any bridge or viaduct, unless otherwise
specifically authorized by [the Ashland City Code].” In addition, the law prohibited
“sleeping on public benches between the hours of 9:00 pm and 8:00 am” and sleeping on
“any pedestrian or vehicular entrance to public or private property abutting a public
sidewalk.” The ACLU Southern Oregon Chapter, argued that the “Prohibited Camping”
ordinance was cruel and unusual punishment and proposed several revisions in its report,
“Decriminalizing Poverty: Reform of Ashland’s Camping Ordinance.” On November
5th, 2008, the City Council amended the ordinance, adopting many of the ACLU of
Oregon’s recommendations, including providing notice of the removal of property from a
campsite in English and Spanish, providing 60-day storage for confiscated property
during which “it will be reasonably available to any individual claiming ownership,”
lowering the related offense from an “infraction” to a “violation,” and limiting the
penalty to up to 48 hours of community service.
Athens, GA
In June 2008, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution characterized Athens as a “regional hub
for the homeless.” According to the newspaper, “homeless people from surrounding
counties are routinely dropped off downtown” by law enforcement officers. The
unfamiliar faces seen around College Square, an urban area across from the University of
Georgia campus, have raised concerns about the city’s growing homeless population.
Because of this influx, the Downtown Athens Business Association has pushed the local
government to toughen its panhandling law, which at the time of the release of this report
only prohibits aggressive or persistent begging.
Atlantic City, NJ
In 2007, police in Atlantic City conducted sweeps under the boardwalk in search of
homeless people violating a city ordinance, which prohibits “venture[ing] beneath the

47

boards.” Instead of issuing citations, the police and community outreach agencies
directed those found to homeless service providers. Captain Joseph Nolan, quoted by
NBC 40, explained that, “the city has a social responsibility to both civilians whether
millionaires or penniless and we try to treat people equally, we’re trying to get them
help.”
Captain Nolan further noted that his team found between thirty and forty people sleeping
under the boardwalk during previous sweeps from 2005 and 2006. A May 2007 sweep,
however, concluded with seven homeless persons being directed toward social services.
Austin, TX
In late 2007, the Austin City Council considered a proposal to extend its laws prohibiting
panhandling to all roadways and areas within 1,000 feet of schools and day care centers.
By December 2007, however, the council decided to fund studies of the panhandling
population before acting on the proposed extension. According to the Austin-American
Statesman, the Austin/Travis County Health and Human Services Department hired
University of Texas Social Work students to survey panhandlers. By August 2008, Dr.
Laura Lein, a researcher with University of Texas at Austin, explained in a press release
that roadside solicitors are “usually experiencing multiple barriers to work, including
health and mental health problems, recent losses of home . . . lack of identification and
difficulties with transportation, food and other basic necessities for work.” She further
found that Austin’s panhandlers did not generally “engage in roadside solicitation for
years-long periods,” but, on average, five months. Finally, she found that, “most
solicitors made a persistent effort to work and, in fact, had a strong history of working.
They reported efforts to obtain jobs, including the use of temporary agencies, day labor
services and applications for work. Most solicitors had worked for pay in the 12 months
preceding the interview, but often at insecure jobs.”
Richard R. Troxell, a National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) Board Member as well
as a member of Help the Homeless Inc. in Austin, discussed similar statistics in his
report, “Solicitation/Panhandling.” Troxell noted surveys conducted by the University of
Texas School of Social Work, Unsheltered Homeless Count Survey, City of Houston
Health & Human Services Department and House the Homeless, Inc. between 2007 and
2008, which found that unemployment and inadequate income were key causes of
homelessness. In particular, a House the Homeless, Inc. survey of 536 people
experiencing homelessness in November 2007 found that 38% were “working at the time
of the interview” and 91% said “they would work 40 hours for a living wage.”
Baltimore, MD
On August 15, 2007, employees from the Downtown Partnership of Baltimore, a nonprofit organization supported by local businesses, cleared out a homeless encampment
under a bridge along Guilford Avenue and destroyed the property of some of the
individuals living there. The encampment had grown steadily after a large part of the
homeless population was forced to move away from City Hall.

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In a more productive approach to encampments, the City of Baltimore worked with local
service providers in December 2007 to address the potential fire hazards of an
encampment in a way that did not involve law enforcement officials. Outreach workers
went to the site and the city offered shelter, 30-day hotel stays, and Section 8 vouchers to
the group of individuals living at the encampment. In addition, the city’s Department of
Homeless Services opened the Guilford Avenue shelter in January 2008 to ensure that
homeless individuals had a place to go during the winter.
Billings, MT
In May 2007, the City Council of Billings passed an aggressive solicitation ordinance.
The ordinance banned all commercial solicitation in certain areas, as well as any
solicitation at night. The ordinance also made it illegal to “aggressively solicit” and/or
give false or misleading information by claiming or pretending to be from out of town, a
veteran, disabled, or homeless while soliciting. The penalties for a violation include a
citation with mandatory court appearance and a fine of up to a $100.
Birmingham, AL
Birmingham police targeted encampments of homeless persons living under interstates
and near rail yards in May 2007. This marked a new approach for the police after years
of maintaining an amicable relationship with the homeless encampment.
Boerne, TX
With the city frustrated by a growing homeless population, City Council members voted
unanimously to approve an amendment to the city’s code in late 2007. Recommended by
Police Chief Gary Miller, the amended ordinance would require all panhandlers to
purchase a license—at a cost of $115. The Boerne Star reported that Police Chief Miller
stated, “Some of [the panhandlers] have made out quite well… They eat at Whataburger
and Chili’s three times a day and buy tents at Wal-Mart… Hopefully, [the ordinance] will
cause them to move on down the road.” Other solicitors, peddlers, and vendors are
already required to have the permit. However, advocates point out that many homeless
individuals do not have the money or the identification documents necessary for a permit.
Those caught panhandling without a license would receive a warning for the first offense,
and repeat violators would face a fine of up to $500.
Boise, ID
There are between 2,000 to 3,000 people experiencing homelessness in and around the
City of Boise. Boise’s 10 Year Plan to Reduce and Prevent Chronic Homelessness,
estimated that approximately 300 homeless individuals and families are unsheltered and
are forced to live on the streets or in their vehicles.
The homeless problem in Boise was exacerbated in 2005 when the City leased the
Community House shelter to a Rescue Mission that only provided shelter to men.
49

Community House previously provided emergency shelter to men, women, and families
and also provided transitional housing and SRO units to low-income persons without any
religious participation requirements. The City could not relocate all of the families with
children and single female residents because the other shelters that housed these
individuals were at capacity and had waiting lists. The Salvation Army shelter, that does
house single women and families with children, was threatened with closure unless it
secured a new conditional use permit to expand its capacity to meet the increased shelter
demand. Other shelters have religious or limited-stay requirements that deter many
persons from staying and cause them to sleep in public places. As a result of the lack of
shelter, homeless persons have been sleeping on vacant land and alleys around the
shelters, in vehicles, under bridges, in the vegetation along the Boise River that runs
through the City and up in the foothills that surround the area.
In 2007, the Boise Police began using bike patrol officers to aggressively enforce the
anti-camping ordinance against homeless persons for sleeping or engaging in the daily
life activities in public places despite the fact the shelters have no room to legally house
them. Police officers have cited hundreds of homeless individuals for violations of the
City’s anti-camping ordinance, Section 9-10-02 of the Boise Municipal Code. Section 910-02 makes it “unlawful for any person to use any of the streets, sidewalks, parks or
public places as a camping place at any time.” In addition, the police have begun citing
homeless persons under the Disorderly Conduct Ordinance, Section 6-01-05(A), which
defines disorderly conduct as “occupying, lodging or sleeping in any building, structure
or place, whether private or public place, or in any motor vehicle without the permission”
of the owner of the property. A new development is that a homeless person was recently
cited under the state statute for “theft” for allegedly attempting to plug in a cell phone
charger at a park picnic shelter.
When homeless persons are cited, they are often arrested for outstanding warrants as a
result of failure to appear on other Code violations such as open containers, prior
camping citations, and the failure to pay fines. Because they are homeless, disabled
and/or fearful of the legal system, they may not appear at their criminal proceedings, do
not understand how to make an appearance, and/or cannot obtain legal assistance. A
person can spend several days in jail until they are released by pleading guilty and getting
credit for time served. The courts have sentenced individuals to jail for up to 90 days for
violation of the anti-camping ordinance. The jail charges them $25 per day for the cost
of incarceration and reports any failure to pay fines to collection agencies. This process
makes it more difficult for these persons to obtain public housing. While it costs $9.00 a
day to provide emergency shelter for one person, the County pays $55.00 per day to
house an individual in jail.
Boston, MA
After a rise in drug-related crimes culminating in a shooting that left a bullet lodged in
the State House, police began enforcing a nightly curfew in Boston Common Park in
August 2007. This left approximately 50 homeless people with the task of finding a new
place to sleep.

50

City officials arranged for vans to transport homeless individuals from the park to
shelters each night, but many are reluctant to leave. Those who took up the offer found
themselves sleeping in the lobbies of crowded shelters or driving to several shelters
before finding available beds. When shelter officials offered to bring people to a shelter
on Long Island in the Boston Harbor, the homeless people declined, citing an abundance
of violence, disease, and drugs. They said it would be safer to sleep at the Common.
Brookville, PA
In November 2008, the ACLU filed a lawsuit on behalf of the First Apostles’ Doctrine
Church against the Borough of Brookville, claiming its officials violated the church's
religious-liberty rights under the federal Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons
Act, which prohibits government entities from imposing land use regulations that
substantially burden the exercise of religion, the First and Fourth Amendments, and
Pennsylvania's Religious Freedom Restoration Act. The lawsuit stems from Brookville’s
attempt to shut down the church’s shelter and an incident where four Brookville police
officers forced their way into the church through windows without a warrant and ordered
the homeless individuals there to leave the church sanctuary.
Cave Creek, AZ
In September 2007, the Cave Creek Town Council passed an anti-solicitation ordinance
prohibiting solicitation of employment, business, or contributions from the occupants of
vehicles when standing on or next to a street or highway, including on the sidewalk.
On March 26, 2008 the American Civil Liberties Union filed a lawsuit against the town
of Cave Creek, the town’s mayor, and the deputy mayor. In the lawsuit the ACLU argues
that the ordinance violates the individuals’ right to free speech, which includes soliciting
employment.
Charlotte, NC
At a place in uptown Charlotte called “the wall,” homeless people often congregate to
enjoy a meal. However, due to complaints from nearby business owners, the
longstanding practice of volunteers sharing food with homeless individuals is being
threatened. The police department cracked down on misdemeanor crimes, such as
littering and trespassing and suggested moving the meals to another location, but no other
permissible locations have been offered. According to the Charlotte Observer, the deputy
police chief, Jerry Sennett, said, “police are not trying to stop advocates from feeding the
homeless. It is not the intention of police officers to create an intimidating atmosphere or
harass anyone… We’re there to protect the adjoining property owners based on
complaints from them and make sure the feeding is done in an orderly manner.” It was
reported in a blog that one woman was arrested for disorderly conduct while she was
standing up to the police and arguing on behalf of homeless people.

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Chattanooga, TN
On October 2, 2007, after giving two-weeks notice in late September 2007, Norfolk
Southern Railway bulldozed a tent city that had existed beside the tracks for the last 3
years. Norfolk Southern decided to bulldoze the camp because homeless people were
wandering across the tracks and were soliciting workers on stopped trains for food, water,
and money. Local advocate Ron Fender of Community Kitchen indicated that he
expected that most of the 30-40 residents would try to relocate to a different part of town.
Community Kitchen and Forrest Avenue United Methodist Church helped former
residents find temporary housing. Norfolk Southern also donated an unspecified amount
of money to help find housing.
Cincinnati, OH
In May 2007, the Greater Cincinnati Coalition for the Homeless and its partners
announced the results of a study58 in which the groups studied public records from
Hamilton County Jails from the period between October 1, 2005 and September 30, 2006.
In addition, the groups studied the jail roster on an almost daily basis for the period
between August 28, 2006 and November 2, 2006. After examining the public records,
the groups identified 2,900 public records that included information about 840 homeless
individuals’ interactions with the criminal justice system.
The study noted that using the criminal justice system to deal with the consequences of
street homelessness is a rather expensive approach, since it costs $65 per bed per day in
the jail. The study pointed to a Lewin Group study that estimated permanent supportive
housing costs on average only $30 a day, a much less costly and more productive way of
approaching homelessness.59 This cost difference is particularly significant given that
supportive housing is permanent, unlike emergency shelters or even transitional housing,
and allows residents to continue working with their case managers as well as receive
needed mental health and substance abuse treatment.
A four-year-old legal battle ended in the fall of 2007 when the Cincinnati City Council
unanimously voted to settle a lawsuit challenging panhandling registration, a requirement
that panhandlers in Cincinnati go through a process to register themselves with the city of
Cincinnati. The settlement provided for a substantially revised solicitation ordinance that
eliminated registration requirements and made time, place and manner restrictions on
panhandling significantly less onerous. In addition, the city agreed to pay $10,000 in
attorneys’ fees.
Larry Winslow, a homeless man, filed a lawsuit against the City of Cincinnati in U.S.
District Court challenging an Ohio state law that was used to prohibit him from staying at
a shelter called the Drop Inn Center after his conviction as a sex offender. The law he
58

Greater Cincinnati Coalition for the Homeless, Criminalization of Homeless Individuals in Cincinnati,
http://www.cincihomeless.org/ (2007).
59
Lewin Group, Costs of Serving Homeless Individuals in Nine Cities,
http://documents.csh.org/documents/ke/csh_lewin2004.PDF (2004).

52

challenged prevents sex-offenders from living in buildings within 1,000 feet of schools or
day-care centers. Because he was unable to stay at the Center, Winslow lived outside. In
the lawsuit, he claimed that he was diagnosed with walking pneumonia after having to
live outside.
On February 16, 2007, county prosecutors gave Larry Winslow permission to stay at the
Drop Inn Center for a few days while his lawyers attempted to get him exempted from a
state sex offender law.
County prosecutors had planned to meet again to see if Winslow could remain in the
shelter. Winslow’s attorney argued it made sense for Winslow to stay at the shelter
because housing will keep him off the streets and officers will know where to find him.
The case was eventually dropped because Winslow left the area.
Citrus Heights, CA
The Sacramento Bee reported that in early September 2008 the city of Citrus Heights
passed new ordinances to “combat the city’s homeless problem.” The ordinances, which
prohibit camping without a permit or possessing an open container, took effect in October
2008. According to the Sacramento Bee, civil rights attorney Mark Merin decried the
policies as criminalizing homelessness and being overly broad in their scope. The
Sacramento Bee reported that Lt. Jeff Mackanin said the intent of the ordinances was not
to criminalize those without shelter. He pointed out that officers will have to give 72
hours’ notice to people caught camping illegally on public or private land before citing
them. Lt. Mackanin told The Sacramento Bee this will give them time to collect their
belongings and find a spot in a shelter. However, the Sacramento Bee reports Citrus
Heights has no homeless shelters.
Cleveland, OH
An anti-panhandling law passed by Cleveland City Council in 2005 was scheduled to
sunset in October of 2006. However, in November of 2006, the Council elected to make
the law permanent – thereby ignoring the one concession put into the law in order to
reach a compromise with local advocates. No one representing the opposition was
notified of, nor invited to, the hearing. The law prohibits individuals from soliciting
within 10 feet of an entrance to a building or parking lot; within 15 feet of a public toilet
facility; and within 20 feet of a bus stop, line of pedestrians, ATM machine, valet zone,
and outdoor patio. Following an individual or acting in an aggressive manner during
solicitation is also prohibited, as is asking an individual for a contribution more than
once. At the time of its enactment as a permanent city law, hundreds of people had been
ticketed, although only one of those people had actually paid the $250 fine.
From 2006 to 2008, city officials, including law enforcement officers, worked with
advocates to relocate homeless people who slept in sensitive locations. In 2000, the city
had signed a binding legal agreement as part of a settlement monitored by a federal court
to resolve a case challenging sweeps of homeless persons. In the settlement, the City
agreed not to arrest or threaten to arrest anyone sleeping on the sidewalk within the City
53

of Cleveland. In response to a fire started by a homeless person at the Convention
Center, the City began working with outreach workers and advocates to relocate
homeless people from the Convention Center, the airport and a tent city near Cleveland
Browns Stadium. These moves were done in a cooperative manner, and many of those
resistant to shelter received housing. All of these locations were on private property or
located in high security locations like the airport, and so did not fall under the 2000
settlement regarding sweeps.
In July of 2007, during the City Council’s summer session the City passed a 10 p.m.
curfew on Public Square, a popular location for homeless people to sleep. The Council
declared Public Square a park and thus was subject to the 10 p.m. curfew for everyone
including homeless people. Activists protested, but homeless people just moved to other
locations just off of the Square.
Colorado Springs, CO
The Gazette reported that the Colorado Veterans Alliance requested at a town meeting in
October 2008 that the city stop its sweeps of homeless encampments, as the sweeps
amounted to illegal searches and seizures of homeless persons’ property. The city
worked with Keep Colorado Springs Beautiful, a nonprofit that received $45,000 last
year from the city, to conduct the sweeps.
The Colorado Veterans Alliance gave notice of its intent to sue the city and the “Keep
Colorado Springs Beautiful” group that supervises the sweeps if the city does not end
what the director of the Veterans Alliance, Rick Duncan, called its “illegal activities.”
The Gazette reported that shortly thereafter Mayor Lionel Rivera and other city leaders
said that Colorado Springs would “suspend publicly financed cleanups of homeless
camps until the city can clarify legal and ethical issues surrounding the monthly sweeps.”
According to an article in the Denver Post, dated February 16, 2009, the city is
contemplating changing the way it deals with homeless encampments. The new rules
would require the nonprofit Keep Colorado Springs Beautiful to “post a notice in areas
where a cleanup is planned, giving the occupants 72 hours’ warning.” Further, the city is
contemplating creating a storage space for confiscated property, so that individuals may
later reclaim their property.
Concord, NH
In Concord, state representatives took action to fix a loophole in the law that places
people who urinate in public on the sex offender registry. The new bill aims to separate
the indecent exposure cases from public urination and defecation incidents, reducing the
punishment for the latter offenses to a fine. According to Seacoast Online, a local online
news source, Rep. Stephen Shurtleff said, "It's about keeping people off the registry that
really shouldn't be on it. For example, you have some homeless people with varying
degrees of mental problems who might (urinate or defecate in public) and it's not a sexual
offense." To resolve the discrepancies, a new state law, went into effect January 1, 2009,
making public urination or defecation a violation punishable by up to $1,000.

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Dallas, TX
On January 31, 2007, two homeless ministries in Dallas, Rip Parker Memorial Homeless
Ministry and Big Heart Ministries, filed a lawsuit against the City of Dallas. The
ministries claim that city restrictions on where charities can share food with homeless
individuals violate their 1st Amendment right to practice religion, among other rights.
The ordinance, implemented in February 2006, severely limits where groups can share
food in public and requires groups planning to provide food for homeless individuals in
public places to register with the city and take a food-handlers class. Fines can run up to
$2,000 per violation. The lawsuit is pending in federal court in Dallas.
In May 2007, the Dallas City Council added several provisions to Dallas’ existing antipanhandling law. The Dallas Morning News reported that in addition to the existing
prohibitions on soliciting near automated teller machines, pay phones, public
transportation stops, gas stations and fuel pumps, new provisions now make it illegal to
solicit a person: 1) anytime between sunset and sunup, 2) at any hour near restaurants,
and 3) when the person is placing money into a parking meter. Violators face fines of up
to $500.
From April 2003 through November 2005, 2,652 citations were issued under the older
anti-panhandling ordinance, resulting in the jailing of 539 individuals while eight others
paid fines. All other cases have been either settled, dismissed, or remain outstanding.
Dave Levinthal of the Dallas Morning News reported that Mayor Pro Tem Don Hill, the
only city council member who opposed the ordinance, believes that new laws are not the
solution. “This is going to cost us, in terms of resources and money,” he said. “This is a
step that’s a false step. Its effectiveness is questionable.”
Dallas Mayor Tom Leppert supports the anti-panhandling campaign. He stated that the
city is trying to have people donate the money that they would give to panhandlers to
charity drop boxes to be placed around the city. Mayor Leppert stated, as reported by the
Dallas Morning News, “Also, we want to take the supply away. We want to make it so
the panhandlers don’t have anyone giving them money.” In recent years Dallas has
directly targeted panhandling, criminalizing the act. Panhandlers are restricted from
asking for money between sunset and sunrise, approaching people placing money in
parking meters, near outdoor dining spaces, within 25 feet of an ATM, bank entrance,
pay phone, car wash, gas pump or public transit stop.
In an email sent to the National Coalition for the Homeless, Dallas Police Chief David
Kunkle repeated that the police receive a lot of complaints about panhandling. The city
has an ordinance that prohibits many forms of panhandling, but the chief explained that
this does not pertain to all panhandling. “Panhandling is not illegal unless it’s next to a
roadway, in a financial institution, at a car wash or a few other limited locations….” He
added that it is also illegal to panhandle at night. Finally, he noted that he believes Dallas
may not have any more panhandlers than other US cities, but Dallas has a smaller

55

population, so “our panhandlers tend to dominate the street landscape…. In fact, I think
we have fewer panhandlers, but in those cities, you get safety by the fact that there’s a lot
of people out on the streets.”
Responding to increased police targeting of homeless individuals in the city of Dallas,
First Presbyterian Church opened its parking lot in October 2007 as a place for homeless
people to spend their nights. As many as 150 people camped out while a night security
guard kept watch. The church invited homeless people to come after police began
Operation Rescue, a crime prevention campaign. In an Associated Press report, Police
Department Deputy Chief Vince Golbeck explained, “A majority of property crimes in
downtown Dallas are caused by the homeless.” During Operation Rescue, police
increased their presence in a four-block area, and began removing people sleeping in
public places.
Reverend Joseph Clifford, of The First Presbyterian Church of Dallas, said he does not
object to the police, but does object to laws that criminalize homelessness. In an
Associated Press report, he stated, “we continue to approach the homeless issue as a
criminal issue… It is a social problem and requires a societal response.” Clifford sees the
“safe haven” parking lot as a temporary solution, since other options are limited. Dallas
has a homeless population of about 5,000, but only 1,300 shelter beds.
The “camp out” in the church’s parking lot ended in November 2007, when Rev. Joseph
Clifford met with the city and developed a partnership of public and private funds to
provide beds for people. Furthermore, as winter approached First Presbyterian Church
donated $50,000 to keep the city’s day resource center open at night. These services
lasted through the winter until the construction of a new $23.8 million 24-hour shelter
was complete. The shelter, which opened in April 2008, provides beds, showers,
restrooms, mental health services, job training, and an outdoor pavilion for those
reluctant to sleep inside. First Presbyterian Church is still extremely involved in the new
shelter, providing all of its meals.
Davie, FL
In November 2008, the Davie Town Council passed a law that prohibits lodging
outdoors. The South Florida Sun-Sentinel reported that the law “would prohibit people
from ‘lodging’ outside on public and private property… in an effort to reduce litter and
human waste on town streets.”
Daytona Beach, FL
The Downtown Street Team program officially began in January 2009 with the goal of
reducing panhandling and homelessness in Daytona Beach. In order to reduce the need
for panhandling, the program provides participants with jobs and housing. To participate
in the program, a homeless individual must fill out an application that is available at all
local service providers and go through an interview process. Upon admission to the
Street Team, each individual not only has a job, but also may stay at the Salvation Army
and then may move to a transitional housing program. Under the program, participants
56

are hired to clean up the downtown area of Daytona Beach. Though the program is
relatively new, a number of participants have already graduated from the program to
other full-time jobs and housing.
The program was influenced by a similar program in Palo Alto, California, that
developed “kits” that other cities could purchase to help implement comparable
programs. Volusia/Flagler County Coalition for the Homeless, the city of Daytona
Beach, and Bo Brewer of People Business, Inc. purchased the kit to start the program and
city commissioner Rick Shiver currently heads the program. Participating organizations
include the Volusia/Flagler County Coalition for the Homeless, the Salvation Army, the
Daytona Beach Chamber of Commerce, and the Downtown Business Partners. The
Downtown Development Authority, the city of Daytona Beach, local businesses, and
private donations currently fund the program.
Denver, CO
According to the Denver Westword News, two women were confronted by police at the
16th Street Mall when trying to help out homeless individuals. One of the women gave a
homeless man a hamburger and a dollar in front of two undercover police officers. One
of the police officers proceeded to chase her down and forced her back to where she gave
the homeless man the burger. One undercover officer said that he could arrest her for
giving money and food to a panhandler after dark. When she questioned that such a law
exists and asked to see his badge, the police refused to do so and told her to leave.
The other incident involved a woman who purchased a fleece blanket for a man she saw
sitting in a wheelchair outside of the mall. The Denver Westword News reported that
when she tried to give the man the blanket, an officer told her to stop and asked her for
identification. While the police confronted her, the man in the wheelchair left. She was
subsequently arrested for interfering with law enforcement.
Both incidents were reported and disciplinary action was taken against the officers
involved. Since the incidents, the patrolling of the 16th Street Mall has increased.
As part of the city’s ten-year plan to end homelessness, Mayor John Hickenlooper has
installed 86 refurbished parking meters where passersby can donate money to homeless
service providers. According to USA Today, Hickenlooper has stated that he believes
that when people give directly to homeless individuals, “99% [of the money] is being
used for self-destructive consumption,” namely drugs and alcohol. Every $1.50 collected
by the meter will cover the cost of one meal for a homeless person. According to The
Colorado Star, a local newspaper, people in Denver give as much as $4.5 million each
year to panhandlers.
In the past year, people have responded to anti-panhandling campaigns by looking for
alternative places to donate their spare change such as “parking meters” for homeless
services. USA Today reported that in the first six months, the meters collected $8,446.50
in coins. Businesses and individuals can also donate $1,000 a year by “adopting” a
meter. USA Today also reported that since beginning the “Please Help, Don’t Give”
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campaign two years ago, panhandling on the 16th Street Pedestrian Mall is down 92%,
and the city has placed about 300 families in permanent housing.
Denver’s ten-year plan includes establishing a homeless court for unsheltered homeless
people to challenge tickets, asking religious congregations to offer comprehensive
support to people in need, and building more affordable housing.
Durham, NC
In January 2008, Durham County Commissioners approved and finalized an ordinance
banning roadside panhandling in parts of the county outside city limits. The vote had
been postponed from the spring of 2007 as debates about panhandling continued.
The News Observer reported that Commissioner Lewis Cheek, who is responsible for
introducing the idea to expand the ordinance, said the new ordinance would protect
pedestrians by keeping them out of dangerous traffic areas, and would also help to
identify people struggling with alcohol and drug addiction. People who wish to continue
panhandling within the city limits must pay $20 for a permit and are allowed to solicit
money during daylight only.
Elkton, MD
Nine homeless people, represented by the ACLU, filed a federal lawsuit against the city
in August 2007, challenging the bulldozing of their camp and destruction of their
belongings the previous year. Police had supervised the camp’s destruction, forcing the
residents to stand aside as they watched police and Department of Public Works
employees destroy the residents’ belongings. The suit also challenged an anti-loitering
ordinance that prohibits an individual from loitering, remaining or wandering about in a
public place for the purpose of begging. In September 2007, the Elkton Town
Commission voted unanimously to rescind the loitering ordinance. In December 2008,
the city settled the lawsuit with respect to the property destruction. The city agreed to
compensate each plaintiff with $7,500 for destroying their property.
Fayetteville, NC
In January 2008, the Fayetteville City Council passed an ordinance that prohibits
panhandling anywhere in the city after dark, in the downtown area, near busy roadways,
and within 50 feet of ATM’s and outdoor dining areas. If caught violating this law, one
could be fined up to $500.
Federal Way, WA
In February 2008, the Federal Way Council toughened panhandling laws by extending
the areas where panhandling is banned. Panhandling is now prohibited within 15 feet of
an ATM, near bus stops, and next to roadways. The new restrictions also prohibit
panhandling in an aggressive manner.

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Fredericksburg, VA
In June 2008, the Fredericksburg City Council passed an anti-panhandling law that
prohibits panhandling or soliciting on city streets, sidewalks, pathways, parks, and
parking lots. The penalty for violating the ordinance is a $250 fine. The Free Lance Star
reported that Natalie Bledsoe, spokeswoman for the city police, said that between July
and September 2008 there were roughly two dozen charges against at least 15 defendants
for violating the new law.
Fresno, CA
In October 2006, a class of homeless plaintiffs filed a lawsuit against the City of Fresno
and the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) for its policy and practice of
confiscating and destroying homeless people’s personal property, including essential
personal possessions, without adequate notice and in a manner that prevented the
retrieval of such personal property prior to destruction. The court granted a preliminary
injunction in favor of the plaintiffs in November 2006 to stop the further destruction of
encampments and property without proper procedures.
The parties ultimately settled the lawsuit in June 2008, with two separate settlement
plans, one between the plaintiffs and the City and the other between the plaintiffs and
Caltrans. Under the settlement agreements, the City and Caltrans set up certain
procedures they must follow that protect homeless persons’ property rights when
cleaning public spaces. In addition, the City and Caltrans agreed to contribute $400,000
and $85,000, respectively, to a cash fund to compensate the plaintiff class. In addition,
the City contributed $1,000,000 to a living allowance fund to distribute funds to third
parties for the payment of various living expenses on behalf of verified members of the
plaintiff class. The City also agreed to pay attorneys’ fees in the amount of $750,000 and
costs in the amount of $100,000.
Green Bay, WI
In March 2008, Green Bay’s Improvement and Services Committee approved a plan to
install specially marked parking meters in heavy foot-traffic areas to collect money for
homeless services. The Green Bay Press-Gazette reported that the city hopes to raise
money for local shelters or agencies.
Humboldt County, CA
People experiencing homelessness have been affected by ongoing homeless sweeps in
Southern Humboldt County and by a police raid on a political encampment
demonstration in April 2007 in the City of Arcata. In the ongoing homeless sweeps,
homeless people who are living on public and private property have been warned,
ticketed, or arrested for trespassing by the Humboldt County Sheriff’s Department even
though there is inadequate available shelter space. Staff of an environmental nonprofit
called the Eel River Clean Up Crew follows behind the sheriff’s deputies during the

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sweeps and immediately seizes and destroys any personal possessions of homeless
individuals that the individuals are unable to take with them.
Members of the PEOPLE PROJECT, a homeless grassroots organization in Arcata, filed
a civil rights lawsuit in June 2008 in relation to a police raid on a political encampment
demonstration in the City of Arcata in April 2007. The PEOPLE PROJECT set up the
encampment as a political demonstration against the criminalization of homelessness in
Arcata. A few days later, the Arcata Police Department arrested and temporarily
detained 18 demonstrators before releasing them from jail and later dropping the charges.
During the raid, a demonstrator suffered a seizure and the Police Department failed to
provide medical assistance. The Police Department took some personal possessions to
the police station for demonstrators to claim a few days later, but it immediately seized
and destroyed other personal possessions.
There are different estimates about the number of people experiencing homelessness in
Humboldt County. In 2006, the Humboldt County Continuum of Care (CoC) reported
that there are 1,847 men, women, and children who are experiencing homelessness in
Humboldt County. A local newspaper recently reported that there are 700 people
experiencing homelessness in Humboldt County.
Based on statistics reported by the Humboldt County CoC, there is a lack of shelter space
for homeless individuals in Humboldt County. Of the 1,847 total homeless persons,
1,481 persons or 80% are unsheltered. Humboldt County is in the process of creating a
10-year plan to end homelessness.
The criminalization of homelessness in Humboldt County has many causes. According
to advocates, the two historic industries in the County, timber and fishing, are declining.
Tourism is being promoted as the new main industry. The City of Arcata passed antihomeless ordinances the 1990’s. Authorities sometimes give homeless people the choice
between going to a mental health facility, going to jail, or leaving the county.
Indianapolis, IN
In the summer of 2007, the police reported a significant rise in the number of homeless
people living on the streets of Indianapolis and responded by stepping up enforcement of
littering, loitering and aggressive panhandling laws. The Indy Star reported that
homeless people said they were being rousted by the police, even when they were asleep,
to show identification. Some witnesses of these police activities criticized the police for
pushing homeless people out of the downtown area where they could receive services.
In August 2007, a class of plaintiffs filed a lawsuit against the Indiana War Memorials
Commission (an entity that controls and manages certain public parks and memorials in
the city of Indianapolis and throughout the state of Indiana), alleging that the commission
has a policy or practice of removing from grounds controlled by the commission persons
deemed to be “loitering” or engaging in other lawful conduct based on unwritten and
amorphous standards. The complaint specifically challenges the commission’s practice

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of giving certain homeless individuals “no trespass” orders subjecting them to arrest and
prosecution if they enter property controlled by the commission in the future.
In June 2008, the ACLU filed another suit against the city on behalf of four other
homeless men challenging the city’s anti-solicitation law. Two of the men were asked to
move on despite their claim they were lawfully soliciting. The other two men were
repeatedly forced to show identification so the officers could check their records.
A few of the plaintiffs involved in the suit challenging the anti-solicitation law have also
been ticketed under an ordinance against obstructing sidewalks. The ACLU has
requested an injunction barring police from stopping lawful solicitation or forcing
homeless individuals to produce identification without probable cause.
Mayor Greg Ballard announced the creation of a Boxes Campaign, aimed at encouraging
community members to donate to organizations that serve homeless individuals instead
of handing money directly to panhandlers. The Coalition for Homelessness Intervention
and Prevention of Greater Indianapolis, Inc., will administer the program. Five donation
boxes were installed in May 2008.
However, Kelley Curran of The News and Tribune believes that the mayor is not doing
this out of concern for the poor. According to The News and Tribune, Mayor Ballard
told the Indianapolis Star that “the immediate goal is to get them out of downtown so that
citizens and visitors don’t have to look at it.” His proposal contains three major points:
first, to launch a public awareness campaign encouraging people to give money to
organizations dealing with poverty issues; second, to enforce current aggressive
panhandling laws more aggressively; and third, to require that panhandlers purchase a
$400 license.
Issaquah, WA
In January 2008, the City of Issaquah passed an ordinance that prohibits panhandling on
highway ramps and within 300 feet of 13 specific intersections. Penalties for violating
the ordinance include a maximum fine of $1,000 or 90 days in jail. The Seattle Times
reported that Bill Block, project director for the Committee to End Homelessness in King
County, said that “[i]t’s not going to change the situation… Cities need to deal with the
barriers that cause people to be homeless in the first place.” However, an Issaquah
Councilman said that for now, “this is a good first step. It catches the main areas where
activity has been most pronounced.”
Jacksonville Beach, FL
A growing number of people have been living on the streets in Jacksonville Beach over
the past few years. According to the Florida Times-Union, police, residents, and city
government officials held a community meeting in 2007 to discuss what alternatives exist
to keep people from living on the streets, as community members felt the current trespass,
anti-camping, and public drinking laws were not adequately addressing the problem.
Advocates urged the city to address the issue in a more humane way.
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Jacksonville, FL
In September 2008, city leaders revised the city’s food sharing restrictions to allow a
person with a bonafide religious belief to share food with homeless individuals, as long
as he or she has a permit to do so. The city council revised the food sharing restrictions
pursuant to a settlement agreement from a lawsuit filed by Michael Herkov, a professor at
the University of North Florida, in 2007. Mr. Herkov had argued that the original food
sharing restrictions violated his right to exercise his religious beliefs.
Kansas City, MO
In March 2007, the Kansas City Council passed an ordinance to limit panhandling in
certain parts of the city. Many street performers objected that the proposed legislation
would ban their activities as well. The police chief announced concerns about the
constitutionality of the law soon after it passed. Councilwoman Bonne Sue Cooper says
she is not sure the ordinance will actually cure the problem and people will most likely
simply break the law.
Knoxville, TN
In July 2007, the Knoxville police and Tennessee Department of Transportation
continued an effort to move homeless individuals out from under bridges and overpasses
into shelter spaces. According to WATE.com, the police do not usually issue citations
when asking someone to move from underneath a bridge, unless the person is intoxicated
or has been asked to move repeatedly. Some members of the police department
recognize that the city lacks available places for homeless individuals to go to during the
day.
Laguna Beach, CA
In March 2007, the city formed a homeless task force to come up with solutions to the
homelessness problem in the city. One recommendation from the task force was to build
a multi-service center to provide outreach, case management services, emergency shelter,
and detoxification services. Although the city has approved funds to carry out the
recommendation, the city has been unable to find a suitable location for the center.
Laguna Beach also has a new community outreach officer, whose position was created as
part of the city’s efforts to reduce complaints from residents and business owners about
homeless people. According to the Los Angeles Times, Officer Jason Farris said, “[y]ou
can’t force them into getting off the street… It’s not a crime for them to be homeless.”
He hopes to persuade Laguna Beach’s homeless population to seek services. The city is
also drafting numerous recommendations regarding how to move chronically homeless
people off the streets. Homelessness is not only a concern to city officials; in 2008,
Laguna Beach residents voted homelessness as the second most pressing issue in town.

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Despite its efforts to find solutions to homelessness, problems persist with police
harassment of homeless individuals. In December 2008, the ACLU filed a lawsuit
against the city on behalf of 5 homeless individuals to challenge the city’s anti-camping
ordinance and selective targeting and harassment of homeless individuals by police. The
complaint highlights a range of conduct by the local police department that prohibits
homeless individuals from carrying out their daily activities, including the criminalization
of sleeping in public places, selective enforcement of local ordinances and laws,
unwarranted stops and interrogations, and confiscation of property.
Lancaster, CA
In February 2007, deputies responded to a tip about a theft in a homeless encampment.
Although they found no evidence of theft, the deputies arrested sixteen people on various
charges including parole violations, trespassing, and drug possession.
The homeless population in Lancaster was allowed to build makeshift homes in the
undeveloped parts of the desert. However, The LA Daily News reported that just a
month after the incident described above, sheriff’s deputies arrested another nineteen
people at a homeless encampment in an empty field. The arrests were made to address
theft and drug-related crimes in the area. The camp was destroyed to keep homeless
individuals from returning and because police believed the shelters were “unsanitary and
unsafe.” According to the LA Daily News, the Sheriff’s Department claimed that they
gave the camp’s residents warnings, so they had plenty of time to leave.
The Antelope Valley is home to around 4,000 homeless people according to Grace
Resource Center. Approximately 40 percent of these are homeless veterans.
Las Vegas, NV
In June 2006, Food Not Bombs Las Vegas filed a lawsuit in federal court challenging the
enforcement of a Las Vegas law that prohibits “the providing of food or meals to the
indigent for free or a nominal fee.” In August 2007, the court ruled in favor of the
homeless advocates, holding that enforcement of the no feeding laws is unconstitutional
and violates due process and equal protection rights.
City officials “mistakenly” allowed a law to be created prohibiting anyone from sleeping
within 500 feet of a deposit of urine or feces. The law was rescinded the month after it
was created, but law enforcement officials were apparently unaware that it was rescinded
and arrested three homeless men sleeping in a park. The three men sued the city for the
arrests. The legal battle picked up considerable media attention and Las Vegas drew
criticism because of the egregious manner in which Las Vegas has addressed the issue of
homelessness.
Due to the tensions between the police and homeless individuals, on April 19, 2007, the
Las Vegas Metro Police held a law enforcement summit to address the situation. At the
summit, several law enforcement agencies discussed the positive moves made in

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attempting to develop a less antagonistic relationship. However, advocates point out that
relations could not be worse. Many homeless advocates were unaware of the meeting
and only one had a chance to speak. According to City Life, a Southern Nevada
alternative weekly newspaper, Linda Lera-Randle El said, “the presentation should have
led into a more open and productive discussion on the issue.” Deputy Chief Marc Joseph
said the biggest challenge is to educate the personnel and let them know there are
alternatives to incarceration and that homelessness is an important issue. Gary Peck of
the ACLU said that local law enforcement agencies are not entirely to blame. He
explained, “I think it’s important to say that the criminalization of homelessness is, in
part, a byproduct of the fact that our entire community has fallen far short of its
responsibility to reach out to those who are in distress.”
In September 2007, an independent research group commissioned by the city to study
panhandling released the results of its research. The study found that 94 percent of
panhandlers had been homeless at some point in their lives, and 58 percent were
chronically homeless. Although local residents gave about $8.4 million to panhandlers in
the previous year, and tourists offered $16 million, the median income a panhandler
received was $192 a month. Combined with other sources of income, the average total
income of panhandlers in Las Vegas is $385 a month.
Shannon West, Regional Homeless Coordinator, told City Life the statistics will be used
in a campaign against panhandling. “We’ll be able to use [the survey] to talk to the
public about where they could give their money so that it would actually make an impact
on someone’s life,” she explained. A local campaign might focus on helping “people
better understand where their contributions could go.” Conversely, activist Linda LeraRandle El was cautious about an anti-panhandling campaign. She said, “I don’t think we
should harden people’s hearts to the point that they don’t want to give away a dollar.”
Peter Connery, Vice President of Applied Survey Research, a nonprofit social research
firm, said the study showed that panhandlers have “a lot of issues and barriers that require
social service assistance—and they need to be treated accordingly, not like con artists and
criminals.”
Although Las Vegas has continued to have problems with criminalizing homelessness in
recent years, the city of Las Vegas has begun two new programs that use a more
constructive approach to homelessness. The Las Vegas Review-Journal reported that the
city, partnering with the Community Interfaith Council, announced a program called
“One Congregation, One Family,” which pairs religious congregations with families
leaving transitional housing. The religious organizations commit to giving $1,500 to help
families pay for deposits, first month’s rent, or emergencies, and they also provide
volunteer mentors to meet with the family during the first six months. The initiative is
modeled on a similar effort in Denver, which found 83 percent of the adopted families are
still in their housing a year after mentoring, compared with success rates of 15-40 percent
of families not in the mentoring program in Southern Nevada who are still in their
housing.

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Las Vegas took another positive step with its adoption of a “Housing First” program. In
late 2007, a housing first building called Horizon Crest created 66 new low-rent
apartments and 12 new apartments for chronically homeless individuals. The tenants
have an on-site case manager Monday through Friday and a helpline on the weekends.
The project is funded in part by local money. The Las Vegas Sun reported that “it’s
based on the simple notion that the foremost need of homeless people is a place to close
the door behind them at the end of every day, no strings attached and with lots of help
readily available.”
Lincoln, NE
In 2007, advocates and city officials organized a campaign to encourage University of
Nebraska students and residents of Lincoln to donate money to organizations rather than
giving to panhandlers. Since a law banning panhandling in Lincoln was overturned in
federal court in 2004, the city has seen a growing number of panhandlers. New
ordinances limit panhandling to daylight hours and certain locations and ban aggressive
panhandling.
Little Rock, AR
The Arkansas Times reported the installation of twenty-five donation boxes in downtown
Little Rock in September 2008 to collect change for homeless services. There has been
some criticism about the plan, however, there are some proponents of the collection
boxes. Sharon Priest, Executive Director of the Downtown Little Rock Partnership
Program, told the Arkansas Times, “Panhandlers are often not using the money for food,
but to buy alcohol and/or drugs. Even though we want to do something good, we are
actually becoming enablers… If people don’t give the money, [panhandlers will] quit
asking.”
Patty Lindeman, Executive Director for Hunger-Free Arkansas, reported in November
2008 that homeless people were being targeted in Little Rock. She said that although
there have not been organized sweeps, “there continues an aggressive attempt to ‘sweep’
the downtown area of the homeless.” She also mentioned that church and other groups
who regularly share food with homeless individuals have experienced “increased police
harassment.” Finally, Lindeman said that police are threatening to charge homeless
individuals with ‘criminal trespass’ if they are seen in public parks, on sidewalks, or on
other public property in the downtown area.
Lodi, CA
In an effort to prevent illegal activity in Lawrence Park and make neighbors feel safer,
the Lodi Police increased their presence in the park. The crackdown targeted public
drinking, drug abuse, and urination. Record Net reported that Officer Mindy Smith said,
“If we show no tolerance, it will give them incentive to move along.” Yet the police
department acknowledges that many people are in the park because they have moved
along from other locations. Police try to direct people to services when they write

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citations. According to Record Net, Shawn Blair, a 32-year-old homeless man, said he
understands the reasons for the increased patrol, and that sometimes police “just come out
here to do their job. [Other times] they just come to harass us.”
Long Beach, CA
The pastor, Reverend Stinson, and the congregation of the First Congregational Church
of Long Beach, have refused to block homeless people from sleeping outside of their
church. According to the Long Beach Press Telegram, the city prosecutor, Sayge
Castillo, had threatened to fine the church $1,000 for allowing homeless individuals to
sleep on the property. The L.A. Times reported that the pastor said, “The city’s threats
are ludicrous. We’re not going to do what they want us to do. Allowing these people to
sleep on our property is, for us, a religious act.” Castillo says her office is “complaintdriven” by anonymous callers who complain about waste, litter, and safety issues, adding
that, “I didn’t intend for this to be about homeless people.”
According to KTLA a local news affiliate, many residents in the area are not sure how to
feel about the people sleeping on the church’s property. Although many would prefer
that homeless individuals were not in their neighborhood, they also understand the
church’s commitment and responsibility to helping those who are less fortunate.
Additionally, the church claims that the complaints of Long Beach residents are
unwarranted because there have been no crimes and church custodians keep the area
clean. Reverend Stinson is hoping to install a portable bathroom for its guests to use.
The church also invites mental health workers to visit and help those who need the care.
The pastor and congregation are using this opportunity to educate the public about the
lack of shelter space and mental health care available to the people who have been
sleeping at the church for more than three years.
Louisville, KY
In December 2007, the Louisville Metro Council passed, and Mayor Jerry Abramson
signed, an ordinance prohibiting “menacing” panhandling, which causes “fear,
intimidation, and disorder” city-wide, and panhandling within 20 feet of an ATM, city
bus stops, outdoor dining, shopping areas, parking garages, public restrooms, and schools
when students are present. Violators face a $250 fine and/or up to 90 days in jail.
In a Louisville Courier-Journal article, Maria Price of the St. John Center said the
ordinance’s many stipulations “seem to have the intent of banning panhandling altogether
without saying it.” The Courier-Journal reports that one city council member, George
Unseld, who favored the measure, said, “I, for one, am tired of panhandling…. I don’t
think a person has an innate right to come up and ask me for a dollar.” The ordinance
replaces the previous ordinance that prohibited all forms of panhandling citywide.

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Madison, WI
In September 2008, Channel 3000 online news reported that surveillance cameras were
installed and Madison police officers patrolled Brittingham Park to move “chronic
loiterers” from the area. In response to police targeting of homeless persons, Brenda
Konkel, a Madison Alderwoman, introduced ordinances that would keep police from
fining homeless individuals for sleeping in parks and for public urination, as well as an
ordinance that would prevent police from discarding the personal items of homeless
people without a warning.
Manatee County, FL
In March 2007, Manatee County legislators passed a law that bans panhandling within 15
feet of public roads. For the first thirty days, police informed violators of the new
ordinance and issued warnings. On April 24, 2007, the ordinance went into full effect.
According to the Centre Daily Times, the county wrote the ordinance because there had
been many complaints in the county about panhandlers being hostile. He said that the
panhandling law addresses safety and welfare. Getman also told Centre Daily Times that
increasing numbers of very aggressive panhandlers alarmed him. Getman and others
who supported this ordinance believe that keeping homeless and impoverished people
from panhandling will encourage them to look for help at the various service
organizations in the area. However, Adell Erozer, Director of the Community Coalition
on Homelessness, pointed out that there are not enough shelters, housing, and health
services in the county, so some panhandlers may not be able to get the help they need.
To prevent people from bathing and/or doing laundry in their bathrooms, the Manatee
library instituted a new set of rules that prohibit people from storing personal items in the
building and would only allow people to use the sinks to wash their face and hands.
These rules are directed towards homeless people who often visit libraries for the purpose
of gaining shelter.
According to the Herald Tribune, officials claim they are not targeting the homeless
population. Instead, they are simply tired of large pieces of luggage taking up seating
areas and being abandoned for days. The Manatee library system already prohibits
people from sleeping in the library.
Manchester, NH
The New Hampshire Union-Leader reported on August 27, 2008 that earlier that month
Teddy DeJesus, a Manchester resident, was given a $50 ticket for violating the city’s
curfew. DeJesus is one of several dozen people who have been cited for being in a public
park between 11 p.m. and 7 a.m. In early August, nearly two dozen people were on the
court docket for violating curfews at Veterans Memorial, Bronstein, Derryfield, Victory
and other city parks. Lt. Robert Cunha told The New Hampshire Union-Leader, “the
theory is you can head off a lot of the more serious quality of life issues by addressing the
day-in and day-out issues… police also are ramping up enforcement of ordinances
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barring alcohol in public parks and lounging in public doorways. It is part of an effort to
ensure people who live in urban neighborhoods enjoy the same quality of life and rights
as those who live elsewhere in the city.” Manchester City Library, which is located near
Victory Park, security officer Bonnie Wood-Owens said that she has seen an influx of
homeless people coming into Victory Park and other smaller parks since the city began
pushing them out of the Veterans Memorial Park. As she told the New Hampshire
Union-Leader, “They excluded them from being there because some people didn’t like
the looks of it.”
In early September, some local activists decided to take action by protesting the curfew.
Their act of civil disobedience, collecting litter in Veterans Memorial Park after curfew,
was organized after police issued dozens of summonses to people in the park during
curfew. Police ignored the protest. The New Hampshire Union-Leader noted that
although “police cruisers passed by the park at least eight times, none stopped and only
one officer seemed to glance their way.”
Miami, FL
The creation of a new arts center in downtown Miami has prompted the city to increase
police presence and restrict panhandling in the area. Many city officials, however, are
bothered by the negative attitude displayed by the arts center in regard to homeless
people.
Around 850 people were evicted from public housing complexes in 2004, and even
though the city promised them new homes, no new housing has been built for them.
Instead, a homeless camp has arisen on a lot that was designated for creation of new
affordable housing over ten years ago. The residents of the camp organized art parties
and a “Tour of Shame” to reveal aspects of Miami that the Super Bowl organizers tried to
hide. Twenty reporters from outside Miami took a bus “reality tour” put on by the Miami
Workers Center. On this tour they saw the homeless camps and met residents who were
being evicted.
Housing is an important problem in Miami because in February 2007, around the time of
the Super Bowl, over one third of the county’s residents were supported by workers who
earned $5.15 or less an hour. According to HUD, for housing to be considered affordable
a household should spend only one-third of its income on housing. This means that
individuals earning $5.15 an hour can only afford $268 a month for rent. Even studio
apartments from the 1950s rented for a minimum of $600 a month.
According to the Los Angeles Times, officials of the Super Bowl host committee did not
want information concerning the city’s homeless population to leak during the festive
times of the nation’s largest sporting event. They called the protesting “inappropriate”
and did not want tourists coming for the Super Bowl to be exposed to city issues for
which they were not directly responsible.

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Miami Beach, FL
In June 2007 the ACLU sued the City of Miami Beach on the behalf of a homeless man
named Russell Harvey in state court to challenge its anti-panhandling law and regulations
of street performers. Mr. Harvey claimed that the laws were so broad that they limited all
types of street performers, as well as political, religious, and artistic free speech activity.
On July 28, 2007, the Miami-Dade County Circuit Court ruled in favor of Mr. Harvey,
allowing him to continue panhandling, as well as street performing in Miami Beach.
Minneapolis, MN
Advocates say that even in the bitter cold of January about 600 people will sleep outside
in Minneapolis and St. Paul over the course of winter. Many of these people sleep under
bridges despite bridge rods that have been put up a number of years ago to prevent
loitering. The bridge rods, which were installed by Minnesota Department of
Transportation in 25 different locations, look like pyramid frames that are bolted into the
concrete. A spokesman for the Department of Transportation said these rods were
installed because they believe it is hazardous for people to sleep under the bridges. It is
also not safe for workers to clean up the trash homeless individuals leave behind.
Richard Wright, a homeless man who lives under a bridge, told television station WCCO
that the bridge rods “are not going to stop people from coming…[and] sleeping here.”
Monica Nillson, a homeless advocate, offered a counter argument that the rods help
people store their belongings, thus assisting the people they are designed to keep away.
Nillson, who believes the rods have not helped the taxpayers or homeless people,
estimates the rods cost about $10,000 a year. Consequently Nillson proposed to WCCO
that the money could be been spent in more productive ways, such as providing services,
rather than pushing homeless people away.
In February 2007, Lance Handy was frisked, put in a squad car, and taken to the precinct
house for violating section 385.80 of the Minneapolis City Code, also known as the
“lurking law.” This law prohibits lurking, lying in wait or being concealed. Guy
Gambill, a criminal justice advocate, has reported that the ordinance has been used to
target African American and homeless individuals. Handy told City Pages that he had
simply been walking down the street after buying a pack of cigarettes. Handy was not
charged under the “lurking law” after two appearances in court. Even though Handy was
not convicted, Gambill explains that each charge costs taxpayers around $750. Not all
people arrested for lurking are homeless. While 58 percent of the total number of people
arrested under the ordinance are African American, 100 percent of the homeless people
charged with lurking since 2003 are black. Assistant Police Chief Sharon Lubinksi
defends her office by pointing out that around 80 percent of homeless people in
Minneapolis are black. She goes on to say that racist cops are not to blame because she
believes many of the lurking charges have been due to calls by concerned citizens.

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According to a City Pages news report, Cam Gordon, a Second Ward City Council
member, introduced a measure in December 2007 to repeal the lurking law due to
concerns the law may be used discriminatorily. Another member of the City Council
calls the ordinance “useful” and believed that race has little to do with calls from citizens
who are scared by those “lurking.” The measure to repeal the lurking law failed by one
vote in the Minneapolis City Council.
The Minnesota Daily further reported that in June 2007 the city council of Minneapolis
passed an amendment to increase the restrictions on its anti-panhandling law. The city
claims the new ordinance “address[es] aggressive behavior, and not a socioeconomic
group.” The new law limits panhandling to daylight hours and within 10 feet of a
crosswalk or 80 feet of an ATM.
The push for the new law came after a panhandler accosted two council members and a
state senator while they were dining. Many council members are afraid panhandling will
create an atmosphere that discourages patrons from visiting the downtown area.
Minneapolis already had aggressive panhandling laws on the books from 2002, but they
were not being enforced. The city is now encouraging anyone who “feels unsafe”
because of panhandling to immediately call 911 and report the incident.
A growing number of homeless people in Minneapolis are living in their cars. If their
cars are towed, their belongings are therefore subject to confiscation. As a result,
advocates pushed for a new state law that was passed in the 2008 session that allows
homeless individuals to retrieve their belongings from vehicles in impound lots,
regardless of whether they can afford to get the car back. Ron Elwood, a legal aid
lawyer, told the Star Tribune, “[M]ost of these things are valuable to nobody but their
owners, but they are all just destroyed.”
Nashville, TN
During the summer of 2007, city police began a Quality of Life Initiative that called for
undercover police officers to cite people for vagrancy, trespassing, public intoxication,
and panhandling. In the first two months of the initiative, 91 different people were
arrested a total of 113 times. Their incarceration cost the city $1.2 million. After
factoring in other expenses, the Nashville Homeless Power Project (NHPP) estimates the
total expense at $3 million. From July to December 2007, Nashville police charged 454
people—nearly all of them homeless—with “quality of life” violations, adding to these
already high expenses. Homeless advocates say these arrests are evidence that the laws
target homeless individuals unfairly and accomplish nothing. In a Nashville City Paper
report, Policeman Andy Garrett asserts, “[w]e don’t categorize people, and we don’t go
out looking for a category of people.” Most of the violations are for public drunkenness,
indecent exposure, and trespassing.
On January 15, 2008, the Metro Council banned aggressive panhandling and
implemented restrictions for panhandlers. Similar to new ordinances in other cities, this
law prohibits panhandling near any bus stop, open-air café, ATM, school, within 10 feet

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of any building open to the public, including commercial establishments, and any
panhandling between sunset and sunrise.
The city has begun a street newspaper, The Contributor, which will allow homeless
individuals to make money without panhandling. Homeless advocates insist the new antipanhandling law will not make people any safer and may violate peoples’ constitutional
rights.
On February 7, 2007, homeless people and other advocates marched from a downtown
Nashville church to the front of City Hall and delivered 700 petitions showing support for
Mayor Purcell’s plan to build 1,800 permanent supportive housing units by 2015. Those
who signed the petition believe permanent housing would be a good solution because it
could allow homeless individuals to find work more easily, obtain preventative healthcare
to reduce emergency room visits, and minimize the number of times they are thrown in
jail for sleeping on public benches. Finally, they encouraged the Mayor to use funds
from the 2007/2008 budget to build 200 units of housing for homeless people, especially
chronically homeless individuals. The petition came on the heels of the Homeless Power
Project Housing campaign that called for $2.3 million from the Metro Budget to go
towards housing.
Sixty-four year old Charlie Strobel was arrested in Nashville for protesting in March
2007. Strobel, a former Catholic priest, started an urban ministry center, Room in the
Inn, in 1986. He was arrested during an all-night outdoor sleepover outside the Metro
Courthouse, which is near the Riverfront Park, arranged by the Nashville Homeless
Power Project to raise awareness about homelessness issues. More than 150 people
participated in this peaceful gathering that did not block traffic or cause a disturbance.
However, police eventually decided the group’s permit had expired, and told the group to
disband. Most of them did, but 16 people, including Charles Strobel, stood their ground
and were arrested.
Strobel explained to The Tennessean that he believes “the crisis of homelessness is the
crisis of death.” Therefore, he did not feel he could leave the protest. Strobel said that
the police told the protestors to move away from Riverfront Park, but he believed they
just wanted them all to be “out of sight, out of mind.” During the protest Strobel thought
of his many homeless friends who had died, and he remained to recognize the humanity
of his homeless friends. Despite his arrest, Strobel still supports Mayor Bill Purcell who
included $2.4 million in the city’s budget to spend on solutions for homelessness.
Over the past year, the city has been attempting to shut down a homeless camp, called
“Tent City.” The original date for the camp to be cleared out by was September 22,
2008, however, the date was extended to allow the residents of Tent City to find new
places to stay.
New York, NY
In an ongoing case from New York City, Brown v. Kelly, challenging a New York state
anti-begging statute, a U.S. District Court judge granted class certification in July 2007 to
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a class of thousands of people who have been arrested for panhandling under the law.
The law had been previously found unconstitutional by the Second Circuit. The
estimated size of the class of plaintiffs in the suit will likely be between 5,000 and 10,000
people.
Oahu, HI
The City of Oahu forced many homeless people from beach parks between March 2006
and March 2007. However, many observers and city residents believe that this measure
will not solve the problem. Homeless people have not disappeared, but have simply
moved to shelters, and other parks, including those in small neighborhoods. Recent
counts show that the homeless population has risen 28.2 percent. The Mo’ili’ili
Community Park is one of several places that have recently become a home for many
homeless people. A large bathroom facility in the back of the park along with a covered
pavilion has turned into a common hangout and resting place for homeless individuals.
Ocala, FL
Many are upset about the new camping restrictions in the Ocala National Forest issued in
2006. The new restrictions, which limit stays to two weeks, are criticized for pushing out
squatters to give more space to vacationers. Before this law, people were allowed to stay
in the forest for as long as they wanted, as long as they moved their campsite every two
weeks. The Forest Service estimates there are now 100 squatters in the camp compared
to 600 a year ago. Most say the regulation further exacerbates the problem, pushing
homeless individuals out of sight without giving them a second glance. After the new
law went into effect, two homeless men were arrested for threatening to kill one of the
officials enforcing the regulation. When brought to trial, however, jurors concluded that
the men were angry, but harmless.
Ocala has several laws that make it illegal to panhandle. Ocala.com reported that Stanley
Lee Curles, a homeless panhandler, said he was unaware the laws existed. However,
because he has panhandled on a ramp near Interstate 75, he could be put in jail for 60
days or given a $500 fine. Both homeless people and advocates are opposed to Ocala’s
anti-panhandling laws.
According to a Star-Banner report, Southern Legal Counsel Inc. and Florida Institutional
Legal Services filed a federal lawsuit on behalf of David Booher, challenging the
constitutionality of the city’s anti-panhandling ordinance. Mr. Booher, has been arrested
six times in less than a year for violating the ordinance. Mr. Booher claimed the law
violated his First and Fourteenth Amendment rights.
The ordinance was unanimously approved in May 2006 because of safety concerns about
panhandlers near I-75. According to the ordinance, a person must pay a $100 fee and
have a permanent address, which could be a shelter address, in order to receive a permit.
A permit allows panhandling. The permit is not given to anyone who has committed a
felony or misdemeanor that involves “moral turpitude.”

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In September 2007, the court granted Booher’s motion for a preliminary injunction
prohibiting the county from enforcing the ordinance while the case was ongoing. In
March 2008, the county repealed the ordinance.
In August 2008, the parties submitted a settlement agreement. The county agreed not to
reenact the challenged version of the ordinance and will pay Booher $10,000 for
settlement of his damages claims. Defendants also agreed that Booher was the prevailing
party in the action and to pay reasonable litigation costs and attorneys’ fees.
Olympia, WA
On February 1, 2007, homeless people and their advocates set up tents in downtown
Olympia in an area they call “Camp Quixote.” They set up the camp in response to a
pedestrian interference ordinance that prohibits lying, sitting, or asking for money within
six feet of a building downtown.
Advocates felt that the ordinance targeted homeless people unjustly and subsequently set
up a camp to draw attention to their cause. They hoped to establish the encampment
permanently, but also wanted the new ordinance to be repealed.
Police forced residents of the camp to leave one week after the camp was established. In
a Seattle Post Intelligencer report, Police Commander Tor Bjornstad said the homeless
individuals did not complain too much and did a good job moving their belongings.
Twenty police officers and some city maintenance workers told the camp residents to
leave at six in the morning. No one was arrested or given a citation.
Rob Richards, an activist who helped develop the tent city, believes the encampment
brought attention to the city’s homeless problem. He hopes that the city will provide land
for a permanent homeless camp. Despite an $800,000 appropriation in 2007 for
homeless services, many, including Councilman T.J. Johnson, believe that more support
is necessary, as the demand for services exceeds the current supply.
The Olympian reported that as of September 28, 2008, Camp Quixote moved to the St.
John Episcopal Church on Capitol Way. Over the past twenty months, the camp has been
forced to move on nine separate occasions.
Palm Springs, CA
In 2007, the Desert Sun discovered that police gave six homeless individuals free bus
tickets, without verifying that they had any support in their destination cities. Palm
Springs Police Sergeant Mitch Spike explained that he would be upset if he realized
another city was sending their homeless residents to Palm Springs.
In response, the Palm Springs Police Department enacted a measure that requires a
homeless person to verify that he or she will have support at his or her destination before

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purchasing a ticket. Sergeant Spike stated the police will call ahead to contact family or
friends, and will also check to see if the person has any outstanding warrants before
letting him or her leave the city.
According to the Desert Sun, Vice-President Arlene Rosenthal of the Well in the Desert,
a homeless advocacy group, was excited about the creation of the measure aimed at
confirming the support network of homeless leaving town. Her agency and others like it
were worried that the city was simply sending the homeless from one place to another,
without caring about what would happen to them or making a real effort to get them off
the street. Now these anxieties have been eased, and Rosenthal believes that the
department is trying to better the entire community.
Philadelphia, PA
U.S. Representative Bob Brady and a cleanup crew went to a homeless camp at 65th and
Vine Streets in Philadelphia to clean up the area. Brady, along with City Councilwoman
Carol Campbell, had received complaints about the camp, which was near a school and
playground. In an ABC news report, Brady said a murder suspect was caught living in
the camp.
Brady assured reporters that the twenty or more homeless people who had been living in
the camp would receive assistance from social service workers and would be connected
with services that provide food and shelter.
Pittsburgh, PA
Food Not Bombs, an organization that has served free, healthy, vegetarian food to hungry
people at Market Square for the last 15 years, was displaced by the Pittsburgh Downtown
Partnership, an organization that aims to maximize city development. The Partnership
secured permits to use the Market Square almost every day until December 2008. In the
beginning of June 2008, the Downtown Partnership called police to force Food Not
Bombs out of the area. Infoshop News reported that many advocates believed the police
were trying to “economically revitalize” Market Square because “hungry people scare off
the rich people.” The Downtown Partnership also stated that homeless individuals do not
contribute to a safe and comfortable atmosphere for the new demographic they are trying
to attract.
Plano, TX
For several years, Fifty-five-year-old Dallas native, John Williamson, had parked his van
in the parking lot of Plano’s Haggard Library at night to sleep. In response, the city
council passed a law that was directly aimed at removing him from the area. The new
ordinance prohibited people from parking in the lots of the city’s five libraries between
the hours of 11 p.m. and 5 a.m. Homeless advocates called this a misguided approach to
tackling homelessness. In response, Williamson said, “I’m in my van. I don’t bother
people, don’t leave trash, don’t ask people for money. Isn’t it my constitutional and
human right to exist somewhere? Doesn’t that take precedence over library patrons not
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liking the fact I’m an eyesore? All I need is a place to park my van. It just doesn’t seem
like that much to ask society.”
Port Charlotte, FL
In May 2008, police conducted more than five sweeps targeting homeless people in just
one week. The targeted people reported that officers called them “scum,” “hobos,” “low
life,” and the “trash of the underbelly of the city.” The police made them line up for a
“class” picture and called them the “Homeless Class of 2008.” They were told to leave
the county immediately.
In another instance, homeless individuals were told that police had sworn affidavits from
landlords to have the homeless individuals charged with trespassing. There were no such
affidavits. Officers maintained that the homeless individuals misunderstood what they
said.
Portland, OR
Downtown businesses and a local private security company joined forces to patrol
downtown Portland in the Portland Business Alliance’s (PBA) “Clean and Safe”
program. The private security guards (PPI), wearing uniforms similar to Portland Police,
are able to write exclusions (a form of ticket that requires individuals to leave) and ask
people to leave from the guards patrol areas. There is no public oversight or complaint
process for the private company, which many claimed can be aggressive and “mean” in
their interactions with both homeless individuals and the public. Advocates tried to
pressure the company or the city to institute a complaint procedure and allow more public
oversight. Many advocates and homeless individuals urged the PBA to reconsider the
$625,000 spent on the private security firm and spend the money on housing or services
for homeless individuals. PPI wrote 1,980 park exclusions in 2007, with a peak of 275
exclusions in September 2007.
The city installed thirty-one benches, opened a day shelter, and created an overnight
bathroom to pave the way for a law prohibiting people from “blocking sidewalks.”
According to a Street Roots article, police would begin enforcing the so-called “sit-lie”
ordinance in the Fall of 2007, but according to Mark Reese, Police Bureau Central
Precinct Commander, they anticipated “very few written warnings or citations.” Reese
expected more verbal warnings, which homeless advocates worried could cause some
difficulty in measuring how harshly the law is enforced. Critics also argued that the law
unfairly targets homeless and poor people. Lawyer and homeless advocate, Adam Arms,
considered the law “constitutionally-questionable” and believes it will be another tool
used to make the homeless move away from the area.
WWeek.com reported that City Commissioner Randy Leonard asked the City Council to
wait before enforcing the ordinance. The commissioners initially agreed that the
ordinance would not be enforced until new facilities for the homeless, such as public
restrooms and a day center, were created. However, by December 2007, the city began
enforcing the law, which prohibits sitting or lying down on public sidewalks in Portland
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from 7 a.m. until 9 p.m. The penalty for each offense is a fine of up to $250. Street
Access for Everyone, an organization made up of law enforcement agencies, homeless
advocates, representatives, and the local community, created the new laws.
Street Roots, a local street newspaper run by homeless advocates and homeless
individuals, reported that a defendant charged with violating the “sit-lie” law filed a
motion in his case to declare the law unconstitutional. However, the court dismissed the
motion, ruling that the ordinance is constitutional. Attorney William A. Meyer was
defending a man named Douglas Newman who received three “sit-lie” citations in
November and December of 2007. Street Roots reported that Newman was found guilty
on all three counts and the court found that “(sit-lie) is constitutional and reasonable.”
According to Street Roots, the ruling was based on the fact that the violation of the law
was not a criminal offense (a warning is required before a citation is issued). He
compared the statute to public safety laws that ban bicycling on the sidewalk and open
container restrictions. However, homeless advocates, along with Meyer, said that the law
specifically punishes homeless individuals.
On May 22, 2007,the Portland Police conducted a sweep of homeless individuals who
sleep downtown. They threatened arresting them under Portland’s anti-camping
ordinance, which has a penalty of 30 days in jail. Such sweeps are annual events in the
weeks leading up to the Rose Festival. According to Street Roots, the coordinator of
public safety for the Mayor, Maria Rubio, said the sweeps have always been performed
due to anonymous complaints.
Redmond, WA
Starting in February 2007, St. Jude Catholic Church began hosting a homeless
encampment called “Tent City 4” on its grounds. The city threatened to make the church
pay a fine of $500 per day for keeping the camp on its property. The church originally
planned to let the camp stay there for 90 days, which would cost the church $37,000.
The church was originally given a permit that would allow the camp to remain at the
church as long as sidewalk monitors were present when children were walking to and
from school. After ten appeals were filed, the city examiner overturned the permit. In
late March of 2007, the Redmond City Council overturned the hearing examiner’s
decision and granted the temporary-use permit. St. Jude’s was allowed to host the
encampment with some restrictions for the 90 to 110 day period.
Reno, NV
In early October 2008, city officials in Reno ordered homeless individuals to move out of
a tent city on the edge of downtown. According to the Associated Press, city officials
said that the “evictions coincide with the scheduled opening later in October of two new
homeless-services facilities nearby.” One of the facilities is a women’s drop-in center
and family resource center and the other is a men’s shelter with 60 beds. According to
the Associated Press, some women were frustrated that they will have to be separated

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from their boyfriends or husbands. Some people also expressed concern about signing up
daily for a bed because the check-in times conflict with work.
Sacramento, CA
On August 2, 2007, alleging violations of their Fourth, Eighth, and Fourteenth
Amendment rights, a group of homeless plaintiffs challenged Sacramento’s enforcement
of an ordinance that prohibits homeless persons from sleeping outside, and the city and
county actions of taking and destroying their personal property, without adequate notice
and the opportunity to retrieve or reclaim personal possessions before they are destroyed.
The plaintiffs argued that because sleeping is necessary to maintain human life,
enforcement of the ordinance punishes plaintiffs based on their status as homeless
persons, and therefore violates the Eighth Amendment protection against cruel and
unusual punishment. Plaintiffs noted in their complaint that rental housing in Sacramento
is beyond the means of most homeless people, and the waiting time for persons on
waiting lists for public housing or subsidized housing is more than two years, with
thousands of people waiting for housing. Further, shelters in Sacramento city and county
cannot accommodate all the homeless people in the area on any given night.
The plaintiffs further argued that defendants’ confiscation of plaintiffs’ property without
notice is a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment right to due process of law and the
Fourth Amendment right against unreasonable search and seizure. Lastly, plaintiffs
argued that defendants’ conduct reflects their “animus towards this disfavored group and
lacks a rational relationship to any legitimate state interest,” in violation of the Equal
Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The plaintiffs are seeking $4,000 in
damages for every person who had his or her belongings illegally taken or was cited for
sleeping outside, as well as attorneys’ fees and costs. The case is pending.
In November 2007, Union Pacific Railroad called police to clear out homeless people
who were camping on the railroad’s property. Dozens of homeless people were camping
on the mostly flat, dirt land away from the tracks. The Sacramento Bee reported that
company spokesman James Barnes stated, “we don’t want them on our property,” citing
liability concerns and complaints from local businesses.
After the railroad complained, police gave campers a warning. On the day of the
eviction, there were still people camping on the property. Some had made preparations,
packing up their tents and stowing sleeping bags at local shelters so they would not be
confiscated. Mark Merin, the attorney involved in the lawsuit challenging Sacramento’s
anti-camping ordinance, asked not only that the city stop evictions, but also asked that
Union Pacific install portable toilets and trash cans.
The city, along with local homeless service agencies, provided 70 motel vouchers for a
two-night stay. Some of the camp’s residents were hesitant to take the vouchers because
they would have to leave most of their belongings at the camp. People who owned pets
were thrilled, because although some motels accept pets, very few shelters do. The

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vouchers helped to provide shelter for individuals until a winter shelter opened at Cal
Expo, a week earlier than usual. Still, on eviction day, some campers remained, and
despite the presence of police and railroad authorities, no citations were written.
After the police evicted the campers, bail bondsman Leonard Padilla offered them a new
place to live—on his land. Padilla owns 60 acres in the middle of a developing
neighborhood, and local residents were displeased with the idea of the new neighbors.
San Diego, CA
In February 2007, the city settled a lawsuit filed by a number of homeless plaintiffs
challenging enforcement of a California illegal lodging statute in San Diego. The
settlement gave anyone without a place to sleep permission to do so on public property
between 9 p.m. and 5:30 a.m. Mayor Jerry Sanders said this was a “fair and equitable
solution to a large societal problem.” A lawyer representing the homeless plaintiffs said,
“[t]he real solution is more shelter beds to get the 9,600 homeless off the streets,”
according to the San Diego Union-Tribune.
The San Diego Union-Tribune reported that if a proposed permanent shelter was built in
San Diego, the city planned to reinstate “sleeping tickets” for those who did not use the
shelter.
According to USA Today, San Diego’s new alcohol ban on beaches was impacting a
group that it did not intend to affect – “homeless drunks.” Violators of this ban could
face jail time and up to $1,000 in fines. Getting rid of homeless drinkers was not the
focus of the ban, but this effect was being well received by locals. “More people and
more families are already enjoying the beach,” said Julie Klein of Ocean Beach.
In another lawsuit, the city entered into a settlement with Pacific Beach United Methodist
Church in April 2008 by allowing the church to continue sharing food with homeless
people without the threat of fines or citations. On Wednesday nights, the church shares
food with over 100 people without a city permit as part of a food program they have
operated for more than 14 years.
In the summer of 2008, several homeless camps in Spring Valley were approached by
sheriff’s deputies who warned people to either leave or be arrested. At the time, as many
as 30 people lived in this area in tents and other structures. Deputies called this
“Operation Clean Sweep.” A homeless task force commented that living in a camp gives
homeless people a feeling of safety they cannot find sleeping on the street. The deputies
distributed small bags of supplies and a list of shelters and other resources to individuals
living there. After giving inhabitants of this campsite an initial warning, deputies did not
return.

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Santa Ana, CA
In May 2008, members of Welcome INN (Interfaith Needs Network) filed a lawsuit
against the state parks department after the group was threatened with citations if they
continued sharing food with homeless individuals in a picnic area in Dana Point Park.
Park rangers who contended that the group was engaging in unlawful assembly had
approached the group. Officials argued that a public recreation area is not an appropriate
place for sharing food with homeless people.
The state parks department settled the lawsuit with Welcome INN in September 2008.
As a result of the settlement, the group can continue sharing food at the state beach and
the state is to pay attorneys’ fees.
Santa Cruz, CA
Homeless activists held demonstrations and boycotted the Bookshop Santa Cruz, owned
by then Vice Mayor Ryan Coonerty, who later became mayor in November 2007.
Activists urged the mayor to revise the city’s 40-year-old anti-camping law, which they
said was used to target homeless individuals. The ban made it illegal to sleep on
sidewalks or public property at night. The Santa Cruz Sentinel reported that Councilman
Mike Rotkin defended the ban as an effective method for telling homeless people,
“[s]leeping outside is not something you can do whenever and wherever you want.”
Although protestors questioned the constitutionality of the law, the city claimed it was
legal and fair. City officials said the activists’ in-your-face strategy was a deterrent.
Coonerty said their presence increased vandalism near the bookstore and made him less
sympathetic to their cause.
The anti-sleeping law, introduced in 1977 to control summer tourists, has changed many
times over the last three decades, but still bans people from sleeping on public property
between 11 p.m. and 8:30 a.m. Covering oneself with a sleeping bag is also considered
an offense under the sleeping ban. The city has 252 beds for 1,500 homeless individuals
-- many people sleep out on the streets on any given night due to a general lack of
housing and shelter. According to a Santa Cruz Sentinel September 2007 article, the city
had been issuing between 30 and 60 tickets each month under the sleeping ban, despite
limited shelter accommodations.
In a February 2007 article on Indybay.org, Tim Rumford, homeless advocate and activist,
showed pictures suggesting that police harassment of homeless individuals in Santa Cruz
was on the rise. While walking near a mall area, Rumford noticed fewer homeless people
than usual, and those he did see were unfamiliar to him. He described homeless people in
the area as “fearful” and “moving around a lot;” they seemed scared to stay in one place.
Rumford witnessed Police Sergeant Flippo approach a young man, who was apparently
sober and well behaved, sitting on the wall near the bus station. However, Flippo asked
for his ID. When the man asked what he was doing wrong, Flippo simply responded,
“you’re sitting against the wall.” After checking for warrants and finding the man had
none, Sgt. Flippo still wrote a warning. He said that if another officer caught him that
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day, he would be given a ticket. Rumford noticed that many other people who did not
appear homeless were also sitting against walls, unnoticed by the police. However,
Rumford believed that this young man was given a warning because he appeared to be
homeless.
Other incidents noted by Rumford included: homeless men receiving tickets for having
dogs; the interrogation of a man by three police officers for no apparent reason; and a
police search of a homeless man without an obvious reason.
Santa Monica, CA
The city passed a law in September 2008 that prohibits panhandling when seated on the
Third Street Promenade. People are still allowed to sit on the seats as long as they are not
begging. The city justified the law by arguing that the city needs to be open to the public
and that there is competition for limited seats.
Sarasota, FL
The Sarasota Herald-Tribune analyzed that it cost taxpayers about $925 every time a
police officer arrested a homeless person for drinking beer in public or sleeping behind a
church. Law enforcement agencies’ targeting of homeless people led to 1,427 arrests
between early 2005 and early 2008, which cost taxpayers an approximate total of $1.3
million.
Seattle, WA
The Seattle Times reported in November 2007 that Mayor Greg Nickels implemented a
new policy to move homeless people from their camps, even though the emergency
shelter system is full and people have nowhere to go. The city’s response to homeless
camps was to destroy the makeshift shelters, force the residents to move, and discard
their belongings during unannounced sweeps. While it was known that the camps would
be cleared out in November of 2007, camps were cleared out in the summer of 2007
without notice. At some camps, clearing notices were posted with an outdated contact
phone number. In other cases, the city gave a 48-hour notice to homeless people living
on the streets and on other public property.
During sweeps, the city agreed to store personal items such as prescriptions for up to 60
days. The city would throw away items that were thought to be worth less than $25.
Anyone being displaced would be referred to shelters and to other resources.
In November 2007, the Human Services Department said the cleanups would be
temporarily stopped while the Mayor’s office developed more uniform guidelines. In
April 2008, the Seattle Post-Intelligencer reported that a new plan for homeless camp
sweeps had been developed: “Seattle officials added capacity for 20 shelter beds and
promised to give three days’ notice to homeless people forced from unauthorized tent
camps in controversial sweeps . . . The city also pledged to provide them additional

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services and a chance to later retrieve their belongings.” Although many advocates
believed that this was a step in the right direction, they did not think that this was enough.
In May 2008, 21 tons of debris was removed from a homeless camp in Queen Anne Park
and taken to a landfill. This was a result of a more aggressive effort to limit illegal
camping in city parks. The Seattle Times reported that these efforts sparked protests
from homeless advocates who argued that the “wholesale trashing of the 44-person
encampment violates a new city of Seattle policy of salvaging such personal belongings.”
Better training could help future crews decide what is salvageable and worth more than
$25.
In June 2008, the advocates made their position clear by camping out at City Hall in
protest of the tent camp sweeps. Over 200 homeless individuals and advocates camped
out on the concrete exterior of City Hall. The homeless advocates told the Seattle PostIntelligencer that “protocols for homeless encampment sweeps don’t address the shortage
of emergency shelter and services, and contain loopholes that deny protection to
homeless campers.”
Another “tent city” was set up at dawn on September 22, 2008. However, as the West
Seattle Herald reported, it was quickly dismantled when Mayor Nickels ordered an
eviction of the tent city, called “Nickelsville,” for safety and health concerns. The Seattle
Times reported that it was a relaxed scene as “protestors calmly waited for their turn to be
arrested.” The police arrested 25 homeless people and advocates for trespassing on city
property. After being interviewed at the Southwest Precinct, everyone was released,
except those with outstanding warrants. According to The Seattle Times, prior to the
sweep, an adviser to Gov. Christine Gregoire traveled to Seattle to negotiate with the city
about how long the homeless individuals could stay. They reached an agreement that the
city would allow them to stay at the lot for a short period of time, but after that time the
city had the right to conduct the sweep. The city also offered shelter to anyone who
requested it and 16 of the camp residents took the offer. The city provided 60-70 new
beds for victims of the sweeps, but there are 2,827 homeless people who are unsheltered
at any given point in time in King County.
Simi Valley, CA
On February 8, 2007, Rancho Simi Recreation and Parks District began a cleanup of the
Arroyo Simi recreation area to reduce the safety and health risks they believe the area’s
homeless encampments pose. In a Simi Valley Acorn news article, the general manger of
the Park District, Larry Peterson, said his department’s main mission is to “provide parks
and recreation activities.” The department is not, however, responsible for giving
homeless people a place to sleep.
The police department was also on hand to help with the cleanup. They issued nine
citations for camping. Peterson said there are services for homeless people in the area,
but illegal camping in the parks and on city property was not one of them.

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An area church held a rally the morning of the cleanup to lend a hand to the homeless
individuals.
Sonora, CA
The city of Sonora has only one shelter that houses sixteen homeless persons. In late
2007, local law enforcement tore down homeless encampments and cleared out other
spots where homeless people spend time. In addition, in early 2007, police took action to
prevent homeless individuals from staying at a local church, leaving them with fewer and
fewer places to go.
Springfield, IL
On June 5, 2007, the city of Springfield removed all the belongings of homeless people
that were being stored outside Lincoln Library. A spokesman for the city said the
property was transported to a storage space at St. John’s Breadline. The storage system
units, Portable On Demand Storage (PODS), were intended to keep piles of possessions
and shopping carts from being eyesores outside the library.
Tacoma, WA
In April 2007, the Tacoma City Council expanded regulations on panhandling. The new
regulations prohibit solicitation within 15 feet of ATM’s, bus stops, pay phones, gas
pumps, and self-service carwashes, and all prohibit all solicitation from dusk to dawn.
The new regulations also prohibit solicitation at any intersection or any private property
without permission. Penalties include fines up to $1,000 and 90 days in jail.
Towson, MD
Eight months after a county law requiring permits to ask for donations in intersections
was passed in 2006, an article in the Towson Times stated that the law is “largely ignored
by the public and may be impossible to enforce.” Introduced by Councilman Sam
Moxley, the law aimed to decrease the number of individuals and groups who solicit
money from drivers. Under the law, permits are required of anyone who intends to ask
for money on medians on county roads; those in violation receive a $100 fine. However,
a number of applications for the permit were denied because applicants could not provide
an address or phone number. Enforcement has been an issue because the language in the
law did not specify which government entity is responsible for issuing notices of
infractions. Councilman Moxley intended for the police to enforce the law, however,
county officials delegated the responsibility to code enforcement inspectors as “the fine is
a civil matter and carries no criminal penalty.”
Tucson, AZ
The Tucson Citizen reported in September 2007 that private security forces funded by the
Downtown Tucson Partnership are teaming up with police to crackdown on the “criminal

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homeless.” Businesses have bought two-way radios for police, so they can be in direct
contact with private security. The two groups met to review what qualified as illegal
behavior. The Tucson Citizen reports that Deputy City Attorney Laura Brynwood
emphasized, “[Y]ou can’t punish someone for who they are. Laws that criminalize
vagrancy, loitering and homelessness are unconstitutional.”
Ventura, CA
On January 31, 2007, Ventura police arrested homeless people living near the Ventura
River for illegal camping and other violations. The week before, the police had marked
camps with spray paint, warned people to leave, and threatened them with arrest and
citations if they had not moved in a week. The police also swept the area and many of
the homeless individuals lost their belongings. According to the Ventura County Star,
Peter Brown, Ventura’s social services director, said that the sweep was meant to keep
people safe from flooding that almost drowned several people. However, camp residents
said they felt safe prior to the sweep because they kept “troublemakers” out, and also had
learned to watch the water level, so they would know when to expect a flood.
West Palm Beach, FL
Over the past decade, Westgate Tabernacle Church has made efforts to house homeless
residents. However, their efforts have been thwarted by the city. In 1999, city officials
decided the church was in violation of zoning laws for operating a shelter in a residential
neighborhood and imposed a $50.00 a day fine on the church. The city ceased imposing
fines when the church discontinued sheltering homeless individuals. However, interest
costs on the fines grew and the county government put a lien on the church.
The church eventually opened itself up again to serve as a shelter and in 2002 filed a
lawsuit in state court claiming that the county’s actions infringed on its right to freely
exercise its religious beliefs and other constitutional rights. The case went to trial in
January 2007. In February 2007, a jury decided that Palm Beach County was not
violating the church’s constitutional rights. The church appealed this decision and filed a
new action related to the matter in federal court in January 2009.
In a Palm Beach Post report, Barry Silver, the church’s attorney, argued that the church
should be allowed to provide a place to sleep and that the government does not provide
enough shelters to meet the need. In response, county attorney Amy Petrick pointed to
the millions of dollars from federal and state funds that go towards homeless services.
She added that West Palm Beach has also spent its own money on aiding the poor.
The lawsuit has brought a lot of attention to homelessness issues and whether or not the
county has enough shelter space available to serve the homeless population. The Palm
Beach Post reported that the church has argued that some of the requirements of existing
shelters, such as sobriety, are very difficult for some homeless individuals to achieve and
that many shelters only serve specific portions of the homeless population (i.e. men,
families, or veterans) and are not inclusive enough.

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In September 2007, West Palm Beach City Commissioners approved a ban on food
sharing programs in several downtown city parks, despite public protests from city
residents and providers. In December 2007, groups that share food with homeless people
in those parks sued the city to challenge the ordinance. In December 2008, the city
council voted to settle the lawsuit, which included repealing the ordinance.

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Case Summaries
TABLE OF CONTENTS: Case Summaries
A number of homeless individuals and advocates have sought to challenge laws and
policies that criminalize homelessness in the courts. This section describes the outcome
or, if the case is still pending, the status, of the majority of these cases.
I. CHALLENGES TO RESTRICTIONS ON SLEEPING, CAMPING, SITTING,
OR STORING PROPERTY IN PUBLIC PLACES.................................................... 90
A. FEDERAL COURT CASES ..................................................................................... 90
ACEVEDO V. CITY OF JACKSONVILLE BEACH, NO. 3:03-CV-507-J-21HTS(M.D. FLA.
2003). ............................................................................................................................ 90
AMSTER V. CITY OF TEMPE, 2001 U.S. APP. LEXIS 9239 (9TH CIR. 2001)................... 90
ASHCRAFT V. CITY OF COVINGTON, NO. 02-124-JGW (E.D. KY. SEPT. 23, 2003). ....... 90
BERKELEY COMMUNITY HEALTH PROJECT V. CITY OF BERKELEY, 902 F. SUPP. 1084
(N.D. CAL. 1995)........................................................................................................... 91
BETANCOURT V. GIULIANI, 448 F.3D 547 (2D CIR. 2006), CERT. DENIED, 127 S. CT. 581
(2006)............................................................................................................................ 91
CASH V. HAMILTON DEPARTMENT OF ADULT PROBATION, 2006 WL 314491 (S.D. OHIO
FEB. 8, 2006), NO. 1:01-CV-753 (NOT REPORTED IN F. SUPP. 2D). ................................ 92
THE CENTER V. LINGLE, NO. 04-537 KSC (D. HAW. 2004)........................................... 93
CHURCH V. CITY OF HUNTSVILLE, 30 F.3D 1332 (11TH CIR. 1994). .............................. 93
CITY OF CHICAGO V. MORALES, 527 U.S. 41 (1999). .................................................... 94
CLARK V. CITY OF CINCINNATI, NO. 1-95-448 (S.D. OHIO OCT. 25, 1995). .................. 95
CLARK V. COMMUNITY FOR CREATIVE NON-VIOLENCE, 468 U.S. 288 (1984). ............. 95
CLEMENTS V. CITY OF CLEVELAND, NO. 94-CV-2074 (N.D. OHIO 1994). .................... 95
DAVIDSON V. CITY OF TUCSON, 924 F. SUPP. 989 (D. ARIZ. 1996). .............................. 96
DOUCETTE V. CITY OF SANTA MONICA, 955 F. SUPP. 1192 (C.D. CAL. 1997). ............. 96
FIFTH AVENUE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH V. CITY OF NEW YORK, 177 FED. APPX. 198 (2D
CIR. 2006), CERT. DENIED, 127 S. CT. 387 (2006).......................................................... 97
GLOVER V. EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF THE INDIANA WAR MEMORIALS COMMISSION, NO.
1:07-CV-1109 (S.D. IND., FILED AUG. 30, 2007). .......................................................... 98
HALFPAP V. CITY OF LAS VEGAS, NO. 2:06-CV-01636-RCJ-RJJ (D. NEV. DEC. 20,
2006). ............................................................................................................................ 98
HENRY V. CITY OF CINCINNATI, NO. C-1-03-509 (S.D. OHIO 2003). ............................ 99
HENRY V. CITY OF NEW ORLEANS, NO. 03-2493 (E.D. LA. 2005)................................. 99
HERSHEY V. CITY OF CLEARWATER, 834 F.2D 937 (11TH CIR. 1987)............................ 99
JOEL V. CITY OF ORLANDO, 232 F.3D 1353 (11TH CIR. 2000), CERT. DENIED, 149
L.ED.2D 480 (2001)..................................................................................................... 100
JOHNSON V. CITY OF DALLAS, 61 F.3D 442 (5TH CIR. 1995). ...................................... 100
JOHNSON V. FREEMAN, 351 F. SUPP. 2D 929 (E.D. MO. 2004)..................................... 102
JONES V. CITY OF LOS ANGELES, 444 F.3D 1118 (9TH CIR. 2006). .............................. 102
JOYCE V. CITY AND COUNTY OF SAN FRANCISCO, 87 F.3D 1320 (9TH CIR. 1996)....... 104
KINCAID V. CITY OF FRESNO, 2006 WL 3542732 (E.D. CAL. DEC. 8, 2006). .............. 104
85

KREIMER V. STATE OF NEW JERSEY, NO. 05-1416 (DRD) (D.N.J. 2005). ................... 106
LEE V. CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, 1992 U.S. DIST. LEXIS 21916,
NO. 3:92-CV-03131-SBA (N.D. CAL. OCT. 26, 1992)................................................ 106
LEHR V. CITY OF SACRAMENTO, NO. 2:2007 AT 00707 (E.D. CAL AUG. 2, 2007). ...... 107
LOVE V. CITY OF CHICAGO, NO. 96-C-0396, 1998 U.S. DIST. LEXIS 1386 (N.D. ILL.
FEB. 5, 1998). .............................................................................................................. 108
METROPOLITAN COUNCIL INC. V. SAFIR, 99 F. SUPP. 2D 438 (S.D.N.Y. 2000). .......... 109
PATTON V. CITY OF BALTIMORE, NO. S-93-2389, (D. MD. SEPT. 14, 1994). ............... 109
PICTURE THE HOMELESS V. CITY OF NEW YORK, NO. 02 CIV. 9379 (S.D.N.Y. MARCH
31, 2003). .................................................................................................................... 110
PROJECT SHARE V. CITY OF PHILADELPHIA, NO. 93-CV-6003 (E.D. PA. 1993). ......... 110
POTTINGER V. CITY OF MIAMI, 76 F.3D 1154 (11TH CIR. 1996). ................................. 110
RICHARDSON V. CITY OF ATLANTA, NO. 97-CV-2468 (N.D. GA. AUG. 28, 1997). ..... 111
ROULETTE V. CITY OF SEATTLE, 78 F.3D 1425 (9TH CIR. 1996). ................................. 111
RYDEN V. CITY OF SANTA BARBARA, CASE NO. CV09-1578 SVW (C.D. CAL. MARCH 6,
2009). .......................................................................................................................... 112
SAGER V. CITY OF PITTSBURGH, NO. 03-0635 (W.D. PA. 2003).................................. 113
SIPPRELLE V. CITY OF LAGUNA BEACH, NO. 08-01447 (C.D. CAL., FILED DEC. 23, 2008).
..................................................................................................................................... 113
SPENCER V. CITY OF SAN DIEGO, NO. 04 CV-2314 BEN (S.D. CAL. MAY 2, 2006).... 114
STONE V. AGNOS, 960 F.2D 893 (9TH CIR. 1992). ....................................................... 114
STREETWATCH V. NATIONAL R.R. PASSENGER CORP., 875 F. SUPP. 1055 (S.D.N.Y.
1995). .......................................................................................................................... 115
WHITING V. TOWN OF WESTERLY, 942 F.2D 18 (1ST CIR. 1991). ................................ 115
WILLIAMS V. CITY OF ATLANTA, NO. 95-8752 (11TH CIR. 1996)................................ 115
B. STATE COURT CASES ......................................................................................... 115
ARCHER V. TOWN OF ELKTON, CASE NO. 1:2007-CV-01991 (MD. DIST. CT. JULY 27,
2007). .......................................................................................................................... 115
CERVANTES V. INTERNATIONAL SERVICES, INC., CASE NO. BC220226 (CAL. SUPER. CT.
2002). .......................................................................................................................... 116
CITY OF SARASOTA V. MCGINNIS, NO. 2005 MO 16411 NC (FLA. CIR. CT. 2005), CERT.
DENIED, 947 SO. 2D 1173 (FLA. APP. 2 DIST. JAN. 24, 2007)....................................... 117
CITY OF SARASOTA V. NIPPER, NO. 2005 MO 4369 NC (FLA. CIR. CT. 2005)............. 117
CITY OF SARASOTA V. TILLMAN, NO. 2003 CA 15645 NC (FLA. CIR. CT. 2004). ....... 118
CITY OF SEATTLE V. MCCONAHY, 937 P.2D 1133 (WASH. CT. APP. 1997). ................ 118
DELACRUZ V. CITY OF SARASOTA, NO. 2D06-5419 (FLA. DIST. CT. APP. NOV. 2, 2006),
CERT. DENIED NO. 2D06-5419 (FLA. DIST. CT. APP. APRIL 20, 2007)......................... 119
IN RE EICHORN, 81 CAL. RPTR. 2D 535 (CAL. APP. DEP’T. SUPER. CT. 2000).............. 119
OREGON V. KURYLOWICZ, NO. 03-07-50223 (OR. CIR. CT. 2004). ............................. 120
PEOPLE V. MCMANUS, CASE NO. 02M09109 (CAL. SUPER. CT. 2002). ...................... 120
STATE V. FOLKS, NO. 96-19569 MM (FLA. CIR. CT. NOV. 21, 1996). ......................... 121
STATE OF CONNECTICUT V. MOONEY, 218 CONN. 85, 588 A.2D 145 (1991). .............. 121
STATE V. PENLEY, 276 SO. 2D 180 (2 D.C.A. FLA. 1973). ........................................... 122
STATE V. WICKS, NOS. 2711742 & 2711743, (ORE. CIR. CT. MULTNOMAH COUNTY
2000). .......................................................................................................................... 122
TOBE V. CITY OF SANTA ANA, 9 CAL. 4TH 1069, 892 P.2D 1145 (1995). .................... 122
86

VOELLER V. THE CITY OF THE DALLES, NO. CC02155 (OR. CIR. CT. 2003). .............. 123
II. CHALLENGES TO ANTI-BEGGING, ANTI-SOLICITING, AND ANTIPEDDLING LAWS....................................................................................................... 123
A. FEDERAL COURT CASES ................................................................................... 123
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION OF NEVADA V. CITY OF LAS VEGAS, 333 F.3D 1092
(9TH CIR. 2003). .......................................................................................................... 123
ATCHISON V. CITY OF ATLANTA, NO 1:96-CV-1430 (N.D. GA. JULY 17, 1996). ........ 125
BLAIR V. SHANAHAN, 919 F. SUPP. 1361 (N.D. CAL. 1996). ....................................... 125
BOOHER V. MARION COUNTY, NO. 5:07-CV-282-OC-10GRT (M.D. FLA. FILED JULY 11,
2007). .......................................................................................................................... 126
BROWN V. KELLY, NO. 05-CV-5442, 2007 WL 1573957 (S.D.N.Y. MAY 31, 2007);
2007 WL 2156400 (S.D.N.Y. JULY 24, 2007)............................................................. 127
CHAD V. CITY OF FT. LAUDERDALE, 66 F. SUPP. 2D 1242 (S.D. FLA. 1998)................ 127
CHASE V. CITY OF GAINESVILLE, 2006 WL 2620260 (N.D. FLA. SEPT. 11, 2006). ..... 127
COMMUNITY FOR CREATIVE NON-VIOLENCE V. TURNER, 893 F.2D 1387 (D.C. CIR.
1990). .......................................................................................................................... 129
DELLANTONIO V. CITY OF INDIANAPOLIS, NO. 1:08-CV-0780 (S.D. IND., FILED JUNE 11,
2008). .......................................................................................................................... 129
GREATER CINCINNATI COALITION FOR THE HOMELESS V. CITY OF CINCINNATI, 56 F.3D
710 (6TH CIR. 1995). ................................................................................................... 129
GRESHAM V. PETERSON, 225 F.3D 899 (7TH CIR. 2000). ............................................. 130
HENRY V. CITY OF CINCINNATI, 2005 WL 1198814 (S.D. OHIO APR. 28, 2005). ........ 130
JONES V. CITY OF DENVER, NO. 96-WY-1751 (D. COLO. 1996).................................. 131
HEATHCOTT V. LAS VEGAS METROPOLITAN POLICE OFFICERS, NO. CV-S-93-045 (D.
NEV. MAR. 3, 1994)..................................................................................................... 131
LOPER V. NEW YORK CITY POLICE DEPARTMENT, 999 F.2D 699 (2D CIR. 1993). ....... 131
LOS ANGELES ALLIANCE FOR SURVIVAL V. CITY OF LOS ANGELES, 224 F.3D 1076 (9TH
CIR. 2000).................................................................................................................... 132
NORTHEAST OHIO COALITION FOR THE HOMELESS V. CITY OF CLEVELAND, 105 F. 3D
1107 (6TH CIR. 1997). ................................................................................................. 132
SMITH V. CITY OF FT. LAUDERDALE, 177 F.3D 954 (11TH CIR. 1999). ........................ 133
SUNN V. CITY AND COUNTY OF HONOLULU, 852 F. SUPP. 903 (D. HAW. 1994). ......... 133
THOMPSON V. CITY OF CHICAGO, 2002 WL 31115578 (N.D. ILL. SEPT. 24, 2002). .... 134
YOUNG V. NEW YORK CITY TRANSIT AUTHORITY, 903 F.2D 146 (2D CIR. 1990). ...... 134
B. STATE COURT CASES ......................................................................................... 135
ACLU OF NEW MEXICO V. CITY OF ALBUQUERQUE, NO. 2004 00355 (N.M. DIST. CT.
BERNALILLO COUNTY 2004). ...................................................................................... 135
C.C.B. V. FLORIDA, 458 SO.2D 47 (FLA. DIST. CT. APP. 1984).................................... 136
CITY OF CLEVELAND V. EZELL, 121 OHIO APP.3D 570, 700 N.E.2D 621 (1997).......... 136
LEDFORD V. STATE, 652 SO.2D 1254 (FLA. DIST. CT. APP. 1995). .............................. 136
MCFARLIN V. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, 681 A.2D 440 (D.C. 1996)............................. 137
PEOPLE V. SCHRADER, 162 MISC. 2D 789, 617 N.Y.S. 2D 429 (CRIM. CT. 1994)......... 137
STATE OF FLORIDA V. O’DANIELS, 2005 WL 2373437 (FLA. APP. 3 DIST. SEPT. 28,
2005). .......................................................................................................................... 137

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STATE OF MINNESOTA V. MCDONALD, NO. 03085478 (MINN. DIST. CT. 2004).......... 138
STATE OF TEXAS V. JOHN FRANCIS CURRAN, NO. 553926 (TEX. MUN. CT. CITY OF
AUSTIN 2005). ............................................................................................................. 139
III. CHALLENGES TO VAGRANCY, LOITERING, AND CURFEW LAWS.... 139
A. FEDERAL COURT CASES ................................................................................... 139
CITY OF CHICAGO V. MORALES, 527 U.S. 41 (1999). .................................................. 139
GAFFNEY V. CITY OF ALLENTOWN, 1997 U.S. DIST. LEXIS 14565 (D. PA. 1997)...... 140
HODGKINS V. PETERSON, 355 F.3D 1048 (7TH CIR. 2004). .......................................... 140
HUTCHINS V. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, 188 F.3D 531 (D.C. CIR. 1999)....................... 141
JOHNSON V. CITY OF CINCINNATI, 310 F.3D 484, 2002 WL 31119105 (6TH CIR. 2002).
..................................................................................................................................... 141
JUSTIN V. CITY OF LOS ANGELES, NO. CV-00-12352 LGB, 2000 U.S. DIST. LEXIS
17881 (C.D. CAL. DEC. 5, 2000).................................................................................. 142
KOLENDER V. LAWSON, 461 U.S. 352 (1983). ............................................................. 143
LANGI V. CITY AND COUNTY OF HONOLULU, CIVIL NO. 06-428 DAE/LEK (D. HAW.
AUG. 6, 2006). ............................................................................................................. 143
LEAL V. TOWN OF CICERO, 2000 WL 343232 (N.D. ILL. MARCH 31, 2000)................ 144
NAACP ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY BRANCH V. CITY OF ANNAPOLIS, 133 F. SUPP. 2D 795
(D. MD. 2001).............................................................................................................. 144
NAKATA V. CITY AND COUNTY OF HONOLULU, CIVIL NO. CV 06 004 36 SOM BMK (D.
HAW. AUG. 10, 2006). ................................................................................................. 145
NUNEZ BY NUNEZ V. CITY OF SAN DIEGO, 114 F.3D 935 (9TH CIR. 1997). ................. 145
PAPACHRISTOU V. CITY OF JACKSONVILLE, 405 U.S. 156 (1972). ............................... 145
QUTB V. STRAUSS, 11 F.3D 488 (5TH CIR. 1993), CERT. DENIED, 511 U.S. 1127 (1994).
..................................................................................................................................... 146
RAMOS V. TOWN OF VERNON, 353 F.3D 171 (2D CIR. 2003). ...................................... 146
RICHARD V. NEVADA, NO. CV-S-90-51 (D. NEV. APR. 25, 1991). .............................. 146
SCHLEIFER V. CITY OF CHARLOTTESVILLE, 159 F.3D 843 (4TH CIR. 1998), CERT. DENIED,
1999 U.S. LEXIS 1908 (1999). ................................................................................... 147
B. STATE COURT CASES ......................................................................................... 147
CITY OF SALIDA V. EDELSTEIN, CASE NO. 97CR62 (COLO. DIST. CT. 1998)............... 147
COMMONWEALTH V. ASAMOAH, 2002 PA. SUPER. LEXIS 2896 (PA. SUPER. CT. 2002).
..................................................................................................................................... 148
JOHNSON V. ATHENS - CLARKE COUNTY, 529 S.E.2D 613 (GA. 2000). ....................... 148
STATE V. BURNETT, 755 N.E.2D 857 (OHIO 2001). ..................................................... 148
IV. CHALLENGES TO RESTRICTIONS ON FOOD SHARING ......................... 149
A. FEDERAL COURT CASES ................................................................................... 149
BIG HART MINISTRIES V. CITY OF DALLAS, NO. 3-07CV0216-P, 2007 WL 606343 (N.D.
TEX. JAN. 31, 2007). .................................................................................................... 149
DAYTONA RESCUE MISSION, INC. V. CITY OF DAYTONA BEACH, 885 F. SUPP. 1554
(M.D. FLA. 1995). ....................................................................................................... 150
FAMILY LIFE CHURCH V. CITY OF ELGIN, 2008 WL 2440658 (N.D. ILL. JUNE 18, 2008).
..................................................................................................................................... 150

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FIRST ASSEMBLY OF GOD OF NAPLES, FLORIDA, INC. V. COLLIER COUNTY, FLORIDA, 27
F.3D 526 (11TH CIR. 1994). ......................................................................................... 151
FIRST VAGABONDS CHURCH OF GOD V. CITY OF ORLANDO, NO. 6:06-CV-1583-ORL31KRS (M.D. FLA. FILED OCT. 12, 2006).................................................................... 152
LAYMAN LESSONS, INC. V. CITY OF MILLERSVILLE, 2008 WL 686399 (M.D. TENN.
MAR. 7, 2008).............................................................................................................. 153
MCHENRY V. AGNOS, 983 F.2D 1076 (9TH CIR. 1993). ............................................... 153
PACIFIC BEACH UNITED METHODIST CHURCH V. CITY OF SAN DIEGO, DOCKET NO. 07CV-2305-LAB-PCL (S. D. CAL. DEC. 7, 2007). ......................................................... 154
SACCO V. CITY OF LAS VEGAS, DOCKET NO. 2:06-CV-0714-RCJ-LRL (D. NEV. JUNE
12, 2006). .................................................................................................................... 155
SANTA MONICA FOOD NOT BOMBS V. CITY OF SANTA MONICA, 450 F.3D 1022 (9TH
CIR. 2006).................................................................................................................... 155
STUART CIRCLE PARISH V. BOARD OF ZONING APPEALS OF THE CITY OF RICHMOND, 946
F. SUPP. 1225 (E.D. VA. 1996). ................................................................................... 156
WESTERN PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH V. THE BOARD OF ZONING ADJUSTMENT OF THE
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, 862 F. SUPP. 538 (D.D.C. 1994). ......................................... 157
B. STATE COURT CASES ......................................................................................... 158
ABBOTT V. CITY OF FORT LAUDERDALE, 783 SO. 2D 1213 (FLA. DIST. CT. APP. 2001).
..................................................................................................................................... 158
V. MISCELLANEOUS................................................................................................. 158
A. FEDERAL COURT CASES ................................................................................... 158
CURRIER V. POTTER, 379 F.3D 716 (9TH CIR. 2004), CERT. DENIED, 125 S. CT. 2935
(2005).......................................................................................................................... 158
FITZGERALD V. CITY OF LOS ANGELES, NO. CV 03-1876 NM (C.D. CAL. 2003), 485 F.
SUPP. 2D 1137 (C.D. CAL. 2007). ................................................................................ 160
HIIBEL V. SIXTH JUDICIAL DISTRICT OF NEVADA, 542 U.S. 177 (2004). ..................... 161
HORTON V. CITY OF ST. AUGUSTINE, 272 F.3D 1318 (11TH CIR. 2001)....................... 162
MASON V. CITY OF TUCSON, NO. CV 98-288 (D. ARIZ. JUNE 12, 1998)...................... 162
OSBORN V. CITY OF ATLANTA, NO. 1:90-CV-1553 (N.D. GA. 1991). ......................... 163
B. STATE COURT CASES ......................................................................................... 163
HOMES ON WHEELS V. CITY OF SANTA BARBARA, 119 CAL. APP. 4TH 1173 (CAL. APP. 2
DIST. 2004); 2005 WL 2951480 (CAL. APP. 2 DIST. NOV. 7, 2005) (NOT REPORTED IN
CAL. RPTR. 3D). ........................................................................................................... 163

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Case Summaries
I. Challenges to Restrictions on Sleeping, Camping, Sitting, or Storing Property in
Public Places
A. Federal Court Cases
Acevedo v. City of Jacksonville Beach, No. 3:03-CV-507-J-21HTS(M.D. Fla. 2003).
Homeless individuals and a non-profit homeless services provider brought a § 1983
action against the City of Jacksonville Beach, Florida, and the city police alleging
violations of their First, Fourth, Fifth, Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendment rights (and
similar claims under the Florida Constitution) when the police arrested them for violating
an anti-camping ordinance and seized and destroyed their belongings. The parties jointly
dismissed the case, because none of the plaintiffs was able to continue with the suit. The
plaintiffs’ counsel reports that they have not heard of police harassment since the suit was
filed and are continuing to monitor the situation.
Amster v. City of Tempe, 2001 U.S. App. LEXIS 9239 (9th Cir. 2001).
The Ninth Circuit rejected plaintiff’s facial challenge of a Tempe ordinance requiring a
person wishing to sit or lie down on a city sidewalk for certain types of events to first
obtain a permit. Amster had organized several demonstrations on the city’s sidewalks
without first obtaining permits, although the city had never actually enforced the
ordinance during one of his demonstrations. The court found that the ordinance regulated
conduct, i.e., sitting or lying on a public sidewalk that was not expressive by itself.
Accordingly, the ordinance survived a facial challenge.
Ashcraft v. City of Covington, No. 02-124-JGW (E.D. Ky. Sept. 23, 2003).
Homeless individuals brought a § 1983 action against the City of Covington, Kentucky,
and its mayor alleging violations of their Fourth, Fifth, and Fourteenth Amendment rights
when city employees and police raided their camps and seized their property. In
reviewing cross-motions for summary judgment, the federal magistrate judge found that
the plaintiffs were not trespassing, and therefore had a reasonable subjective privacy
interest in their property. The plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment claim thus survived
summary judgment. The magistrate also found, however, that there was no substantive
due process violation, and that the city’s defense of qualified immunity could stand for
the other claims. The case settled in 2004 – each of the 5 plaintiffs received $1,000 and
their lawyers received attorney’s fees.

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Berkeley Community Health Project v. City of Berkeley, 902 F. Supp. 1084 (N.D. Cal.
1995).
In February, 1994, plaintiffs challenged two recently enacted Berkeley ordinances
prohibiting sitting or lying down on a sidewalk within six feet of the face of a building
during certain hours and soliciting in certain locations or in a “coerc[ive], threaten[ing],
hound[ing] or intimidat[ing]” manner. Plaintiffs alleged violations of their rights under
the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution and various provisions of
the California Constitution. The U.S. District Court for the Northern District of
California issued a preliminary injunction forbidding enforcement of the anti-solicitation
ordinance, finding that it was a content-based regulation of speech in violation of the
Liberty of Speech Clause of the California Constitution. The court also issued a
preliminary injunction prohibiting enforcement of the restriction on sitting, finding that
sitting can sometimes constitute expressive activity, and that the ordinance did not further
a substantial government interest unrelated to expression, was not narrowly tailored, and
did not leave open ample alternative channels of communication. Defendants appealed
the court’s decision on the anti-solicitation ordinance to the Ninth Circuit, but the case
was settled before the appeal was heard.
Betancourt v. Giuliani, 448 F.3d 547 (2d Cir. 2006), cert. denied, 127 S. Ct. 581 (2006).
Augustine Betancourt brought suit against the Mayor, Police Commissioner, and the City
of New York for his arrest under a New York law that makes it “unlawful for any
person[s] . . . to leave . . . or permit to be left, any box, barrel, bale of merchandise or
other movable property whether or not owned by such person[s], upon any . . . public
place, or to erect or cause to be erected thereon any shed, building or other obstruction.” .
At the time of arrest, Betancourt had made a tube out of the cardboard and slipped inside
it on a park bench. After his arrest, he was strip-searched and placed in a holding cell. He
was not prosecuted. Betancourt brought a number of claims against the city, including a
claim that the statute was unconstitutionally vague and overbroad as applied to his arrest.
He also alleged that the strip search violated his Fourth Amendment rights because he
was arrested for a minor offense and police did not have reasonable suspicion that he was
concealing a weapon or other contraband.
Betancourt asserted the statute should be analyzed for vagueness using an “especially
stringent” standard because the statute involved his fundamental right to travel and
imposed criminal penalties without requiring a finding of criminal intent. The court,
reasoning that the statute did not penalize “merely occupying” public space but rather
obstructing public space, held that the statute did not penalize the right to travel and was
not void for vagueness. The court found Betancourt had sufficient notice that his conduct
was prohibited, and there are sufficient guidelines in place to limit police discretion in its
application. The court granted Betancourt summary judgment on his illegal strip search
claim but granted summary judgment in favor of defendants on all other claims.
Betancourt appealed and the appellate court affirmed the lower court judgment, holding
that the code provision was not unconstitutionally vague as applied. Judge Calabresi

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dissented, finding that the statute did not sufficiently “give the person of ordinary
intelligence a reasonable opportunity to know what is prohibited” and did not “provide
explicit standards for those who apply them.” In Judge Calabresi’s view, the word
“erect” does not reasonably mean “fitting together of materials or parts,” as the majority
posited. Judge Calabresi further stated that Betancourt’s boxes were not an “obstruction”
but rather Betancourt was “occupying [a] public place with a few of [his] personal
belongings.” Judge Calabresi also criticized the majority’s dismissal of the right-to-travel
question, but did not pursue this issue since he found the statute undeniably void for
vagueness even under the moderately stringent test that the majority applied. Finally,
Judge Calabresi also pointed out in his dissent that the statutory context also made the
statute difficult to understand, as the surrounding sections and the statement of legislative
intent all pertain to abandoned automobiles.
Cash v. Hamilton Department of Adult Probation, 2006 WL 314491 (S.D. Ohio Feb. 8,
2006), No. 1:01-CV-753 (not reported in F. Supp. 2d).
Homeless individuals brought a § 1983 action against the City of Cincinnati and
Hamilton County alleging that the city violated their Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment
rights when their personal property was taken and destroyed by a city clean-up crew
instructed to clean out under bridges and viaducts where homeless individuals resided.
The District Court for the Southern District of Ohio granted summary judgment for
defendant government officials. The Sixth Circuit reversed the district court’s summary
judgment and remanded the case. The Sixth Circuit received two petitions for rehearing
en banc, which it denied on the grounds that the issues raised in the petitions had been
fully considered.
On remand, plaintiffs moved for partial summary judgment, arguing that the evidence
overwhelmingly showed that they lost their possessions pursuant to a policy or custom of
the city, and that notice provided by the city was inadequate as a matter of law. Also on
remand, the city moved to dismiss for lack of subject matter jurisdiction. The city relied
on Arnett v. Myers, to support its argument that plaintiffs’ claims were not ripe because
plaintiffs had not exhausted state remedies to obtain just compensation for their loss.
The court denied plaintiffs’ motion because questions of fact remained regarding whether
plaintiffs’ property was indeed discarded pursuant to a policy or custom of the city, and
plaintiffs had not submitted any new evidence in support of their argument regarding the
city’s policy of discarding property of homeless persons without notice and a hearing.
The court, also however, denied the city’s motion to dismiss because plaintiffs abandoned
their takings claim; their remaining procedural due process claim did not require
plaintiffs to exhaust any state remedies in order for their claim to be ripe. The case was
settled on September 20, 2006. Under current procedures, personal property that is taken
is retained and notice is given at the site regarding where such property may be retrieved.

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The Center v. Lingle, No. 04-537 KSC (D. Haw. 2004).
The ACLU of Hawaii sued the governor and Hawaii’s Attorney General on behalf of The
Center (a nonprofit organization providing services for lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transsexual, intersex, and questioning Hawaiians), Waianae Community Outreach (a nonprofit organization providing services to the homeless), and an individual plaintiff to seek
an injunction barring the enforcement of a criminal trespass statute. Plaintiffs alleged
that the statute violated the First and Fourteenth Amendments as well as the Hawaii
Constitution. The statute, passed as Act 50, allows authorities to ban a person from any
public property for up to one year, after issuing a written trespass warning statement.
The individual plaintiff was allegedly banned from Hawaii public libraries for a year for
looking at gay-themed web sites on library computers. Plaintiffs also contended that the
statute has been used to ban homeless persons from public beaches and public parks and
to threaten homeless persons to leave certain public property immediately.
The plaintiffs alleged that this law lacks standards for determining what speech or
conduct is prohibited and fails to provide any procedural safeguards. Therefore, plaintiffs
claimed that the statute violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S.
Constitution and a provision of the Hawaii Constitution. Plaintiffs also argued that the
statute is unconstitutionally vague and fails to establish the required minimal guidelines
to govern law enforcement. Plaintiffs also challenged the statute for impermissibly
making a distinction based on content, by favoring speech related to union activities.
Finally, the plaintiffs claimed the statute infringed on one’s right to move freely. The
plaintiffs’ complaint sought declaratory and permanent injunctive relief, as well as a
declaration that the statute is unconstitutional as applied.
The ACLU lawsuit, combined with strong opposition from other homeless service
providers, sparked the legislature to consider a repeal of Act 50. The legislature
ultimately did not completely repeal the law, but came to a compromise with legislators
concerned about squatters. The law as passed does not allow police or others to ban
individuals from public property, but it does create a petty misdemeanor offense for
criminal trespass if an individual remains in a public park or public recreational grounds
after an officer tells him or her to leave, pursuant to a posted sign or notice governing the
activity on the grounds. The ACLU continues to worry about discriminatory
enforcement. The governor signed the new bill into law on July 8, 2005.
Although the most egregious provisions of the original law were repealed, the ACLU
lobbied the legislature to pass Senate Bill 2687, which would have repealed the rest of the
act. This bill died at the end of the 2006 legislative session.
Church v. City of Huntsville, 30 F.3d 1332 (11th Cir. 1994).
A class of homeless plaintiffs alleged that Huntsville, AL had a custom, policy and
practice of arresting and harassing plaintiffs for performing essential activities in public

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places, seizing and destroying their personal property, and using zoning and building
codes to close or condemn private shelters for homeless people. In 1993, the U.S.
District Court for the Northern District of Alabama issued a preliminary injunction
prohibiting the City of Huntsville from removing homeless people from city property,
and also from harassing, intimidating, detaining, or arresting them for walking, talking,
sleeping or gathering in public places solely because of their status as homeless persons,
and finally, from using zoning or building codes to close or condemn private shelters in
the absence of a clearly demonstrable threat to health or safety. On appeal, the Eleventh
Circuit vacated the injunction, holding that the plaintiffs had not demonstrated that the
actions they sought to prevent were part of an official city policy nor had they shown that
there was a pervasive practice or custom of violating plaintiffs’ rights. Thus they were
unlikely to succeed on the merits. Furthermore, the Eleventh Circuit held that the
plaintiffs did not have standing to challenge the city’s application of its zoning and
building codes. On remand, the district court, finding that plaintiffs could not prevail
under the burden of proof established by the court of appeals, granted summary judgment
for the defendant, City of Huntsville.
City of Chicago v. Morales, 527 U.S. 41 (1999).
The city of Chicago challenged the Supreme Court of Illinois’ decision that a Gang
Congregation Ordinance was unconstitutional for violation of the due process clause of
the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution for impermissible vagueness -- lack
of notice of proscribed conduct and failure to govern law enforcement. The ordinance
prohibited criminal street gang members from loitering in a public place. The ordinance
allowed a police officer to order persons to disperse if the officer observed any person
loitering that the officer reasonably believed to be a gang member.
The Supreme Court affirmed the judgment of the Illinois Supreme Court and ruled the
ordinance violated the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment to the U.S.
Constitution for vagueness. Specifically, the court ruled that the ordinance violated the
requirement that a legislature establish guidelines to govern law enforcement.
Additionally, the ordinance failed to give the ordinary citizen adequate notice of what
constituted the prohibited conduct – loitering. The ordinance defined “loitering” as “to
remain in any one place with no apparent purpose.” The vagueness the Court found was
not uncertainty as to the normal meaning of “loitering” but to the ordinance’s definition
of that term. The court reasoned that the ordinary person would find it difficult to state
an “apparent purpose” for why they were standing in a public place with a group of
people. “[F]reedom to loiter for innocent purposes,” the court reiterated, is part of the
liberty protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Court
declined to decide whether the Chicago ordinance’s impact was a constitutionally
protected liberty to support a facial challenge under the overbreadth doctrine. NLCHP
filed an amicus brief in support of plaintiffs-appellees.

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Clark v. City of Cincinnati, No. 1-95-448 (S.D. Ohio Oct. 25, 1995).
Homeless persons and advocates challenged two City of Cincinnati ordinances
prohibiting sitting or lying on sidewalks and certain types of solicitation on First and
Fourteenth Amendment grounds. In May 1998, U.S. District Court Magistrate Judge
Jack Sherman, Jr., of the Southern District of Ohio, struck down, on First Amendment
grounds, the ordinances meant to criminalize certain actions by homeless and low-income
individuals. One ordinance made it a crime for a person to sit or lie on sidewalks in
downtown Cincinnati or on the Cincinnati skywalk between the hours of 7 a.m. and 9:30
p.m. The other ordinance criminalized soliciting funds, whether by asking or through
gesturing, within certain distances of some buildings, automatic teller machines and
crosswalks, and in all areas after 8 p.m.
Accepting the Magistrate Judge’s determination that the ordinances “likely infringe[d]
upon plaintiffs’ First Amendment right to freedom of speech to some degree,” the U.S.
District Court for the Southern District of Ohio issued a preliminary injunction enjoining
the city from enforcing the ordinances, with the exception of the specific provision of the
sidewalk ordinance that prohibited lying down. In light of its ruling in favor of plaintiffs
on their First Amendment claim, the court did not reach a decision on plaintiffs’
Fourteenth Amendment claims.
Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence, 468 U.S. 288 (1984).
In 1982, the Community for Creative Non-Violence (CCNV) held a round-the-clock
protest demonstration on national park property near the White House, and was granted a
permit to erect a symbolic campsite but denied permission to sleep at the campsite.
CCNV challenged the applicable Park Service Regulation as unconstitutionally vague on
its face and discriminatorily enforced in violation of the protesters’ rights under the First
Amendment. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed the holding of the Court of Appeals for
the D.C. Circuit, finding that the regulation advanced a substantial government interest
unrelated to the suppression of expression and was narrowly tailored to advance that
interest. The court held that even if sleeping in connection with the demonstration is
expressive conduct that is protected to some degree under the First Amendment, the
challenged regulation was facially neutral and constituted a reasonable time, place, and
manner restriction.
Clements v. City of Cleveland, No. 94-CV-2074 (N.D. Ohio 1994).
In 1994, four individual plaintiffs and the Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless
challenged the Cleveland Police’s practice of removing homeless people by coercion and
force from downtown Cleveland to transport them to remote locations and abandon them.
Plaintiffs sought a preliminary injunction that would prohibit the practice on the grounds
that it violates plaintiffs’ rights under the First, Fourth, and Fourteenth Amendments to
the U.S. Constitution and various provisions of the Ohio Constitution.

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In February 1997, the four individual plaintiffs and the Coalition settled the lawsuit.
Under the terms of the settlement, the city agreed (i) to issue a directive to the police
forbidding them from picking up and transporting homeless people against their will, (ii)
to issue a public statement that violating homeless people’s rights to move around
downtown Cleveland is not and will not be city policy, (iii) to pay $9,000 to the Coalition
to be used for housing, education and job training for the homeless plaintiffs; and (iv) to
pay $7,000 to cover a portion of the plaintiffs’ costs in bringing suit.
Davidson v. City of Tucson, 924 F. Supp. 989 (D. Ariz. 1996).
Plaintiffs sought an injunction against a Tucson resolution barring homeless
encampments from city-owned property on Eighth Amendment and Equal Protection
grounds. The court held that the plaintiffs did not have standing to raise a cruel and
unusual punishment claim because they had not been arrested or convicted under the
ordinance. The court also held that plaintiffs’ Equal Protection claims–that the ordinance
discriminated against homeless people and that it violated their right to travel–were
unlikely to succeed on the merits. The Equal Protection claim failed because the court
did not consider homeless people a suspect class, and the fundamental right to travel does
not include the right to ignore trespass laws or remain on property without regard to
ownership.
Doucette v. City of Santa Monica, 955 F. Supp. 1192 (C.D. Cal. 1997).
In early 1995, a class of homeless plaintiffs filed a complaint alleging that the City of
Santa Monica’s adoption and discriminatory enforcement of a series of ordinances to
criminalize homelessness violated plaintiffs’ rights under the First and Eighth
Amendments. Plaintiffs also alleged violations of the Fourth Amendment’s prohibition
on unreasonable searches and seizures and the Fifth Amendment’s prohibition of takings
without just compensation. The U.S. District Court for the Central District of California
denied plaintiffs’ motion for summary judgment on their claim that the anti-solicitation
law violated the First Amendment, and granted defendants’ motion for summary
judgment on that claim. The court held that the city’s ordinance prohibiting “abusive
solicitation” was a valid place and manner restriction, finding that it was content-neutral,
narrowly tailored to meet a significant government interest, left open ample alternative
channels of communication, and did not allow law enforcement officers excessive
discretion in enforcement. The court concluded that some of the manner restrictions
imposed by the ordinance only affected conduct, not speech, and that the remaining
provisions that did implicate the First Amendment were valid under the above three
factor analysis.
In February 1997, the court granted summary judgment in favor of the defendants
regarding the two remaining ordinances. The court held that the plaintiffs lacked
standing to challenge one of the ordinances because it was no longer being enforced.
Regarding the second ordinance, which included solicitation restrictions, the court
indicated that: (i) there was no evidence that the ordinance discriminated against speakers

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based on the content of their speech; (ii) the ordinance was narrowly tailored so as to
achieve the significant government interest of preventing “intimidating, threatening, or
harassing” conduct; (iii) sufficient “alternative channels” for communicating would still
be available; and (iv) the ordinance did not place excessive discretion in the hands of law
enforcement officials. Therefore, the court granted summary judgment for the defendants
regarding the second ordinance.
Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church v. City of New York, 177 Fed. Appx. 198 (2d Cir.
2006), cert. denied, 127 S. Ct. 387 (2006).
The Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church sought a preliminary injunction preventing the
City of New York from dispersing homeless persons whom the church invited to sleep on
its outdoor property. In January 2004, the district court granted a preliminary injunction
against the defendants with respect to the church property, finding that the church’s use
of its own property was a protected religious activity. However, the court denied the
injunction as to the public sidewalk bordering the church’s property. The city appealed
to the Second Circuit.
NLCHP filed an amicus brief in the Second Circuit supporting the Church. It argued that
the Church’s activity was protected by the First Amendment, and that the activities of the
Church were traditional forms of effective core outreach to homeless people. NLCHP
also argued that the city’s actions were plainly arbitrary and therefore violated the due
process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The city’s practice of forced removal of
homeless people from the area around the Church also infringed on the homeless
individuals’ constitutionally protected freedom of movement.
In affirming the district court’s decision to grant a preliminary injunction, the Second
Circuit agreed that the Church’s provision of sleeping space to homeless people was the
manifestation of a sincerely held religious belief deserving of protection under the Free
Exercise Clause.
After the grant of the preliminary injunction, the Church moved, and the city crossmoved, for summary judgment. The Church requested that (i) the district court
reconsider its decision that denied an injunction as to the Church’s sidewalk and (ii) the
preliminary injunction be made permanent as to the Church staircases, as well as the
Church sidewalk area. The Church claimed that the city’s actions violated its rights
under the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment and that, therefore, the city’s
actions must be subject to strict scrutiny. The court rejected the city’s claim that its
actions were necessary to address a public nuisance. In October 2004, the district court
granted the permanent injunction with respect to the Church staircases, based on the
Church’s First Amendment claim. The city appealed to the Second Circuit.
NLCHP filed another amicus brief on the Church’s behalf in the Second Circuit. In
addition to agreeing with the lower court’s holding, NLCHP argued that the city’s raids
violated the homeless persons’ fundamental right of association, right to free speech, and
right to travel. Further, NLCHP contended that selective enforcement of nuisance and

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health laws under which the police conducted the raids violated the plaintiffs’ equal
protection rights.
In April 2006, the Second Circuit affirmed the lower court’s decision. The court rejected
the city’s public nuisance argument because there was no evidence proffered that the
conduct at issue constituted a health risk to anyone. Further, the Second Circuit held that
the district court could not rely upon a city administrative code to conclude that the
Church’s sidewalk was a public place.
In October 2006, the U.S. Supreme Court denied the city’s petition for writ of certiorari.
Glover v. Executive Director of the Indiana War Memorials Commission, No. 1:07-cv1109 (S.D. Ind., filed Aug. 30, 2007).
A class of plaintiffs filed a complaint against the Indiana War Memorials Commission an
entity that controls and manages certain public parks and memorials in the city of
Indianapolis and throughout the state of Indiana. In the complaint they alleged that the
commission has a policy or practice of removing persons from grounds controlled by the
commission who are deemed to be “loitering” or engaging in other unlawful conduct
based on unwritten and amorphous standards. The complaint specifically challenges the
commission’s practice of giving certain homeless individuals “no trespass” orders
subjecting them to arrest and prosecution if they enter property controlled by the
commission in the future. Additional practices challenged in the lawsuit include the
imposition of a requirement by the commission that charitable groups obtain (and pay
for) a permit in order to provide food to homeless individuals and that such groups limit
the locations for food distributions.
The plaintiffs seek an injunction against the issuance and/or enforcement of no-trespass
orders and the banning of persons from commission property based on what commission
employees deem to be “loitering.” The case is pending.
Halfpap v. City of Las Vegas, No. 2:06-CV-01636-RCJ-RJJ (D. Nev. Dec. 20, 2006).
In November 2006, three men were arrested for violating a repealed provision of a Las
Vegas city ordinance, which prohibited, among other acts, sleeping within 500 feet of a
deposit of feces or urine. The pertinent provisions of the law, which the city had passed a
law in August 2006 prohibiting sleeping within 500 feet of a deposit of feces or urine, the
pertinent provisions of the law were repealed in September 2006.
The three individuals filed a lawsuit against the city that included numerous causes of
action including violation of their civil rights, negligence, false imprisonment and assault
and battery. In March 2007, the three plaintiffs entered into a settlement with the city
under which the city paid each plaintiff $15,000 in damages.

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Henry v. City of Cincinnati, No. C-1-03-509 (S.D. Ohio 2003).
Homeless individuals brought a § 1983 action against the city alleging violations of First,
Fourth, Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendment rights when the city (i) passed restrictive
anti-panhandling ordinances and (ii) threatened to arrest plaintiffs and seize their property
after putting “no trespassing” signs up at an encampment serving as shelter for the
plaintiffs. The District Court granted plaintiffs’ motion for a temporary restraining order
against arresting plaintiffs or taking their belongings from the encampment. The case
with respect to the sweeps settled soon after it was filed. An agreement was reached
whereby the police must give a homeless individual who is engaging in prohibited
activity 72 hours notice before arresting that person. The officer must transmit this
notification to a designated social service agency to conduct any outreach needed to help
the person find a place to go or services. The 72-hour time period does not begin until
the officer contacts the social service agency. See Section II Challenges to Anti-begging,
Anti-soliciting, and Anti-panhandling Laws, for status of the challenge to antipanhandling law.
Henry v. City of New Orleans, No. 03-2493 (E.D. La. 2005).
In September 2003, New Orleans Legal Assistance, NLCHP, and two New Orleans
lawyers filed a § 1983 action against the city and police department on behalf of five
homeless plaintiffs alleging violations of their First, Fourth, Ninth, and Fourteenth
Amendment rights when the plaintiffs were arrested or given citations for sitting on the
sidewalk outside their employer’s door waiting for their paychecks. Approximately two
months after the suit was filed, the police department made an announcement that it was
changing its policy in dealing with homeless persons on the streets. The police
department’s new policy includes discontinuing mass round-ups and arrests for
obstructing the sidewalk. Under the new policy, police are to call for a homeless
assistance unit when encountering homeless people on the street, instead of arresting
people. Federal and local funds have been dedicated to the new outreach program and to
the construction of a new shelter. The program also includes the creation of more shelter
beds in an existing shelter, the expansion of shelter hours, subsidies by the city for shelter
fees and homeless contact sheets for all officers.
In April 2005, the claims of three of the plaintiffs settled, with the two individuals who
were issued citations receiving $500 each and the individual who spent 12 hours in jail
receiving $1,000. The claims of the remaining plaintiffs were withdrawn and dismissed
after those plaintiffs could not be reached.
Hershey v. City of Clearwater, 834 F.2d 937 (11th Cir. 1987).
A motorist challenged the constitutionality of Clearwater’s town ordinance prohibiting
“lodg[ing] or sleep[ing] in, or about any” motor vehicle. The U.S. Court of Appeals for
the Eleventh Circuit held that the ordinance’s prohibition on sleeping in a motor vehicle
was unconstitutionally vague and overbroad. In upholding the prohibition on lodging, the

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court found that it was a reasonable restriction within the police power of the city and
gave proper notice of the conduct prohibited, and thus survived a void for vagueness
challenge.
Joel v. City of Orlando, 232 F.3d 1353 (11th Cir. 2000), cert. denied, 149 L.Ed.2d 480
(2001).
James Joel, a homeless person, filed suit against the City of Orlando, arguing that the city
ordinance prohibiting “camping” on public property violated his rights under the Fifth,
Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution. City of Orlando police
officers arrested Joel for violating Section 43.52 of the City’s Code for “camping” on
public property. “Camping” under the code was defined to include “sleeping out-ofdoors.” The District Court granted summary judgment in favor of the City, and Joel
appealed to the Circuit Court. The Circuit Court affirmed the District Court’s decision,
holding that Joel had failed to prove that the ordinance was enacted for the purpose of
discriminating against homeless people.
Considering the equal protection claim, the Court held that homeless persons are not a
suspect class and that sleeping out-of-doors is not a fundamental right. Therefore, the
Court used the rational basis test and held that the City was pursuing a legitimate
governmental purpose by promoting aesthetics, sanitation, public health, and safety.
Further, it rejected Joel’s argument that even if the City met the rational basis test
standard, the code nonetheless violated equal protection because it was enacted to
“encourage ‘discriminatory, oppressive and arbitrary enforcement’” against homeless
people. The Court found no such purpose behind the code.
The Court also rejected Joel’s argument that the code was impermissibly vague on its
face, and as applied to him. The court held that Joel’s conduct was clearly within the
scope of the code, and that the code was specific enough for a reasonable person to
understand. Further, while the court agreed that police officers would have to use
discretion in deciding what constitutes prohibited conduct, it found that guidelines
promulgated by the City to assist police in enforcement were sufficient to decrease the
likelihood of arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement. Finally, the Court rejected Joel’s
argument that the City code violates his right to be free of cruel and unusual punishment.
The Court stated the City of Orlando has never reached its maximum capacity in its
homeless shelters and no individual is turned away; therefore, Joel had an opportunity to
comply with the ordinance. The Court ruled that unlike Pottinger v. City of Miami60 and
Johnson v. City of Dallas,61 where sleeping out-of-doors was involuntary for homeless
people, here it was voluntary.
Johnson v. City of Dallas, 61 F.3d 442 (5th Cir. 1995).
A class of homeless plaintiffs challenged Dallas’ ordinances prohibiting sleeping in
public, solicitation by coercion, removal of waste from garbage receptacles, and
60
61

810 F. Supp. 1551 (S.D. Fla. 1992), remanded for limited purpose, 40 F.3d 1155 (11th Cir. 1994).
860 F. Supp. 344, 350 (N.D. Tex. 1994), rev’d on other grounds, 61 F.3d 442 (5th Cir. 1995).

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providing for the closure of certain city property during specific hours. Plaintiffs alleged
that the city’s enforcement of these ordinances violated their rights under the Eighth,
Fourth, and Fourteenth Amendments. Plaintiffs also claimed the city’s conduct
constituted wrongful (tortious) malicious abuse of process. The U.S. District Court for
the Northern District of Dallas granted plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction in
part, holding that the sleeping in public prohibition violated the Eighth Amendment
because it imposed punishment on plaintiffs for their status as homeless people.
Nevertheless in its ruling on the motion for a preliminary injunction, the court, in dicta,
rejected plaintiffs’ other claims, including the Equal Protection claims, finding that the
challenged ordinances did not impinge on plaintiffs’ right to travel, homeless people do
not constitute a suspect or quasi-suspect class, and the laws were rationally related to a
legitimate state interest.
On appeal, the Fifth Circuit reversed the district court’s order, vacated the preliminary
injunction, and remanded the case with instructions to dismiss plaintiffs’ Eighth
Amendment claims for lack of standing. The court held that the Constitution’s
prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment applies only after conviction for a criminal
offense, and, on the record before it—compiled prior to the district court’s certification of
the action as a class action—there was no apparent evidence that plaintiffs had actually
been convicted of sleeping in public as opposed to merely being cited or fined. The
District Court did not dismiss the case as ordered by the Fifth Circuit. Defendants then
filed a motion for summary judgment, which was denied.
Defendants next filed a petition for a Writ of Mandamus asking the Fifth Circuit to order
the district court to dismiss the Eighth Amendment claim. Without seeking a response
from plaintiffs, the Fifth Circuit issued the writ ordering the district court to dismiss the
entire case. The district court dismissed the case as ordered. Plaintiffs filed a motion for
reconsideration with the Fifth Circuit. As the thirty-day deadline for filing a notice of
appeal for the dismissal approached, the Fifth Circuit still had not ruled on the motion for
reconsideration. Therefore, plaintiffs filed a notice of appeal of dismissal to the Fifth
Circuit. The Fifth Circuit then entered a modified writ ordering the district court to
dismiss the Eighth Amendment claim only.
On April 24, 2001, the trial court granted Defendants’ motion to dismiss the remaining
claims, in addition to the Eighth Amendment claim.62 The court ruled there could be no
violation of the Fourth Amendment where Plaintiffs failed to establish they were ever
actually arrested for sleeping in public. The court did not address plaintiffs’ arguments
attacking the vagueness of the Ordinances. Instead, the court described the issue before it
“a simple one” and ruled that because plaintiffs failed to present any evidence of their
arrest, probable cause is factually uncontested and the arrests presumptively
constitutional. Therefore, the court dismissed the case.
NLCHP filed two amicus briefs in support of plaintiffs; the U.S. Department of Justice
also filed an amicus brief in support of plaintiffs.
62

No. 3:94-CV-00991-X (N.D. Tex. Apr. 24, 2001).

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Johnson v. Freeman, 351 F. Supp. 2d 929 (E.D. Mo. 2004).
Several individuals who are homeless or who were mistakenly identified as being
homeless by police filed a § 1983 action, seeking injunctive and declaratory relief and
damages against the City of St. Louis and the St. Louis Board of Police Commissioners.
The plaintiffs alleged police “sweeps” against individual plaintiffs during the July Fourth
holiday, in which arrests were apparently made without probable cause and for arguably
fabricated charges, and during which firecrackers were used to intimidate plaintiffs.
Moreover, plaintiffs alleged that police gave them the “option” to either perform
community service and be released before adjudication of guilt or remain in jail.
Plaintiffs’ claims included violations of their Fourth, Fifth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth
Amendment rights, for unlawful searches and seizures, unlawful restraints on travel,
punishment without due process, and involuntary servitude.
In October 2004, the district court issued a preliminary injunction, which requires the
police to stop harassment of homeless people, downtown sweeps of the homeless before
events, and arrests of homeless individuals without probable cause. When issuing the
preliminary injunction, the court found the probability of a threat of irreparable harm
because “so long as the practice of targeting homeless and homeless-appearing people to
remove them from the Downtown area continues, plaintiffs are likely to suffer repeated
violations of their constitutional rights [and such practice] is likely to deter individuals
from seeking out the services required for daily living.” The court also found that
plaintiffs were likely to succeed on the merits and that the great harm to plaintiffs far
outweighed any harm to defendants. The court granted plaintiffs’ motion for preliminary
injunctive relief “to protect the public interest and restore the public’s faith in the fair
application of law to all citizens.” Subsequently, the court denied the city’s motion to
dismiss.63
In July 2005, plaintiffs filed to add 13 plaintiffs (for a total of 26) and added as
defendants the Downtown St. Louis Partnership and 15 individual police officers.
In October 2005, the City settled the case, awarding plaintiffs $80,000 in damages. The
settlement includes a series of protections for homeless persons. For example, the
settlement agreement provides that all persons, including homeless persons, have the
right to use public spaces so long as their activities are lawful; police shall not take any
action to physically remove homeless persons from such spaces; police shall not order
any person to move to another location when the person has a legal right to be there;
police shall not destroy personal property of homeless persons; and police shall inventory
the property of a homeless person who is arrested.
Jones v. City of Los Angeles, 444 F.3d 1118 (9th Cir. 2006).
Six homeless individuals filed suit to prevent the Los Angeles Police Department from
ticketing and arresting people who sit, sleep or lie on public sidewalks. The plaintiffs
contended that a city code provision prohibiting sitting, lying or sleeping on any street or
sidewalk, as applied to homeless persons, violated the Eighth and Fourteenth
63

370 F. Supp. 2d 892 (E.D. Mo. 2005).

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Amendments. The plaintiffs argued that homelessness is an involuntary condition, as
long as homeless people outnumber the available shelter beds. The court rejected
plaintiffs’ arguments and granted summary judgment for the city. The court did not
accept plaintiffs’ reliance on Pottinger v. City of Miami,64 because plaintiffs were not a
certified class and because the court preferred the reasoning in Joyce v. City and County
of San Francisco,65 in which the court ruled that homelessness is not a cognizable status.
In granting summary judgment to the city, the court noted that the U.S. Supreme Court
had never used the Eighth Amendment to protect “discrete acts of conduct even if such
acts can be characterized as ‘symptomatic’ or ‘derivative’ of one’s status.”66
The plaintiffs appealed the case to the Ninth Circuit. Plaintiffs argued on appeal that
because the number of homeless people in the city exceeds the number of shelter beds,
homeless persons are forced to “involuntarily break the law each night.” Therefore,
enforcing the city code provision against plaintiffs essentially criminalizes the status
of homelessness, in violation of the Eighth Amendment’s cruel and unusual punishment
clause. The city argued on appeal that plaintiffs lacked standing to pursue a claim under
the Eighth Amendment because plaintiffs were not actually convicted under the city
ordinance at issue and cannot demonstrate “real and immediate threat of repeated
injury.” The city noted that if a homeless person who is unable to find available shelter
is charged under the city ordinance, he or she may raise the necessity defense to remove
any threat of conviction. In addition, the city rejected plaintiffs’ claim that homelessness
is a status and contended that protection under the Eighth Amendment does not extend to
conduct stemming from one’s status.
In response, plaintiffs reiterated the extreme shortage of available shelter beds. Plaintiffs
further demonstrated that two plaintiffs claimed they were convicted and they all
legitimately feared future conviction and punishment under the city code. Plaintiffs also
illustrated practical realities that limit any effectiveness of the necessity defense, as a
homeless individual may not know to raise the necessity defense or be able to obtain an
attorney to do so.
In April 2006, the Ninth Circuit struck down the ordinance, ruling that the Eighth
Amendment prohibits the City from arresting people for sleeping on the street when there
are no available shelter beds. The City filed a motion for rehearing and a request for
rehearing en banc. The Ninth Circuit ordered mediation, and the parties settled the case.
The settlement provides that the Los Angeles Police Department will not enforce the city
code provision at issue between the hours of 9:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. until an additional
1,250 units of permanent supportive housing are constructed within the City of Los
Angeles, at least 50% of which are located in Skid Row and/or greater downtown Los
Angeles. The city may, however, enforce the code within ten feet of any operational and
utilizable entrance to a building, exit, driveway or loading dock. In addition, before any
person may be cited or arrested for a violation of the ordinance, a police officer must first
64

76 F.3d 1154 (11th Cir. 1996).
87 F.3d 1320 (9th Cir. 1996).
66
Order Denying Plaintiffs Motion for Summary Judgment; Granting Defendants’ Motion for Summary
Judgment ¶ 18.
65

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provide a verbal warning and reasonable time to move. In the settlement of the case the
plaintiffs consented to the city’s request that the Ninth Circuit vacate its opinion.
Ultimately, the Ninth Circuit opinion was vacated, and remanded to the District Court for
dismissal with prejudice against all defendants.67
Joyce v. City and County of San Francisco, 87 F.3d 1320 (9th Cir. 1996).
In 1993, plaintiffs filed suit against the City of San Francisco challenging the “Matrix”
program, San Francisco’s official policy of vigorously enforcing a set of ordinances
against homeless people. The U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California
denied plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction on the ground that the proposed
injunction lacked specificity, would lead to enforcement problems, and that plaintiffs
were unlikely to succeed on the merits. The court rejected plaintiffs’ claim that the
Matrix program punished them for their status in violation of the Eighth Amendment,
finding that homelessness is not a status, and that the Matrix program targeted particular
behavior. The court also rejected plaintiffs’ claims alleging violations of their right to
equal protection, due process, and their right to travel, as well as plaintiffs’ vagueness
and overbreadth challenges. In 1995, the district court granted defendants’ motion for
summary judgment.
On appeal, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held, over plaintiffs’
objections, that the case was moot because, under its new mayoral administration, the city
had eliminated the official Matrix policy, dismissed numerous citations and warrants
issued to homeless people under Matrix, and was unlikely to resume the program.68
NLCHP filed an amicus brief on behalf of plaintiffs-appellants.
Kincaid v. City of Fresno, 2006 WL 3542732 (E.D. Cal. Dec. 8, 2006).
Plaintiffs brought suit against the City of Fresno and the California Department of
Transporation (CalTrans) for their alleged policy and practice of confiscating and
destroying homeless persons’ personal property, including essential personal possessions,
without adequate notice and in a manner that prevents the retrieval of such personal
property prior to destruction. Plaintiffs argued that the sweeps of temporary shelters
violate their federal and state constitutional rights to be free from unreasonable search
and seizure, to due process of law and equal protection of the laws, as well as their other
rights under California statutory and common law. Plaintiffs moved for a temporary
restraining order and preliminary injunction prohibiting defendants’ conduct.
Defendants contended that there are enough beds for homeless people in the City of
Fresno, so they do not need to be present on private or other property within the City;
temporary shelters and congregations of homeless persons are a risk to public health and
safety and generate significant complaints from residents, businesses and property
owners; the City provides sufficient advance notice, orally or sometimes in writing, to
homeless persons if they must move or if any unclaimed property will be discarded; and
67
68

505 F.3d 1006 (9th Cir. 2007).
87 F.3d 1320 (9th Cir. 1996).

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the City has no funds or resources to transport or store the property of homeless persons
until it is reclaimed.
The court found that plaintiffs were likely to succeed on the merits of their unlawful
seizure claim because the City’s “seizure of homeless people’s personal property without
probable cause and the immediate and permanent destruction of such property without a
method to reclaim or to assert the owner’s right, title, and interest to recover such
personal property violates the Fourth Amendment.” The court also found that, because
the City was seizing “the very necessities of life: shelter, medicine, clothing,
identification documents, and personal effects of unique and sentimental value,” the
inconsistent and confusing notice of up to a few days was inadequate. There was no
post-deprivation remedy or opportunity to reclaim the property because all property was
destroyed upon seizure. In addition, the court held that the balance of hardships weighs
heavily in favor of plaintiffs. The court granted plaintiffs’ motion for preliminary
injunction.
In June 2008, the court approved two separate preliminary settlement plans, one between
the plaintiffs and the City and the other between the plaintiffs and Caltrans. Under the
settlement agreements, the City and Caltrans will contribute $400,000 and $85,000,
respectively, to a Cash Fund to distribute cash and cash equivalent to verified members of
the plaintiff class. In addition, the City will contribute $1,000,000 to a Living Allowance
Fund to distribute funds to third parties for the payment of various living expenses on
behalf of verified members of the plaintiff class. The City also agreed to pay plaintiffs’
attorneys’ fees in the amount of $750,000 and costs in the amount of $100,000.
Under the settlement agreement with the City, for at least five years the City must
provide written notice to residents of the encampment of any need to vacate an
encampment or remove personal property from an encampment. Any personal property
of value collected by the City must be stored for 90 days, during which time the property
shall be available to be reclaimed. The City must also serve notice to organizations that
assist residents of temporary shelters.
Under the settlement agreement with Caltrans, for at least five years Caltrans must follow
the legal principles set forth in the preliminary injunction and certain procedures when
property is found. In general, Caltrans employees must inform the owner of the property
within a reasonable time and return the property to the owner. When the owner is
unknown, depending on the value of the property found, the property must be turned over
to the city police or the sheriff’s department, or held for three months. For any property
held by Caltrans, a Lost and Found Report must be kept for 24 months. The notice to the
plaintiff class will include a statement encouraging homeless people in Fresno not to set
up camps or otherwise trespass or illegally encroach upon Caltrans property. In July
2008, the court approved final settlement of the case.

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Kreimer v. State of New Jersey, No. 05-1416 (DRD) (D.N.J. 2005).
A homeless man filed a suit against the State of New Jersey, the Governor of New Jersey,
the City of Summit, New Jersey Transit, nine police officers and others, claiming that he
and other homeless people have been unlawfully thrown out of train stations since
August 2004. Several times the plaintiff had a train ticket, but was asked to either leave
the station or a train by various NJ Transit employees or face arrest for trespassing and/or
loitering. The plaintiff contends that those actions violated his federal constitutional
rights, including his rights under the First, Fourth, and Fourteenth Amendments to the
U.S. Constitution, as well as his rights under the New Jersey constitution and various
state statutes. The City of Summit has filed 15 defenses against the lawsuit, including an
invocation of the U.S. Patriot Act. The Justice Department opposed use of the Patriot
Act, claiming that “to apply it to this case is . . . an overreaching application of the law.”
The plaintiff voluntarily dismissed his complaint in February 2006 and the case was
terminated in April 2006.
Lee v. California Department of Transportation, 1992 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 21916, No. 3:92CV-03131-SBA (N.D. Cal. Oct. 26, 1992).
A group of homeless individuals, who were arrested for illegally lodging on state
property, brought a class action against the California Department of Transportation and
local and state police departments, alleging that their essential personal belongings were
intentionally confiscated and destroyed without even rudimentary process or
compensation. Plaintiffs’ Section 1983 claims alleged denial of due process and equal
protection. In addition, plaintiffs alleged that defendants violated state laws relating to
handling of lost property and establishment of tort liability.
The California State Police and its Chief moved to dismiss plaintiffs’ complaint, and
thereafter reached a settlement with plaintiffs. The State Police agreed not to destroy
certain items of personal property of homeless persons, including eyeglasses, books and
blankets, without providing a reasonable opportunity to recover the property. The City of
Oakland defendants reached a similar settlement with plaintiffs.
The California Department of Transportation (“CALTRANS”) and its director also
moved to dismiss the case. CALTRANS argued that the Ninth Circuit’s ruling in Stone
v. Agnos required dismissal of plaintiffs’ Section 1983 claim because Stone held that the
disposal of property in connection with arrests for illegal lodging does not violate due
process. Plaintiffs argued in response that Stone applies only to negligent confiscation of
property, not the intentional destruction that was at issue in this case.
The court granted in part and denied in part defendants’ motion to dismiss. Because
Section 1983 only applies to “persons,” the court dismissed the Section 1983 claims
against CALTRANS. As for the director of CALTRANS, the court rejected defendants’
argument based on Stone, because the motion in Stone was for summary judgment, where

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plaintiffs had to put forward evidence that the destruction of property was deliberate. In
the present motion to dismiss, however, the court must accept plaintiffs’ allegations (that
the destruction of property was planned and deliberate) as true. Therefore, the court
denied defendants’ motion to dismiss the Section 1983 claims against the director of
CALTRANS.
In May 1993, CALTRANS, its director, and plaintiffs reached a settlement. Under the
agreement, CALTRANS must conspicuously post, in Spanish and in English, the location
where property is found on a state right of way for 48 hours before the property (except
immediate hazards) is removed. The posting must include the date and approximate time
of the expected removal of the property; an advisement that property is subject to
confiscation, and possible disposal, if not removed; a brief explanation of how to reclaim
confiscated property; and the Department of Transportation public information telephone
number. CALTRANS must retain items confiscated for 20 days, but its employees “will
not be required to sift through piles of garbage to find items of value” or “spend
inordinate time or resources collecting or storing property.” Possessions will be released
to persons who can identify them. Lastly, CALTRANS will not interfere with any law
enforcement agencies’ handling of arrestees’ personal property in connection with arrests
of homeless persons on state rights of ways.
Lehr v. City of Sacramento, No. 2:2007 at 00707 (E.D. Cal Aug. 2, 2007).
Alleging violations of their Fourth, Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendment rights, a group of
homeless plaintiffs challenged and sought to enjoin enforcement of a Sacramento
ordinance that prohibits homeless persons from sleeping outside. They also challenged
the City’s and County’s practice of taking and destroying their personal property, without
providing adequate notice and the opportunity to retrieve or reclaim personal possessions
before they are destroyed.
Plaintiffs argued that because sleeping is necessary to maintain human life, enforcement
of the ordinance punishes plaintiffs based on their status as homeless persons, and
therefore violates the Eighth Amendment’s prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment.
Plaintiffs noted in their complaint that rental housing in Sacramento is beyond the means
of homeless people, and, with thousands of people waiting for housing, the waiting time
for persons on waiting lists for public housing or subsidized housing is more than two
years. Further, shelters in Sacramento city and county cannot accommodate all homeless
people in the area on any given night.
In relation to the confiscation of plaintiffs’ property, the plaintiffs further argued that the
property confiscation without notice is a violation of their Fourteenth Amendment rights
to due process of law and to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. Lastly,
plaintiffs argued that defendants’ conduct reflects their “animus towards this disfavored
group and lacks a rational relationship to any legitimate state interest,” in violation of the
Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

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Plaintiffs sought class certification, as well as a temporary restraining order and/or
preliminary injunction and permanent injunction, declaratory judgment, return of
Plaintiffs’ property, damages of at least $4,000 per incident and attorneys’ fees and costs.
The city argued in response that the ordinances at issue are typically only enforced during
the daylight hours and only in response to complaints by private property owners. The
city stated that it provides a form to any person whose personal property is taken by the
city as part of any citation or arrest, indicating when and where such property can be
claimed. On December 12, 2008, the parties agreed to mediate the matter, but the case is
still pending. Trial is scheduled for January 2010. On March 24, 2009, the City Council
held a closed meeting in which it discussed the lawsuit. It then held a special meeting in
which it passed resolutions to approve a strategy to improve and expand homeless
services and funding of over $1 million to implement the strategy. The strategy includes
providing shelter beds, transitional housing, permanent supportive housing, permanent
housing, storage for personal property, kennel services for pets, and other supportive
services. The first statement in the background section of the resolution states, “housing
is a basic human right.”
Love v. City of Chicago, No. 96-C-0396, 1998 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 1386 (N.D. Ill. Feb. 5,
1998).
Alleging violations of their Fourth, Fifth, and Fourteenth Amendment rights, a group of
homeless plaintiffs challenged Chicago’s policy and practice of seizing and destroying
the personal property of homeless people in the course of cleaning particular areas of the
city. After the city made some of plaintiffs’ requested modifications to the challenged
procedures, the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois denied plaintiffs’
motion for a preliminary injunction, finding that the city’s practice was reasonable and
did not violate plaintiff’s rights.69
On March 11, 1997, plaintiffs sought to certify a class of homeless persons whose
possessions were destroyed due to the city’s off-street cleaning program. The court held
that plaintiffs had satisfied all requirements for certification, and granted plaintiffs’ class
certification motion.
In December 1997, the city discarded the possessions of homeless individuals despite the
fact that the possessions had been stored in “safe areas” as allowed by the Temporary
Procedures. This action prompted plaintiffs to bring a renewed motion for a preliminary
injunction claiming that the procedures violated plaintiffs’ Fourth, Fifth and Fourteenth
Amendment rights. The amount of possessions was greater than usual owing to
Thanksgiving charity donations, and they were discarded along with others that had
fallen off the safe areas and obstructed roadways.
While finding that the city violated its own procedures, the court was unwilling to require
sanitation workers to sort through possessions of homeless people for reasons of
sanitation and impracticability, stating that homeless people have the burden of
69

Love v. City of Chicago, No. 96-C-0396 (N.D. Ill. Oct. 10, 1996).

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separating and moving those items they deem valuable. Specifically, the court found that
the program did not violate the Fourth Amendment, as it was reasonable, minimally
intrusive and effective in preserving possessions of homeless people. The court stated
that property normally taken by the city under the program is considered abandoned. The
court ruled, however, that losses of possessions that had been placed in safe areas and
subsequently discarded must be compensated. But as plaintiffs had not yet attempted to
recover any compensation, any action was premature. Finally, the court held that the city
adequately provided notice to homeless people through its practice of posting signs in the
area, having city employees give oral notice a day before cleaning, and a second oral
notification minutes before cleaning.
Metropolitan Council Inc. v. Safir, 99 F. Supp. 2d 438 (S.D.N.Y. 2000).
Plaintiff, a tenants’ advocacy organization, filed suit to enjoin the city from preventing
vigil participants who were protesting city rent increases from lying and sleeping on city
sidewalks. The city took the position that it had authority to forbid all sleeping on city
sidewalks because of the interest in safeguarding sleeping persons from the dangers of
public places and keeping the sidewalks clear of obstructions. The court granted the
preliminary injunction ruling that the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution does not
allow the city to prevent an orderly political protest from using public sleeping as a
symbolic expression. The Court held a statute that bans all public sleeping in any manner
on public sidewalks is overbroad. However, the Court did not maintain that the city
could never regulate “disorderly public sleeping.” On that issue, “the Court expresse[d]
no opinion on and erect[ed] no bar to the City’s prosecution for disorderly conduct of
persons who are vulnerable and/or risk creating obstructions when they sleep prone on a
City sidewalk.”
Patton v. City of Baltimore, No. S-93-2389, (D. Md. Sept. 14, 1994).
Plaintiffs filed an action in federal court against the City of Baltimore, the Downtown
Management Authority, and the Downtown Partnership to prevent the continued arrest
and harassment of homeless individuals engaged in ordinary and essential daily activities
in public, such as sleeping, sitting, and meeting with friends, as well as begging. In its
ruling on plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction, the court struck down the city’s
anti-aggressive panhandling ordinance, holding that it violated the Fourteenth
Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause because it unlawfully discriminated between
solicitation for charity and other types of solicitation. However, the court also found that
the ordinance was narrowly tailored to meet a compelling state interest in protecting
citizens and promoting tourism and thus did not violate the First Amendment. The court
dismissed plaintiffs’ claims alleging violations of their rights to privacy, freedom from
cruel and unusual punishment, freedom of association, freedom from unreasonable search
and seizure, and due process; and refrained from deciding whether there is a right to
freedom of intrastate movement.
In September 1994, the parties reached a settlement agreement in which the city was to
amend its panhandling ordinance to reflect that panhandling is protected speech and that

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persons are allowed to remain in public places unless they are violating other laws. The
city also agreed to repeal a park solicitation rule, inform all officers and employees of
these changes, adopt policies with respect to homeless people and panhandlers, train
officers, notify the public, and monitor compliance.70
Picture the Homeless v. City of New York, No. 02 Civ. 9379 (S.D.N.Y. March 31, 2003).
The New York Civil Liberties Union brought a § 1983 action on behalf of Picture the
Homeless, a grass-roots organization led by homeless and formerly homeless persons,
against the city and its police department alleging violations of the Due Process Clause of
the Fourteenth Amendment for police harassment of homeless persons. The plaintiff
alleged that the police were targeting homeless persons by arresting them for offenses for
which non-homeless persons were not arrested. The parties settled the suit shortly after it
was filed in 2003. The defendants issued directives to all officers on the Homeless
Outreach Unit and the NYPD Transit Bureau forbidding them to enforce laws selectively
against homeless people, and, in the case of the Homeless Outreach Unit, to confirm that
their primary mission is to provide outreach services to the homeless.
Project Share v. City of Philadelphia, No. 93-CV-6003 (E.D. Pa. 1993).
Plaintiffs sought a temporary restraining order and permanent injunction to prevent the
City of Philadelphia from carrying out a proposed plan to seize, arrest, and remove
homeless persons from concourses in the center city in the absence of alternative shelter.
Plaintiffs alleged that the city’s actions would violate their rights under the Fourth,
Eighth, and Fourteenth amendments. The motion was voluntarily dismissed after the city
agreed to find shelter for the homeless people who were likely to be affected by the
proposed plan.
Pottinger v. City of Miami, 76 F.3d 1154 (11th Cir. 1996).
A class of homeless plaintiffs challenged Miami’s policy of arresting homeless people for
conduct such as sleeping, eating, and congregating in public, and of confiscating and
destroying homeless people’s belongings. At trial, the U.S. District Court for the
Southern District of Florida found that some 6000 people in Miami were homeless, that
there were fewer than 700 shelter spaces, and that plaintiffs were homeless involuntarily.
The court found that the criminalization of essential acts performed in public when there
was no alternative violated the plaintiffs’ rights to travel and due process under the
Fourteenth Amendment, and right to be free from cruel and unusual punishment under
the Eighth Amendment. In addition, the court found that the city’s actions violated
plaintiffs’ rights under the Fourth Amendment. The court ordered the city to establish
“safe zones” where homeless people could pursue harmless daily activities without fear
of arrest.71

70
71

Settlement Agreement, Patton v. City of Baltimore, No. S-93-2389 (D. Md. Sept. 14, 1994).
Pottinger v. City of Miami, 810 F. Supp. 1551, 1584 (S.D. Fla. 1992).

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On appeal, the Eleventh Circuit remanded the case to the district court for the limited
purpose of clarifying the injunction and considering whether it should be modified, since
the “safe zones” were not operating as the district court envisioned.72 On remand, the
district court modified its injunction, enjoining the city from arresting homeless persons
until the city established two safe zones.73 In February 1996, the Eleventh Circuit
referred the case for mediation.74
The parties negotiated a settlement during the court-ordered mediation process. The city
agreed to implement various forms of training for its law enforcement officers for the
purpose of sensitizing them to the unique struggle and circumstances of homeless persons
and to ensure that their legal rights shall be fully respected. Additionally, the city
instituted a law enforcement protocol to help protect the rights of homeless people who
have encounters with police officers. The city also agreed to set up a compensation fund
of $600,000 to compensate aggrieved members of the community.
NLCHP filed an amicus brief on behalf of plaintiffs-appellees.
Richardson v. City of Atlanta, No. 97-CV-2468 (N.D. Ga. Aug. 28, 1997).
Nine Atlanta homeless people filed a federal lawsuit asking a judge to declare
unconstitutional Atlanta’s “urban camping” ordinance, which makes it a crime to sleep or
lie down on public grounds. The city ordinance, which had been in effect more than six
months, made it a crime to use any public place, including city parks and sidewalks, for
living accommodations or for camping. It also made it illegal “to sleep, to lie down” or
store personal property in any park owned by the city. Anyone found guilty of the crime
could be imprisoned up to six months. Among those arrested were Charles Richardson,
who was lying on a bench waiting for a soup kitchen to open and Christopher Parks, a
homeless, seven-year employee at a restaurant, who missed one week of work sitting in
jail after he was arrested for “urban camping” outside the city’s Traffic Court building.
The lawsuit stated that the police violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection
clause by targeting homeless people when enforcing the law, saying it constitutes
punishment for individuals solely because they are homeless. The lawsuit also contended
that city police were violating the rights of homeless people by either leaving or
disposing of their belongings after they are arrested. The lawsuit settled and the plaintiffs
received damages. As part of the settlement, the city has revised the ordinance to
significantly limit the scope. Atlanta police officers must also now designate on arrest
records the housing status of all detainees, in order to more effectively track patterns of
discriminatory arrests of homeless people. Finally, police officers will undergo training
regarding the issues and challenges those that face those who are homeless.
Roulette v. City of Seattle, 78 F.3d 1425 (9th Cir. 1996).
Homeless residents of Seattle challenged the city’s ordinances that prohibited sitting or
lying on downtown sidewalks during certain hours and aggressive begging. Plaintiffs
72

40 F.3d 1155 (11th Cir. 1994).
No. 88-2406 (S.D. Fla. Apr. 7, 1995).
74
76 F.3d 1154 (11th Cir. 1996).
73

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alleged violations of their rights of freedom of speech, due process, equal protection, and
the right to travel. The district court granted the city’s motion for summary judgment,
rejecting plaintiffs’ vagueness, substantive due process, equal protection, right to travel,
and First Amendment challenges to the sidewalk ordinance. In addition, the court also
dismissed plaintiffs’ challenge to the aggressive begging ordinance on vagueness and
overbreadth grounds. However, the court did limit the construction of the ordinance to
prohibit only threats that would make a reasonable person fearful of harm, and struck
down the section of the ordinance that listed criteria for determining whether or not there
was the intent to intimidate.75
On appeal, the Ninth Circuit affirmed the district court’s decision, upholding the sidewalk
ordinance. The Court of Appeals rejected plaintiffs’ facial substantive due process and
First Amendment challenges, holding that sitting or lying on the sidewalk is not integral
to, or commonly associated with, expression.76 In dissent, Judge Pregerson asserted that
Seattle’s time, place, and manner restrictions on expressive content are not narrowly
tailored to serve a significant government interest and do not leave open ample
alternative channels of expression, and thus constitute a violation of plaintiffs’ First
Amendment rights.77 The Ninth Circuit denied plaintiffs’ petition for rehearing en banc.
NLCHP filed an amicus brief on behalf of plaintiffs-appellants.
Ryden v. City of Santa Barbara, Case No. CV09-1578 SVW (C.D. Cal. March 6, 2009).
A class of homeless plaintiffs in Santa Barbara, California, brought a lawsuit with the
assistance of the ACLU of Southern California, brought a lawsuit against the City of
Santa Barbara and its police department challenging city ordinances that prohibit sleeping
in public places. The plaintiffs’ alleged that the City of Santa Barbara is violating the
Fourth, Fifth, Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendments and the Americans with Disabilities
Act when it criminalizes plaintiffs for sleeping in public places when there is not shelter
available. The plaintiffs are requesting preliminary and permanent injunctions to prevent
the defendants from enforcing the city ordinances and a declaration that the defendants’
actions violate the plaintiffs’ constitutional rights.
The plaintiffs are chronically homeless individuals who will be displaced from a 200-bed
winter emergency shelter in Santa Barbara when it is transformed into a 100-bed
transitional housing facility. The plaintiffs have mental and/or physical disabilities that
prevent them from working or obtaining shelter for themselves. Two of the four named
plaintiffs are veterans and all four named plaintiffs worked before becoming disabled. A
conditional use permit requires the transitional housing facility to exclude the plaintiffs
who are unable to work because the permit allows the facility to house only episodically
homeless individuals who are able to work. None of the plaintiffs are able to work. The
plaintiffs allege that when the shelter closes and they are displaced, they will be forced to

75

Roulette v. City of Seattle, 850 F. Supp. 1442 (W.D. Wash. 1994), aff’d, 78 F.3d 1425 (9th Cir. 1996).
78 F.3d 1425, amended, 97 F.3d 300 (9th Cir. 1996). Plaintiffs did not appeal the district court’s ruling
on the aggressive begging ordinance.
77
97 F.3d 300, 308 (Pregerson, J., dissenting).
76

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sleep in public places because Santa Barbara fails to provide available alternative shelter
despite having the authority and the resources to do so. The case is pending.
Sager v. City of Pittsburgh, No. 03-0635 (W.D. Pa. 2003).
A class of homeless plaintiffs brought a § 1983 action against the City of Pittsburgh
alleging violations of their Fourth, Fifth, and Fourteenth Amendment rights when the city
asked the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation to conduct repeated sweeps of
homeless peoples’ property located on PennDOT land.
The parties reached a settlement agreement that provided procedures for: pre-collection
notification, collection of personal items during clean-ups, and for the return of property
collected. The city agency responsible for the clean-up is now required to give 7 days
written notice to homeless persons by posting the notice at each encampment or at each
identifiable group of possessions, and by faxing the notice to homeless service providers.
All items that are not health/safety hazards or refuse are to be placed in large, transparent
trash bags and properly tagged and itemized. Notice will be posted as to recovery
procedures. The agreement outlines specific days and times that a secure storage area
must be available to persons reclaiming their belongings.
Sipprelle v. City of Laguna Beach, No. 08-01447 (C.D. Cal., filed Dec. 23, 2008).
Homeless individuals in Laguna Beach, California with the assistance of the ACLU of
Southern California and local law firms filed a lawsuit against the City of Laguna Beach
and its police department challenging both a city ordinance that prohibits sleeping in
public places and the selective targeting and harassment of homeless individuals by the
police. The complaint highlights a range of conduct by the local police department that
prevents homeless individuals from carrying out life-sustaining activities, including
criminalization of sleeping in public places, selective enforcement of local ordinances
and laws, unwarranted stops and interrogations, and confiscation of property.
In their complaint the plaintiffs contend that Laguna Beach had, prior to the filing of the
complaint, organized a “Homeless Task Force” comprised of local leaders and that the
city council had fully adopted the findings of the task force. The task force found that the
city’s homeless population, most of whom suffer from mental and/or physical disabilities,
do not receive necessary mental health or medical care nor are there a sufficient number
of shelter beds available. The complaint alleges that in spite of the findings of the task
force, the defendants continue to harass and intimidate homeless residents pursuant to the
anti-sleeping ordinance and other quality of life ordinances, and that the city has
obstructed volunteers’ efforts to assist the homeless community.
The complaint specifically alleges violations of the Fourth, Eighth and Eighteenth
amendment, as well as violations of certain provisions of the Americans with Disabilities
Act. On March 4, 2009, the Laguna Beach City Council repealed the city ordinance
challenged in the complaint. However, the case is still pending as the plaintiffs seek to

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seal or expunge the citations and arrests that the plaintiffs suffered as a result of the city's
enforcement of the ordinance.
Spencer v. City of San Diego, No. 04 CV-2314 BEN (S.D. Cal. May 2, 2006).
A class of homeless plaintiffs brought a § 1983 action challenging the issuance of illegal
lodging citations to homeless individuals sleeping on the street. Plaintiffs alleged that the
citations violate their Eighth Amendment rights to be free from cruel and unusual
punishment because there is no alternative sleeping area available. The city filed a
motion to dismiss, claiming that none of the plaintiffs were actually convicted under the
illegal lodging law. The plaintiffs filed an amended complaint alleging that 7 of the 10
plaintiffs were convicted under the law. The city filed another motion to dismiss, stating
that the plaintiffs did not receive any punishment and thus could not raise their Eighth
Amendment claims.
In April 2006, the court denied the city’s motion to dismiss, citing Jones v. City of Los
Angeles. In November 2006, plaintiffs filed a memorandum of points and authorities
supporting their application for preliminary injunction. Plaintiffs contended that they
would succeed on the merits because the issuance of “sleeping tickets” to San Diego’s
homeless people impermissibly criminalizes involuntary acts “at all times and all places.”
Plaintiffs cited Jones v. City of Los Angeles, which held that a city cannot “criminalize
acts (such as sleeping) that are an integral aspect” of the status of being homeless.
Plaintiffs also cited announcements by the Mayor and the Police Chief vowing to
continue to issue “illegal lodging” tickets to homeless people pursuant to the statute.
In February 2007, the parties entered into a settlement agreement. Under the agreement,
the parties agreed that the San Diego Police Department officers “will not ordinarily issue
Penal Code section 647(j) citations between the hours of 2100 and 0530.” The settlement
agreement was based on, and incorporated by reference, the S.D.P.D.’s training bulletin,
dated November 17, 2006, regarding the illegal lodging statute. The training bulletin
emphasizes that officers must remember that part of their role is to provide information to
people about relevant social services and to assist those who cannot assist themselves. It
provides guidelines that limit the enforcement of the illegal lodging statute (e.g., only in
areas where the city has received complaints and not ordinarily between the hours of
2100 and 0530). The bulletin also outlines various procedures that should be followed
before issuing a citation (e.g., establishing that the person’s conduct constitutes “lodging”
and then establish that the lodging is “without permission”), as well as additional
investigative issues that should be considered.
Stone v. Agnos, 960 F.2d 893 (9th Cir. 1992).
A homeless man arrested for lodging in public alleged that his arrest violated his First
Amendment rights and the destruction of his property following his arrest violated his
Fourteenth Amendment right to due process. The court held that because sleeping is not
protected under the First Amendment, there was no violation. The court also rejected the

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plaintiff’s due process claim on the ground that he did not show that the police had acted
unreasonably.
Streetwatch v. National R.R. Passenger Corp., 875 F. Supp. 1055 (S.D.N.Y. 1995).
Plaintiffs challenged the Amtrak Police’s policy of arresting or ejecting persons who
appeared to be homeless or appeared to be loitering in the public areas of Penn Station in
the absence of evidence that such persons had committed or were committing crimes.
The District Court issued a preliminary injunction prohibiting Amtrak police from
continuing to engage in the practice, finding that in light of Amtrak’s invitation to the
public, the practice implicated the Due Process Clause. The court held that Amtrak’s
Rules of Conduct were void for vagueness, and that their enforcement impinged on
plaintiffs’ right to freedom of movement and due process.
Whiting v. Town of Westerly, 942 F.2d 18 (1st Cir. 1991).
Two non-homeless out-of-state residents challenged the constitutionality of two
Westerly, Rhode Island town ordinances banning sleeping outdoors on either public
property or private property of another on overbreadth, vagueness, and equal protection
grounds. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit affirmed the district court’s
finding that—absent expressive activity possibly covered by the First Amendment—
sleeping in public is not constitutionally protected, neither ordinance was vague or
overbroad as applied to plaintiffs’ conduct, and enforcement procedures did not violate
the equal protection rights of non-residents of Westerly.
Williams v. City of Atlanta, No. 95-8752 (11th Cir. 1996).
A formerly homeless man in Atlanta challenged the constitutionality of Atlanta’s
ordinance that prohibited “remaining on any property which is primarily used as a
parking lot” under the First, Fourth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments and various
provisions of the Georgia Constitution. The U.S. District Court for the Northern District
of Georgia granted Defendant City of Atlanta’s motion for summary judgment, holding
that the plaintiff lacked standing to challenge the ordinance since he was no longer
homeless and thus no longer among the group of people vulnerable to arrest under it.78
Plaintiff appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit. However, while
the appeal was pending, the city revised the challenged ordinance. The plaintiff still
opposed one section of the revised ordinance, but that section was subsequently struck
down in the later case, Atchison v. City of Atlanta (see below), and Williams v. City of
Atlanta was dismissed in August 1996.
B. State Court Cases
Archer v. Town of Elkton, Case No. 1:2007-CV-01991 (Md. Dist. Ct. July 27, 2007).
78

Williams v. City of Atlanta, No. 1:94-CV-2018 (N.D. Ga. Mar. 28, 1995).

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Eight homeless individuals sued the town of Elkton, Maryland challenging (i) the August
23, 2006 seizure and destruction of their personal property that they had stored on public
property, and (ii) the constitutionality of a city ordinance enacted on June 6, 2007
prohibiting loitering in public places.
On August 23, 2006 the town of Elkton, its police department and its Department of
Public Works conducted a raid on a homeless encampment in a wooded area on public
property behind a shopping center. During the raid, the plaintiffs were allegedly
threatened with arrest and a $2,000 fine if they attempted to retrieve their belongings
from the site. Following the incident, personal property owned by the plaintiffs was
removed and destroyed. As a result of these events, the plaintiffs sought actual and
consequential damages based on a claim that the town’s actions violated the plaintiffs’
right to (i) be free from unreasonable search and seizure (under the Fourth Amendment),
(ii) due process (under the Fourteenth Amendment), and (iii) equal protection under the
Fourteenth Amendment, as the town’s actions singled out homeless persons with the goal
of driving them from the town. Further, the plaintiffs argued that the seizure and
destruction of property violates state constitution and statutory provisions and also
constitutes common law conversion, among other claims.
Following the 2006 seizure of plaintiffs’ property, the town of Elkton passed an
ordinance prohibiting loitering in public places. Specifically, the ordinance defines
loitering as “loiter[ing], remain[ing] or wander[ing] about in a public place for the
purpose of begging.”79 In addition to challenging the 2006 seizure of their property, the
plaintiffs challenged the validity and enforcement of this ordinance. They argued in their
complaint that the ordinance violates the First Amendment by prohibiting seeking
charitable contributions in public places – an activity that has been held to be protected
speech under the First Amendment. Further, among other constitutional arguments, the
plaintiffs contend that the ordinance, by not defining key terms therein, is void for
vagueness.
As part of their complaint, the plaintiffs sought to enjoin enforcement of the loitering
ordinance, in order to prohibit the town from charging, arresting or threatening to arrest
anyone under the ordinance. Although the injunction was denied by the circuit court, the
plaintiffs succeeded in obtaining an injunction from the Maryland Court of Special
Appeals, pending appeal of the circuit court decision. In September 2007, the Elkton
Town Commission voted unanimously to rescind the loitering ordinance. In December
2008, the city settled the lawsuit with respect to the property destruction. The city agreed
to provide each plaintiff with $7,500 in compensation for the property destruction.
Cervantes v. International Services, Inc., Case No. BC220226 (Cal. Super. Ct. 2002).
In November 1999 the ACLU filed a class action on behalf of a group of homeless
individuals in downtown Los Angeles. The class action sought relief from conduct
carried out by private security guards. Local merchants and businesses, pursuant to state
law, had formed Business Improvement Districts (BIDs) and used the guards to
79

Town of Elkton, Md. Code § 9.12.010(3) (2007).

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supplement regular municipal police efforts. The lawsuit alleged that the guards
intimidated and harassed homeless individuals through illegal searches, seizures,
detentions, and threats in an effort to coerce the individuals into leaving the BID. The
complaint, based entirely on state law, alleged violations of the California Constitution
and Civil Code, as well as numerous intentional torts.
The plaintiffs have since reached settlement agreements with some of the defendants. At
least one of the final settlements included protocols establishing behavioral guidelines for
the security guards, as well as agreements by the private security agencies that they
would train their employees to comply with the settlement. The defendants agreed to
compensate the Los Angeles Inner City Law Center for monitoring the conduct of the
security guards for a period of two years. The plaintiffs also obtained a preliminary
injunction prohibiting the confiscation of personal property left on public sidewalks. A
motion for class certification is pending at this time.
City of Sarasota v. McGinnis, No. 2005 MO 16411 NC (Fla. Cir. Ct. 2005), cert. denied,
947 So. 2d 1173 (Fla. App. 2 Dist. Jan. 24, 2007).
After two Sarasota ordinances aimed at prohibiting sleeping outside were overturned by
state courts, the City of Sarasota passed a third ordinance that prohibits lodging out-ofdoors. Under this ordinance, it is illegal to use any public or private property for sleeping
without the consent of the City Manager or property owner. The ordinance requires that
one or more of the following conditions exist in order for police to make an arrest:
numerous personal items are present; the person is engaged in cooking; the person has
built or is maintaining a fire; the person has engaged in digging; or the person states that
he or she has no other place to live. A homeless individual who was charged for
violating the ordinance moved to find the ordinance unconstitutional in violation of
substantive due process for criminalizing innocent conduct and void for vagueness, since
the ordinance does not give sufficient notice of what conduct is prohibited or sufficient
guidelines for law enforcement. In December 2005, the court denied the defendant’s
motion to find the law unconstitutional. The court determined that the law was
constitutional, was not void for vagueness, and did not violate substantive due process.
Further, the court found the law did not violate equal protection rights. Plaintiff’s
petition for writ of certiorari was denied by the Court of Appeal of Florida in January
2007.
City of Sarasota v. Nipper, No. 2005 MO 4369 NC (Fla. Cir. Ct. 2005).
Defendant homeless individuals were charged with violation of Section 34-41 of the
Sarasota City Code, which prohibited lodging out-of-doors in a wide variety of situations.
They defended the charges on the ground that Section 34-41 was unconstitutional as
applied because it offends substantive due process by penalizing otherwise innocent
conduct and did not establish sufficient guidelines for enforcement.

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In June 2005, the Sarasota County Court found that Section 34-41 was unconstitutional as
written, because the ordinance punished innocent conduct and because it left too much
discretion in the hands of the individual law enforcement officer.
City of Sarasota v. Tillman, No. 2003 CA 15645 NC (Fla. Cir. Ct. 2004).
Five homeless individuals were charged with violating Section 34-40 of the Sarasota City
Code, which was an anti-sleeping ordinance that prohibited camping on public or private
property between sunset and sunrise. The public defender who represented the
defendants challenged the constitutionality of the anti-camping ordinance in the context
of the criminal case, arguing that the ordinance violated substantive due process and was
void for vagueness and overbroad because it penalized innocent conduct. The lowest
level county trial court upheld the constitutionality of the city ordinance, finding it was
constitutional because it served a valid public purpose, it was not vague in that a person
of ordinary intelligence was on notice of the prohibited conduct, and there were sufficient
guidelines to prevent selective enforcement of the ordinance. The homeless defendants
appealed.
The Circuit Court for the Twelfth Judicial Circuit for the State of Florida reviewed the
case in its appellate capacity and found the ordinance unconstitutional on the grounds that
the ordinance was void for vagueness and violated substantive due process by effectively
making criminal the non-criminal act of sleeping. The city then petitioned the Second
District Court of Appeal for certiorari review and the court denied the petition. Instead of
asking for rehearing, the city enacted a criminal lodging ordinance. However, the
lodging ordinance was subsequently struck down in City of Sarasota v. Nipper.
City of Seattle v. McConahy, 937 P.2d 1133 (Wash. Ct. App. 1997).
Plaintiffs challenged the constitutionality of an ordinance prohibiting sitting on sidewalks
in Seattle’s downtown area during business hours.80 Plaintiffs claimed that the ordinance
violated their substantive due process and free expression rights and infringed upon their
right to travel. They also alleged the ordinance was contrary to the Privileges and
Immunities Clause of the Washington State Constitution and Washington’s ban on
discriminating against persons with disabilities. In rejecting plaintiffs’ arguments, the
court held that the ordinance furthered the legitimate police power interest of promoting
pedestrians’ safety and reducing crime and infringed only minimally upon the freedoms
of movement and expression. The court reasoned that sitting is mere conduct and has no
inherent expressive value and that the Privileges and Immunities Clause was not
implicated because homelessness was not a protected class. Further, the right to travel
was not implicated by the statute, as the statute did not exact a penalty for moving within
a state or prohibiting homeless people from living on streets. In City of Seattle v.
McConahy, 133 Wn. 2d 1018, 948 P.2d 388 (1997), the Supreme Court of Washington
denied a petition for review of this Appellate Court decision.

80

This case concerns the same statute as Roulette v. City of Seattle, supra.

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Delacruz v. City of Sarasota, No. 2D06-5419 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. Nov. 2, 2006), cert.
denied No. 2D06-5419 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. April 20, 2007).
Felix Delacruz, David M. Brezger and Dennis E. Smith were defendants (Defendants) in
criminal cases for allegedly violating Sarasota City Ordinance No. 05-4640 by engaging
in “illegal lodging.” Each Defendant entered a plea of nolo contendere, and reserved the
right to appeal the constitutionality of the law under which he was arrested. Defendants
challenged the constitutionality of the ordinance in a consolidated appeal. Defendants
argued that the ordinance was void for vagueness, encouraged arbitrary and
discriminatory enforcement, penalized innocent conduct and impermissibly criminalized
homelessness. Defendants argued that the ordinance failed to give a person of ordinary
intelligence fair notice of what constituted forbidden conduct because the ordinance used
the term “materials” and failed to define what length of time using a temporary shelter as
a place of abode would constitute a violation of the ordinance.
The Circuit Court entered an order affirming the judgment of the county court in each
case and finding the ordinance to be constitutional. In denying Defendants’ void for
vagueness argument, the court cited Betancourt v. Bloomberg and noted that an ordinance
does not have to achieve “meticulous specificity” which would come at the cost of
“flexibility and reasonable breadth,” and that words of common usage (such as
“materials”) are construed in their plain and ordinary sense.
The court also rejected Defendants’ argument that the language of the ordinance gives
police too much discretion and would lead to discriminatory enforcement. The court
cited Joel v. City of Orlando, noting that officers may “exercise some ordinary level of
discretion as to what constitutes prohibited conduct” if they must also “abide by certain
guidelines” such as the list of activities in the Sarasota ordinance at issue. In addition, the
court rejected Defendants’ argument that a list of factors, of which an officer must find at
least one to exist in order to establish probable cause, are vague because it is unclear
whether the factors are actually elements of the offense of “lodging”, or merely meant to
limit prosecution for the offense to a particular group of people.
With respect to Defendants’ argument that the ordinance as written penalizes innocent
conduct, the court held that homeless persons are not a suspect class, and sleeping outside
is not a fundamental right. Therefore, the ordinance passed the rational basis test. Lastly,
regarding Defendants’ argument that the ordinance impermissibly criminalizes
homelessness, the court held that the ordinance “is a legitimate and rational attempt to
promote the public health, sanitation, safety and welfare of the city,” again citing Joel v.
City of Orlando.
Defendants filed a petition for writ of certiorari, elaborating on these claims, which was
denied in April 2007.
In re Eichorn, 81 Cal. Rptr. 2d 535 (Cal. App. Dep’t. Super. Ct. 2000).

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Police officers arrested James Eichorn for sleeping in a sleeping bag on the ground
outside a county office building in the civic center. Eichorn was convicted of violating a
City of Santa Ana, California ordinance that banned sleeping in certain public areas.
Prior to Eichorn’s trial, the California Supreme Court found the ordinance to be facially
neutral and therefore constitutional. At trial, Eichorn had to argue the necessity defense
and he attempted to prove that on the night of his arrest, there were no shelter beds
available.
The court found Eichorn had not made a sufficient enough showing to allow a jury to
consider the defense. After objecting to the judge’s ruling, Eichorn’s lawyer decided to
go forward without a jury on the constitutionality of the ordinance. The trial judge
convicted Eichorn of violating the city ordinance and Eichorn lost an appeal to the
Appellate Department. Eichorn then filed a writ of habeas corpus. In the habeas
decision, the Appeals Court found Eichorn was entitled to raise the necessity defense,
granted the writ and remanded to the municipal court with instructions to set aside
judgment of conviction. Ultimately, the municipal court set aside Eichorn’s
misdemeanor conviction for illegal camping and his sentence of 40 hours of community
service. The District Attorney also decided not to retry him.81
Oregon v. Kurylowicz, No. 03-07-50223 (Or. Cir. Ct. 2004).
Defendants, homeless individuals, were charged with violating a Portland “obstructions
as nuisances” ordinance. In short, the ordinance made it unlawful and declared it a public
nuisance to block any street or sidewalk or to place, permit to be placed, or permit to
remain on the sidewalk or street any object that obstructs or interferes with the passage of
pedestrians or vehicles. On defendants’ demurrer, they asserted that the ordinance was
unconstitutionally vague and overbroad, infringed upon constitutional guarantees of equal
protection and due process, and violated Oregon’s constitutional prohibition against
disproportionate sentences.
The court sustained defendants’ demurrer and held that the ordinance was
unconstitutionally vague and overbroad. Because the ordinance made no exceptions to
avoid infringing on the right to assemble peacefully, or to exclude conduct that “merely
causes others to step around a person who happens to be standing on any part of a
sidewalk in a manner that is not causing any harmful effect,” the ordinance was
unconstitutionally overbroad. Furthermore, the court held that the ordinance’s terms
were indefinite, allowing officers leeway in determining, for example, whether a person
or an object is “obstructing” a sidewalk, or whether “normal flow” of traffic is
“interfer[ed]” with. In addition, the ordinance lacked a mental state requirement and
contained no guidelines for police officers, giving a violator no opportunity to abate his
or her behavior and failing to provide fair notice of prohibited conduct.
People v. McManus, Case No. 02M09109 (Cal. Super. Ct. 2002).

81

Sanchez, Felix, “Vietnam Veteran’s convictions set aside after long legal odyssey,” THE ORANGE
COUNTY REGISTER, April 1, 1999, at B4.

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Police arrested the defendant for violating an anti-camping ordinance by sleeping on
public property. The defendant, relying upon In re Eichorn, 69 Cal. App. 4th 382 (2000),
planned to raise the necessity defense, arguing that he could not gain admission to a
shelter because he owned three dogs. However, at trial, the judge refused to let the
defendant argue that he slept in the park because he had no other place to go. A jury
convicted McManus of two misdemeanor counts of illegal camping.
State v. Folks, No. 96-19569 MM (Fla. Cir. Ct. Nov. 21, 1996).
A Florida county court invalidated a city ordinance prohibiting individuals from
“sleep[ing], lodg[ing] or lying on any public or semipublic area.”82 The ordinance
requires that prior to an arrest or charge, police must first warn the individual that his
conduct violates the ordinance, notify him of at least one shelter the officer believes to be
accessible to him, and give him a reasonable opportunity to go to the shelter. In
dismissing a charge based on the ordinance against Warren Folks, the County court
determined that the challenged section of the ordinance violated both the Florida and U.S.
Constitutions.
The court found the ordinance to be overbroad as well as unconstitutionally vague in that
it did not specify exactly what must be done to satisfy its requirements. The court opined
that “if in fact the ordinance requires a person to remain in a shelter for an unspecified
period of time or be arrested, this amounts to incarceration in the shelter without a
violation of law having been committed.” In addition, the court found that the ordinance
violated defendant’s rights to be free from cruel and unusual punishment by punishing
innocent conduct, and his right to due process in that it allowed for arbitrary enforcement.
State of Connecticut v. Mooney, 218 Conn. 85, 588 A.2d 145 (1991).
A homeless man who was convicted of murder challenged the legality of a search that
had been conducted of his duffel bag and a closed cardboard box in an area under a
highway bridge that he had made his home. The search, which was conducted without a
warrant after the defendant had been arrested, had uncovered items that were used as
evidence to link him to the crime. At trial, the court denied defendant’s motion to have
the items excluded from evidence at his trial on the ground that they had been obtained in
the context of an unreasonable search of his belongings—in which he had a reasonable
expectation of privacy—in violation of his Fourth Amendment right to be free from
unreasonable searches and seizures.
The Connecticut Supreme Court overturned the defendant’s conviction, finding that he
had a reasonable expectation of privacy in the interior of the duffel bag and the cardboard
box, which “represented, in effect, the defendant’s last shred of privacy from the prying
eyes of outsiders.”83 The court found that he had an actual, subjective expectation of
privacy, and that this expectation was reasonable under the circumstances of the case.

82
83

JACKSONVILLE, FLA., Ordinance Code § 614.138(h) (1994).
588 A.2d 145, 161 (Conn. 1991).

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State v. Penley, 276 So. 2d 180 (2 D.C.A. Fla. 1973).
This case is the result of the September 1972 arrest of Earl Penley for sleeping on a bench
in a St. Petersburg city bus stop, in violation of St. Petersburg City Ordinance 22.57. The
ordinance held that “[n]o person shall sleep upon or in any street, park, wharf or other
public place.” Upholding the lower court’s finding, the second circuit of the Florida
appellate court held that the statute was unconstitutional, as it “draws no distinction
between conduct that is calculated to harm and that which is essentially innocent,” is
“void due to its vagueness in that it fails to give a person of ordinary intelligence fair
notice that his contemplated conduct is forbidden by the statute,” and “may result in
arbitrary and erratic arrest and convictions.”
State v. Wicks, Nos. 2711742 & 2711743, (Ore. Cir. Ct. Multnomah County 2000).
Police officers arrested the Wicks, a homeless father and his son, for violating Portland
City Code, Title 14, 14.08.250, which prohibits “camping” in any place where the public
has access or under any bridgeway or viaduct. The Wicks claimed the ordinance violated
their right to be free of cruel and unusual punishment, the right to equal protection under
the Fourteenth Amendment, and their right to travel. The court agreed and found the
ordinance as applied to homeless people violated Article I § 16 of the Oregon
Constitution and the Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The court reasoned
that one must not confuse “status” with an immutable characteristic such as age or gender
as the State of Oregon did in its arguments.
The court held that, although certain decisions a homeless person makes may be
voluntary, these decisions do not strip away the status of being homeless. Citing the
Supreme Court’s decision in Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660 (1962) holding that
drug addiction is a status, the Wicks court held that homelessness is also a status.
Furthermore, the court determined it impossible to separate the status of homelessness
and the necessary acts that go along with that status, such as sleeping and eating in public
when those are “the only locations available to them.” Because the ordinance punished
necessary behavior due to a person’s status, the court reasoned it was cruel and unusual.
Moreover, the court found the ordinance in violation of both equal protection and the
right to travel on the basis that the ordinance denied homeless people the fundamental
right to travel. The court rejected the state’s argument that it had a legitimate state
interest in protecting the health and safety of its citizens, noting that there were less
restrictive means available to address these interests, such as providing sufficient housing
for homeless people and adequate services. According to a newspaper report, the state
attorney general’s office has dismissed its appeal, citing its inability to appeal from an
order of acquittal.84
Tobe v. City of Santa Ana, 9 Cal. 4th 1069, 892 P.2d 1145 (1995).

84

Wade Nkrumah, “Portland Anti-Camping Ordinance in Legal Limbo,” THE OREGONIAN, Oct. 19, 2001,
<http://www.oregonlive.com/portland/oregonian>.

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Homeless persons in Santa Ana, California filed suit in state court against the City of
Santa Ana facially challenging the constitutionality of a city ordinance prohibiting (1) the
use of “camp paraphernalia”—including cots, sleeping bags, or non-designated cooking
facilities; (2) pitching, occupying, or using “camp facilities” including tents, huts, or
temporary shelters; (3) storing personal property on any public land within the city; or (4)
living temporarily in a “camp facility” or outdoors in public within Santa Ana. The
California Court of Appeals overturned the ruling of the lower court in which the lower
court upheld the ordinances with the exception of the provision prohibiting living
temporarily in a camp facility or outdoors. The Court of Appeals held that the anticamping ordinance violates Appellants’ right to travel, which “includes the ‘right to live
or stay where one will,’” and, by punishing them for their status as homeless people,
violates their right to be free from cruel and unusual punishment. The court also held that
the ordinance was unconstitutionally vague and overbroad.85
In 1995, the California Supreme Court reversed the judgment of the Court of Appeals.
The court held that the challenged ordinance, which may have an incidental impact on
travel, does not violate the right to travel as it has a purpose other than the restriction of
travel and does not discriminate among classes of persons by penalizing the exercise of
the right to travel for some. In addition, the court found that the ordinance penalized
particular conduct as opposed to status and thus did not violate plaintiffs’ rights under the
Eighth Amendment, and was not unconstitutionally vague or overbroad. However, the
Court noted that the result might be different in an as-applied, as opposed to a facial,
challenge.
NLCHP filed an amicus brief in support of plaintiffs-appellees, as did the U.S.
Department of Justice.
Voeller v. The City of The Dalles, No. CC02155 (Or. Cir. Ct. 2003).
A homeless individual challenged an anti-camping ordinance under which he had been
convicted and fined, alleging that it violated an Oregon State law, ORS 203.077, which
requires municipalities and counties to develop a camping policy that recognizes the
social problem of homelessness, and contains certain other explicit elements. The case
was dismissed at plaintiff’s request in 2003 when the City of The Dalles repealed the
anti-camping ordinance, expunged plaintiff’s convictions, and refunded the fines he had
paid. The ordinance had been modeled on a similar Portland ordinance, which was found
to be unconstitutional in State of Oregon v. Wicks.86
II. Challenges to Anti-Begging, Anti-Soliciting, and Anti-Peddling Laws
A. Federal Court Cases
American Civil Liberties Union of Nevada v. City of Las Vegas, 333 F.3d 1092 (9th Cir.
2003).

85
86

Tobe v. City of Santa Ana, 22 Cal App. 4th 228, 27 Cal. Rptr. 2d 386 (1994).
State v. Wicks, Nos. 2711742 & 2711743, (Ore. Cir. Ct. Multnomah County 2000).

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Plaintiffs, including the Civil Liberties Union of Nevada, sued, among other defendants,
the City of Nevada and Fremont Street Experience Limited Liability Corporation
(“FSELLC”), challenging prohibitions on distributing written material and soliciting
funds and restrictions on educational and protest activities at an open mall area. Plaintiffs
sought a preliminary injunction against the enforcement of several Las Vegas Municipal
Code sections and rules and policies of the FSELLC. The district court granted the
preliminary injunction, barring enforcement of a section of the Las Vegas Municipal
Code prohibiting leafleting and a “standardless licensing scheme,” but did not grant a
preliminary injunction regarding enforcement of a second section regarding solicitation.87
The district court granted defendants’ motion for summary judgment regarding plaintiff’s
challenge to the anti-solicitation ordinance. The court found that the ban on solicitation
did not violate the First Amendment because (i) the mall in question was a non-public
forum, (ii) the ban on solicitation was viewpoint neutral, and (iii) the ban was reasonable
considering the commercial purposes of the mall.
Plaintiffs appealed to the Ninth Circuit. In its “forum analysis,” the Ninth Circuit
emphasized three factors: “the actual use and purposes of the property . . . the area’s
physical characteristics, including its location and the existence of clear boundaries
delimiting the area . . . and traditional or historic use of both the property in question and
other similar properties.” Because the area at issue was used as a public thoroughfare,
was open to the public and integrated into the city’s downtown, and, like other “public
pedestrian malls and commercial zones,” was historically used as a public forum, the
court held that the mall was a traditional public forum for purposes of the First
Amendment. The court remanded the case regarding the anti-solicitation ordinance to the
lower court, where, because the area is a public forum, the city must “show that the
limitation is narrowly tailored to serve a significant government interest without
‘burden[ing] substantially more speech than is necessary to further the government’s
legitimate interests.”
The city petitioned for a writ of certiorari to the Supreme Court, arguing that the Ninth
Circuit decision (i) diverges from the public forum jurisprudence of the Supreme Court
and the Seventh and Eleventh Circuits, which would allow the city to treat the property as
a non-public forum by changing the property’s primary use; (ii) conflicts with the Second
Circuit, which emphasizes the primary function and purpose of a property; (iii) unduly
constricts the government’s ability to make optimal use of publicly owned property for
commercial and entertainment purposes; and (iv) expands the public forum doctrine to
the point of incentivizing cities to privatize public space.
Opposing the city’s petition for writ of certiorari, the ACLU argued that the Ninth Circuit
applied traditional forum analysis to the facts of the case, the city and businesses have
always faced the Court’s established view that streets and sidewalks are natural public
fora, and the Ninth Circuit decision does not involve analysis with respect to when a city

87

13 F. Supp. 2d 1064, 1068 (D. Nev. 1998).

124

can close a public forum because Fremont Street remains open to public pedestrian
traffic. The Supreme Court denied the petition for writ of certiorari.88
Atchison v. City of Atlanta, No 1:96-CV-1430 (N.D. Ga. July 17, 1996).
Seven homeless individuals filed suit in federal court one month prior to the opening of
the Olympic Games in Atlanta challenging Atlanta’s ordinances prohibiting aggressive
panhandling and loitering on parking lots, its enforcement of Georgia’s criminal trespass
law, and unlawful police harassment under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. The U.S. District Court for
the Northern District of Georgia granted a temporary restraining order barring
enforcement of one provision of the parking lot ordinance, finding that the plaintiffs were
likely to succeed on the merits of their claim that the provision was unconstitutionally
vague.89 In its ruling on plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction, the court held
that the provision of the anti-aggressive panhandling ordinance that prohibited
“continuing to request, beg or solicit alms in close proximity to the individual addressed
after the person to whom the request is directed has made a negative response” was
unconstitutionally vague, and granted a preliminary injunction prohibiting enforcement of
that specific provision. The court found that with the above exception, the ordinance
“appears narrowly tailored to address the significant interests while affording panhandlers
ample channels with which to communicate their message.” The court also rejected the
plaintiffs’ equal protection claim, holding that they failed to show a city policy of
violating their rights or failing to train police officers.
Before the appeal was heard, the case was settled. As part of the settlement, the city
agreed to redraft the panhandling and parking lot ordinances and require various forms of
training for its law enforcement officers for the purpose of sensitizing them to the unique
struggle and circumstances of homeless persons and to ensure that their legal rights be
fully respected.
Blair v. Shanahan, 919 F. Supp. 1361 (N.D. Cal. 1996).
In 1991, plaintiff challenged a California state statute that prohibited “accost[ing] other
persons in any public place or in any place open to the public for the purpose of begging
or soliciting alms.”90 The U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California held
the California state anti-begging statute to be unconstitutional on its face, concluding that
the statute violated the First Amendment because it was content-based, was aimed
specifically at protected speech in a public forum, and was not narrowly tailored to meet
a compelling state interest. The court also held that the statute violated the plaintiff’s
right to equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment since it distinguished between
lawful and unlawful conduct based on the content of the communication at issue.91

88

City of Las Vegas v. American Civil Liberties Union of Nevada, 540 U.S. 1110 (2004).
Atchison v. City of Atlanta, No 1:96-CV-1430 (N.D. Ga. June 21, 1996). The court later held that the
plaintiffs lacked standing to challenge this ordinance.
90
Blair v. Shanahan, 775 F. Supp. 1315, 1327 (N.D. Cal. 1991), aff’d in part and dismissed in part on
other grounds, 38 F.3d 1514 (9th Cir. 1994).
91
Id.
89

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The city settled its case with the plaintiff for damages, but then, joined by the State,
moved to have the declaratory judgment modified or vacated. The district court rejected
this motion.92 On appeal, finding that the city had mooted its own appeal by settling the
case, the Ninth Circuit refused to order the district court to vacate the declaratory
judgment but remanded the case to the district court for a decision on whether to do so.93
The district court then vacated its declaratory judgment on the ground that in light of the
specific circumstances of the case, it would be inequitable to the state to permit the order
invalidating a state statute to stand without the possibility of intervention by the state and
appellate review of the constitutional issue involved.
Booher v. Marion County, No. 5:07-CV-282-Oc-10GRT (M.D. Fla. filed July 11, 2007).
David Booher, a homeless individual living in Marion County, sued the county
challenging the constitutionality of a county ordinance adopted in May 2006, that
requires all persons who solicit, beg, or panhandle in public places to obtain a
“panhandler’s license.”94 In order to obtain such a license, an individual must pay a $100
application fee, pass a background check regarding past panhandling violations and
felonies or misdemeanors, and complete an application (which includes a requirement
that a permanent home address and description of the location and timing of solicitation
activity be provided). Further, in deciding whether to grant the license, the county
administrator must find that “the location and time of the [panhandling] activity will not
substantially interfere with the safe and orderly movement of traffic.”95
Following the adoption of the ordinance, plaintiff Booher was repeatedly arrested, fined
and sentenced to jail in violation of the ordinance. In response, Booher filed suit against
the county seeking compensatory damages and to enjoin the enforcement of the
ordinance, based on claims that the ordinance violates his right to free speech, due
process and equal protection. In September 2007, the court granted Booher’s motion for
a preliminary injunction prohibiting the county from enforcing the ordinance during the
pendency of the action. In granting the preliminary injunction, the court found that there
is a substantial likelihood that the ordinance is an unlawful prior restraint on speech, is a
content based restriction on speech, violates the Equal Protection Clause by
impermissibly distinguishing between who can and cannot engage in charitable
solicitation and is overbroad and void for vagueness by failing to sufficiently define
prohibited conduct and providing the county administrator with excess discretion.
After Booher had filed a motion for partial summary judgment and a permanent
injunction, the county repealed the ordinance. In August 2008, the parties submitted a
settlement agreement. The county agreed not to reenact the challenged version of the
ordinance and to pay Booher $10,000 for settlement of his damages claims. Defendants
agreed that Booher was the prevailing party in the action and to pay reasonable litigation
costs and attorneys’ fees.
92

795 F. Supp. 309 (N.D. Cal. 1992).
38 F.3d 1514, 1519-20 (9th Cir. 1994).
94
Marion County Code of Ordinances, Art. XIV, §10-403 (2007).
95
Id.
93

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Brown v. Kelly, No. 05-CV-5442, 2007 WL 1573957 (S.D.N.Y. May 31, 2007); 2007
WL 2156400 (S.D.N.Y. July 24, 2007).
An individual who panhandles, Eddie Wise, filed a suit on behalf of a class of individual
panhandlers who had been charged with violations of a New York state law that prohibits
begging. The Second Circuit had previously found the law unconstitutional in Loper v.
New York City Police Department, 999 F.2d 699 (2d Cir. 1993). The plaintiffs alleged
that arrests and prosecutions under the unconstitutional law violated their First
Amendment rights. For relief, the plaintiffs sought a judgment declaring the defendants
have violated the law, as well as an injunction to cease enforcement of the law,
mandating trainings for police officers and district attorneys, and removing all arrest
records for those convicted under the law. The plaintiffs also requested compensatory
and punitive damages.
On June 11, 2005, the day after the suit was filed, the Bronx District Attorney’s office
admitted that they should not have prosecuted any arrests made under the
unconstitutional part of the state penal code and issued a written agreement with the City
and the police to stop arresting and prosecuting people under this statute.
In July 2007, the court granted plaintiffs’ motion for class certification.
Chad v. City of Ft. Lauderdale, 66 F. Supp. 2d 1242 (S.D. Fla. 1998).
Plaintiffs challenged enforcement of Ft. Lauderdale’s ordinance prohibiting soliciting,
begging, or panhandling on the city’s beach and adjacent sidewalk. The district court
denied plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction, and both parties filed motions for
summary judgment. The district court granted the City’s motion and denied plaintiffs’
motion. Plaintiffs argued the ordinance violated the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution because it unconstitutionally limited free speech by prohibiting speech
“asking for” something. Plaintiffs argued this prohibition was vague and therefore
unconstitutional. The court rejected this argument, noting that the “asking for” behavior
the statue covers is sufficiently clear as to what is being prohibited. Plaintiffs also argued
the ordinance was overbroad because begging, panhandling, and solicitation are forms of
protected expression. The court also rejected this contention holding that although the
ordinance was broad enough to include protected speech, it satisfied the reasonable time,
place, and manner restrictions on such speech, the ordinance was content neutral, and was
narrowly tailored to promote the significant governmental interest of promoting a safe,
healthful, and aesthetic environment.
Chase v. City of Gainesville, 2006 WL 2620260 (N.D. Fla. Sept. 11, 2006).
In March 2006, a group of homeless individuals brought suit to challenge the
constitutionality of three anti-solicitation laws under which they had been cited and/or
threatened with citations. Two of the laws prohibited holding signs on sidewalks or by
the side of the road to solicit charitable contributions. The third law required anyone

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soliciting charitable contributions on sidewalks or by roadways to obtain a permit. The
plaintiffs alleged that the laws were content-based, overbroad and vague, and that they
constituted prior restraint on speech. Plaintiffs argued that charitable solicitation is
protected speech activity; public streets and sidewalks are traditional public fora; and the
permit requirements under the laws at issue were prior restraints on speech. Furthermore,
the permit requirements were not subject to narrow, objective and definite standards and
adequate procedural safeguards. Plaintiffs also argued that the laws were not reasonable
time, place and manner regulations; that the laws were overbroad to address the interests
of public safety and vehicular safety; and that the laws were void for vagueness for
failing to define core terms and phrases, such as “solicit” and “impeding, hindering,
stifling, retarding, or restraining traffic.”
The court found that plaintiffs had shown a substantial likelihood of success on the merits
and granted plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction. The court noted that the City
Code only allowed 501(c)(3) organizations, and not individuals, to qualify for a
charitable solicitation permit. The court also found that plaintiffs’ loss of their First
Amendment freedoms constituted irreparable injury and that an injunction would not
harm the public interest.
In September 2006, the parties agreed to a partial settlement, under which the City and all
of its officers and employees would be subject to a permanent injunction enjoining
enforcement of the three laws at issue. The parties agreed that “the activity of standing
on a public sidewalk, peacefully holding a sign and not otherwise violating any lawful
statute, ordinance, or order is a protected First Amendment activity.” The City also
agreed to pay reasonable damages to plaintiffs and reasonable litigation costs and
attorneys fees to plaintiffs’ counsel. In December 2006, the parties reached a full and
complete settlement of the case against the defendant sheriff. The court granted
plaintiffs’ unopposed motion for a permanent injunction against the defendant sheriff and
for a declaration that the challenged statutes were facially unconstitutional.
In July 2007, after the case had been dismissed, the City approved an ordinance
prohibiting “[b]eggars, panhandlers, or solicitors . . . from begging, panhandling, or
soliciting from any operator or occupant of a vehicle that is in traffic on a public
street . . . .” Plaintiffs subsequently filed a motion for order to show cause why defendant
should not be held in contempt for violating the court’s order ratifying, approving and
adopting the parties’ settlement agreement and issuing a permanent injunction. Plaintiffs
noted that an individual could violate the ordinance even if the individual did not “step
into a public roadway, pose any risk to public safety, or impede traffic flow.” Further,
the ordinance would “necessarily include portions of the public sidewalk and would serve
to prohibit Plaintiffs and other individuals from peacefully holding a sign and engaging in
charitable solicitation on City sidewalks.”
In March 2008, the court denied the motion for order to show cause. The court reasoned
that for a person to violate the amended ordinance, “he would have to solicit charitable
donations and accept the donation while the vehicle is in a public street currently in use;”
which was not contemplated by the permanent injunction. The court also found no
chilling effect on First Amendment protected speech that was the subject of the

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permanent injunction, on the ground that the amended ordinance does not prohibit the
right to solicit charitable contributions from a sidewalk, but rather restricts transactions in
traffic.
Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Turner, 893 F.2d 1387 (D.C. Cir. 1990).
Community for Creative Non-Violence (CCNV) members challenged the
constitutionality of Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA)
regulations requiring individuals to obtain permits to engage in free speech activities on
WMATA property, permitting suspension of permits in emergencies, requiring that the
speech be in a “conversational tone,” and restricting the number of individuals who may
engage in free speech at each station. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit
affirmed the trial court ruling that struck down all of the provisions, finding that the
aboveground free areas of the stations were public fora. The D.C. Circuit found that the
permit requirement was an impermissible prior restraint, the suspension provision was
not severable from the permit provision, the “conversational tone” provision was
unconstitutionally vague, and the limit on the number of individuals burdened more
speech than was necessary.
Dellantonio v. City of Indianapolis, No. 1:08-cv-0780 (S.D. Ind., filed June 11, 2008).
A class of plaintiffs sued the city of Indianapolis, alleging that Indianapolis police were
illegally prohibiting homeless individuals from passively soliciting contributions in
public by holding out a cup. An existing city ordinance prohibits only the oral or written
solicitation of contributions; passive solicitations are permissible. The complaint also
alleges that, in connection with stops by the police for violations of the ordinance, the
police have illegally seized homeless persons without cause or reasonable suspicion by
detaining them until their identification was reviewed by the police, and have illegally
seized their property
The plaintiffs allege that (i) the police’s actions related to the interference with lawful
solicitations of contributions are violations of the First Amendment, (ii) the seizure of
plaintiffs without cause or suspicion violates the Fourth Amendment and (iii) the seizure
of property related to such police actions violates the Fourth and Fourteenth
Amendments. The plaintiffs seek a permanent injunction against illegal enforcement of
the existing anti-solicitation ordinance as well as an injunction against such illegal
seizures of person and property. The case is pending.
Greater Cincinnati Coalition for the Homeless v. City of Cincinnati, 56 F.3d 710 (6th Cir.
1995).
Plaintiffs, which included the Greater Cincinnati Coalition for the Homeless (the
“Coalition”) and a homeless man, originally filed a complaint against the City of
Cincinnati in District Court seeking injunctive, declaratory, and monetary relief for
damages allegedly suffered as a result of a municipal ordinance which prohibited people
from “recklessly interfere[ing] with pedestrian or vehicular traffic in a public place.”

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Activities that were considered reckless interference included walking, sitting, lying
down, and/or touching another person in a public place so as to interfere with the passage
of any person or vehicle, or asking for money or anything else of value in a way that
would “alarm” or “coerce” a reasonable person. The District Court found that the
plaintiffs lacked standing to challenge the ordinance and the plaintiffs appealed. The
Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit found that neither the Coalition nor the homeless
man had demonstrated a “direct injury-in-fact” or a threatened injury that could
potentially result from enforcement of the ordinance, and that therefore plaintiffs did not
have standing to challenge the ordinance. The Court of Appeals, however, did indicate
that other potential challenges that demonstrated that the ordinance violated plaintiff’s
protected First Amendment rights under the U.S. Constitution might be successful.
Gresham v. Peterson, 225 F.3d 899 (7th Cir. 2000).
Jimmy Gresham, a homeless person, challenged an Indianapolis, Indiana ordinance that
prohibited panhandling in public places from sunset to sunrise and also prohibited
“aggressive panhandling.” Gresham claimed the city ordinance violated his First
Amendment right to free speech and his Fourteenth Amendment right to due process.
The city argued the ordinance was a response to the public safety threat that panhandlers
cause. The District Court granted the city’s motion for summary judgment and Gresham
appealed to the Seventh Circuit. The Circuit Court affirmed the District Court’s opinion.
The Court held Mr. Gresham’s First Amendment right was not violated simply because it
forbade him to panhandle at night. It found Mr. Gresham had many other feasible
alternatives available to him during the day and during the night to reach Indianapolis
crowds. Furthermore, the Court affirmed the district court’s opinion that a state court
could not find the statute unconstitutionally vague.
Henry v. City of Cincinnati, 2005 WL 1198814 (S.D. Ohio Apr. 28, 2005).
Four homeless individuals and the CEO of the Homeless Hotline of Greater Cincinnati
brought suit to challenge the constitutionality of a city ordinance that prohibits
engagement in vocal solicitation without a valid registration. The city moved to dismiss
on standing grounds. Because the plaintiffs asserted that they fear arrest due to their
solicitation activities without registration, the court held that plaintiffs had alleged
sufficient facts to overcome the motion to dismiss. Furthermore, because plaintiffs
claimed that the registration scheme lacks the necessary procedural safeguards, they have
standing to challenge the ordinance’s allegedly overbroad registration requirements.
Plaintiffs also alleged that the time, place, and manner restrictions are unconstitutionally
vague and that the city ordinance is not narrowly tailored to serve a compelling
government interest, but serves as a prior restraint on speech.
The court rejected the city’s argument that the ordinance regulates only panhandling and
that panhandling is merely commercial speech. However, the court held that the
ordinance was content-neutral under the Hill v. Colorado96 standard. The court
characterized the regulation as a time, place, and manner restriction and noted that the
96

530 U.S. 703 (2000).

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ordinance is not concerned with the message a solicitor communicates by requesting
money. Lastly, the court found that the ordinance was justified by reference to the act of
solicitation, not the content of the speech. Regarding constitutional review under
intermediate scrutiny, the court held that the parties should be afforded an opportunity to
present evidence. In addition, the court did not dismiss the registration requirement claim
because it was not convinced by the city’s argument that registration for solicitors is
required to prevent fraud.
The parties settled in the fall of 2007. The settlement provided for a substantially revised
solicitation ordinance that eliminated the registration requirement altogether and made
the time, place and manner restrictions on panhandling significantly less onerous. In
addition, the city agreed to pay $10,000 in attorneys’ fees.
Jones v. City of Denver, No. 96-WY-1751 (D. Colo. 1996).
Four homeless individuals, along with two non-homeless individuals with an interest in
the information communicated by those who beg, brought an action against the City and
County of Denver, Denver Chief of Police, and two police officers challenging the
constitutionality of Colorado’s state law making it a crime to “loiter . . . for the purpose
of begging.”97 The parties reached a settlement agreement in which defendants stipulated
that the law violates the Due Process Clause, and have agreed to a declaratory judgment
and injunction prohibiting enforcement of the law in the City of Denver. The court
approved the proposed settlement agreement and the state legislature subsequently
repealed the suspect language.
Heathcott v. Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Officers, No. CV-S-93-045 (D. Nev. Mar. 3,
1994).
A homeless man challenged a Nevada state statute that prohibited loitering with the intent
to beg. The district court found that the law effectively prohibited all begging, which is
constitutionally protected speech, and that since the statute was not narrowly tailored to
meet any compelling government interest it was constitutionally overbroad. The court
also noted that there was no serious harm posed to the public by peaceful begging and
that conduct that may require regulation, including fraud, intimidation, coercion,
harassment, and assault, are all covered by separate statutes.
Loper v. New York City Police Department, 999 F.2d 699 (2d Cir. 1993).
Plaintiffs challenged the New York City Police Department’s enforcement of a New
York statute prohibiting “‘loiter[ing], remain[ing], or wander[ing] about in a public place
for the purpose of begging.’” The Second Circuit affirmed the district court’s order
granting summary judgment to plaintiffs and invalidating the statute on First Amendment
grounds. The Court of Appeals held that begging constitutes expressive conduct or
communicative activity for the purposes of First Amendment analysis, and that there was
no compelling government interest served by prohibiting those who beg peacefully from
97

CO. REVISED STAT. ANN. tit. 18, art. 9, § 112(2)(a) (West 1996).

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communicating with their fellow citizens. The court further held that even if the state had
such an interest, a statute banning all begging was not narrowly tailored, not contentneutral, and left open no alternative channels of communication “by which beggars can
convey their messages of indigency.”
Los Angeles Alliance for Survival v. City of Los Angeles, 224 F.3d 1076 (9th Cir. 2000).
This suit challenged the city’s ordinance banning aggressive solicitation. The ACLU and
co-counsel argued that the ordinance was overbroad and violated the First Amendment to
the United States Constitution and the Liberty of Speech Clause of the California
Constitution. The federal district court issued a preliminary injunction in October 1997.
The city appealed, and requested certification of three questions to the California
Supreme Court. On September 15, 1998, the Ninth Circuit issued an order requesting the
California Supreme Court to certify the question of whether an ordinance regulating the
time, place, and manner of solicitation of money or other thing of value, or the sale of
goods or service, is content-based, for purposes of the liberty of speech clause of the
California Constitution.
The California Supreme Court accepted certification and issued an opinion concluding
that regulations like the ordinance should be deemed content neutral for purposes of the
California Constitution.98 The Ninth Circuit affirmed the District Court’s decision that
granted a preliminary injunction barring enforcement of Los Angeles Ordinance No.
171664. The Court ruled that even though, as the California Supreme Court certified,
regulation of solicitation is content-neutral, Los Angeles’ particular statute infringed
upon the right to free speech under the U.S. Constitution, and when a statute regulating
solicitation does that, it raises serious questions of hardship. The court found the “balance
of hardships” tipped in favor of the appellees, who would be irreparably injured without
the preliminary injunction. The case ultimately settled, resulting in the removal of
ordinance language that had permitted persons to order panhandlers off property
surrounding restaurants, bus stops and other places. The prohibition on solicitation
within 10 feet of an ATM remains in the ordinance.
NLCHP filed an amicus brief in support of plaintiffs-appellees.
Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless v. City of Cleveland, 105 F. 3d 1107 (6th Cir.
1997).
The Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless, which publishes a homeless street
newspaper, The Homeless Grapevine, and a Mosque whose members sell the Nation of
Islam newspaper The Final Call, challenged a Cleveland city ordinance requiring
distributors to apply and pay $50 for a peddler’s license in order to distribute their papers
in public places. The plaintiffs filed suit in U.S. District Court in 1994 alleging that
imposition of a license requirement violated their rights to freedom of speech and press.
On February 3, 1997, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit reversed the district
court’s decision and held that the licensing requirement and fee constituted permissible
98

No. 97-06793 RAP (C.D. Cal. July 25, 2000).

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time, place, and manner restriction and were sufficiently narrowly tailored to further a
legitimate government interest in preventing fraudulent solicitations.
Earlier, the district court had granted plaintiff’s motion for summary judgment, holding
that the licensing requirement violated their rights under the U.S. and Ohio
Constitutions.99 Noting that pursuant to the Supreme Court’s decision in Murdock v.
Pennsylvania, 319 U.S. 105 (1943), nominal fees are allowable to cover the costs
associated with permissible regulation of speech, the district court stated that the city
failed to claim that the fee was designed for such a purpose. Additionally, the district
court stated that the license prevented some “speakers” from distributing their message
since the fee was not tied to the peddler’s ability to pay.
The Sixth Circuit subsequently denied plaintiffs’ petition for a rehearing en banc,100 and
the Supreme Court denied plaintiff’s petition for a writ of certiorari.101
Smith v. City of Ft. Lauderdale, 177 F.3d 954 (11th Cir. 1999).
James Dale Smith, a homeless person, challenged a Ft. Lauderdale city regulation Rule
7.5(c) that proscribes begging on a certain five-mile strip of beach and two adjacent
sidewalks on behalf of himself and a class of homeless persons. Plaintiff initially brought
suit in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida; that court granted
summary judgment in favor of the defendant city. The Court of Appeals affirmed the
District Court’s decision. The Court ruled that, although begging is a form of speech and
beaches and sidewalks are public forums, the city made a determination that begging
negatively affected tourism. Furthermore, since tourism is a major contributor to the
city’s economy and begging can occur in other parts of the city, the court found the antibegging ordinance “narrowly tailored to serve the City’s interest in providing a safe,
pleasant environment and eliminating nuisance activity on the beach.”
Sunn v. City and County of Honolulu, 852 F. Supp. 903 (D. Haw. 1994).
Plaintiff, a street musician, was arrested nine times during 1991 and 1992 for peddling.
The state court later found that the peddling ordinance did not cover Sunn’s activity, and
Sunn subsequently brought suit against the City and County of Honolulu and certain
police officers for violation of Sunn’s rights under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 and for common law
false arrest. On March 4, 1994, the court granted summary judgment regarding the
§1983 claim in favor of the individual officers because they had demonstrated the
requirements for qualified immunity–a “reasonable officer” could have “reasonably”
believed that his or her conduct was lawful in light of clearly established law and the
information that the officer had at the time. The City and County of Honolulu (the
“City”) subsequently moved for summary judgment based on the § 1983 claims arguing
that if the officers had been found to be immune from liability under the statute, vicarious
99

Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless v. City of Cleveland, 885 F. Supp. 1029 (N.D. Ohio 1995),
rev’d on other grounds, 105 F.3d 1107 (6th Cir. 1997).
100
1997 U.S. App. LEXIS 9056 (6th Cir. Apr. 10, 1997).
101
Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless v. City of Cleveland, 522 U.S. 931 (1997).

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liability could not attach to the city for the officer’s actions. The District Court found
that granting summary judgment in favor of the officers based on qualified immunity did
not mean that the plaintiff did not possibly suffer a violation of his constitutional rights.
The city argued that the test used to conclude that the officers had qualified immunity
was the same as the test to determine if there had been probable cause for Sunn’s arrests.
The court indicated that the test to determine whether the officers had qualified immunity
was not the same as the test for probable cause and that there were still pending issues of
fact concerning probable cause. Therefore, the court concluded that the officers could
potentially be found to have arrested Sunn without probable cause and the city could
potentially be held liable for such a Constitutional violation. Accordingly, the city’s
motion for summary judgment of the § 1983 claims was denied.
Subsequently, following a bench trial the court permanently enjoined the defendants from
arresting Sunn for his musical performances and awarded him $45,220 in general and
special damages.
Thompson v. City of Chicago, 2002 WL 31115578 (N.D. Ill. Sept. 24, 2002).
Homeless plaintiffs, on behalf of themselves and a proposed class,102 filed a § 1983 and
First and Fourth Amendment claim against the city of Chicago for its enforcement of an
ordinance prohibiting begging or soliciting money on public ways. The plaintiffs alleged
that police officers had repeatedly ticketed and arrested them pursuant to the ordinance.
The city moved to dismiss for failure to state a claim, and the court denied the motion.
The court held that, although the plaintiffs’ § 1983 claims were not exceedingly clear,
they nevertheless met the bare pleading requirements necessary to state a claim for
municipal liability under Monell v. Dept. of Social Services of City of New York, 436 U.S.
658 (1978). It next ruled that the plaintiffs had sufficiently stated a claim for municipal
interference with their First Amendment interest in panhandling. Finally, the court found
that the plaintiffs had stated a claim under the Fourth Amendment because police
officials should have been aware that an ordinance similar to the Chicago ordinance had
previously been held to violate the Constitution, and thus the police could not have had a
good faith belief in the constitutionality of the ordinance.
The case settled with the city paying $99,000 in damages and an additional $375,000 in
attorney’s fees and other administrative costs. The city also repealed the panhandling
ordinance as a result of the suit.

Young v. New York City Transit Authority, 903 F.2d 146 (2d Cir. 1990).

102

In Thompson v. City of Chicago, 2002 WL 1303138 (N.D. Ill. 2002), the magistrate judge dismissed as
moot the plaintiffs motion for class certification for injunctive relief, but recommended that the court
certify the proposed class for monetary relief. In assessing the requirements for class certification, the
magistrate found the common question of the city’s enforcement of the panhandling ordinance
predominated over individual damages questions. He also found that the class action device was a superior
method for resolving the dispute, because the potential class size was great, and there was a substantial
likelihood that many members of the class were either unaware of the alleged violations of the ordinance or
incapable of bringing their own actions.

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Plaintiffs challenged New York City Transit Authority regulations that prohibited
begging on subway cars and platforms. The Second Circuit reversed the holding of the
district court and vacated the lower court’s order enjoining enforcement of the regulations
holding that begging, which is “much more ‘conduct’ than ‘speech,’” is not protected by
the First Amendment. The court held that even if the First Amendment did apply, the
regulation was reasonable because it was content-neutral, justified by a legitimate
government interest, and allowed alternative channels of communication in that it did not
ban begging in locations other than the subway.
B. State Court Cases
ACLU of New Mexico v. City of Albuquerque, No. 2004 00355 (N.M. Dist. Ct.
Bernalillo County 2004).
Plaintiff ACLU Chapter and an individual panhandler requested a declaratory judgment
and an injunction against the enforcement of a pending anti-panhandling ordinance,
alleging that it violated both free speech and due process rights under the New Mexico
Constitution. The state district court judge granted a temporary restraining order in
January 2004 barring the implementation of the ordinance. The ACLU settled with the
city for a watered-down version of the ordinance, which went into force in January 2005.
Under the new ordinance, Section 12-2-28, a police officer must give a warning before a
citation is issued. If the person is caught violating the ordinance a second time in a 6month period, then a citation can be written. The city also agreed to limit panhandling at
night only in downtown or Nob Hill, that “flying a sign” is legal anytime and anywhere,
and to rewrite or delete some of the more oppressive restrictions that infringed on
people’s First Amendment rights. The ordinance still, however, contains a number of
restrictions on panhandling.
As of August 2005, local advocates do not believe that anyone has been cited under the
new ordinance, although police are still citing people under the old one. Local advocates
are determining how to respond.
Benefit v. Cambridge, 424 Mass. 918 (1997).
On May 14, 1997 the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court invalidated a state statute
that prohibited “wandering abroad and begging,” or “go[ing] about…in public or private
ways…for the purpose of begging or to receive alms.” The court found the prohibition to
be a violation of plaintiff’s right to freedom of speech.
This constitutional challenge was initiated in 1992 by the American Civil Liberties Union
of Massachusetts on behalf of plaintiff Craig Benefit, a homeless man who had been
arrested three times on Cambridge, MA for begging in violation of the statute. In 1996,
the Superior Court of Middlesex County ruled that the law was an unconstitutional
restriction on speech in violation of the plaintiff’s rights to freedom of speech and equal
protection of the laws under the First and Fourteenth Amendments.

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On appeal, in a strongly worded unanimous opinion the state’s highest court held (1) that
peaceful begging involves communicative activity protected by the First Amendment, (2)
that the criminal sanction imposed was an improper viewpoint-based restriction on
speech in a public forum, based on the content of the message conveyed, and (3) that the
statute was not constitutionally viable when subjected to strict scrutiny. The court also
emphasized that the prohibition on begging not only infringes upon the right of free
communication, it also suppresses “an even broader right – the right to engage fellow
human beings with the hope of receiving aid and compassion.” The court soundly
rejected the state’s argument that the statute supports a compelling government interest in
preventing crime and maintaining safe streets. NLCHP filed an amicus brief in support
of the plaintiff-appellee.
C.C.B. v. Florida, 458 So.2d 47 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1984).
The defendant was arrested and charged with violating a Jacksonville ordinance
prohibiting all begging or solicitation of alms in public places. On appeal, the court
struck the ordinance as facially unconstitutional under the First Amendment. The court
found the ordinance represented an attempt to deprive individuals of a first amendment
right, and it lacked a compelling justification, in that protecting citizens from mere
annoyance was not a compelling reason for the ordinance.
City of Cleveland v. Ezell, 121 Ohio App.3d 570, 700 N.E.2d 621 (1997).
Defendants in this case, who had been soliciting sales of newspapers to motorists stopped
at red lights, were charged with violating a city ordinance which prohibited individuals
from “standing on the street or highway and transferring any items to motorists or
passengers in any vehicle or repeatedly stopping, beckoning to, or attempting to stop
vehicular traffic through bodily gestures.” Defendants appealed their lower court
conviction, and argued that the ordinance was unconstitutional because it was overbroad
and void for vagueness. On appeal, defendants argued that the ordinance at issue was
impermissibly vague because it did not delineate specifically enough what type of
conduct was prohibited. The Court of Appeals did not accept either argument and upheld
the ordinance and defendants’ convictions (however, one judge dissented asserting that
the ordinance should have been found unconstitutional because it violated the free-speech
public-forum doctrine).
Ledford v. State, 652 So.2d 1254 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1995).
The defendant was arrested and charged with violating a St. Petersburg ordinance
prohibiting begging for money upon any public way. On appeal, the court found that the
ordinance could not survive strict scrutiny under a First Amendment analysis. The court
held that begging was an expressive activity entitled to some First Amendment
protection. The ordinance failed to distinguish between “aggressive” and “passive”
begging. The City lacked a compelling reason for proscribing all begging in a traditional
public forum, because protecting citizens from mere annoyance was not a compelling

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reason to deprive a citizen of a First Amendment right. The court also found the
ordinance void for vagueness for its failure to define the terms “beg” or “begging.”
McFarlin v. District of Columbia, 681 A.2d 440 (D.C. 1996).
Two consolidated cases involved charges under the District of Columbia Panhandling
Act.103 Defendant Williams was arrested and charged with aggressive panhandling.
Police discovered him panhandling and allegedly impeding the flow of pedestrian traffic
at the top of a subway escalator. Defendants McFarlin and Taylor were arrested for
panhandling at the top of a subway escalator. At the time, the two men had been giving a
musical performance and had placed a bucket nearby where passersby could drop money.
The court upheld Williams’ conviction against his constitutional challenge while
dismissing the charges against McFarlin and Taylor for insufficient evidence.
As to Williams, the court denied his First Amendment claim because the Act did not
prohibit panhandling generally; instead, as interpreted by a transit authority regulation,
the Act was limited to areas within fifteen feet of subway entrances. As such, the Act did
not reach public fora, and was subject only to a reasonableness review. Since the Act did
not target a specific viewpoint and served the significant government interest in
promoting safety and convenience at a subway station, it did not violate the First
Amendment. The court also denied Williams’ vagueness claim, finding that the transit
authority’s construction of the Act as applying within fifteen feet of a subway station was
a sufficiently definite description of the proscribed conduct.
As to McFarlin and Taylor, the court found that the Act was properly applied to them,
since it reached broadly all attempts to solicit donations. However, due to the inexact
testimony of the arresting officer, the court found the evidence insufficient to sustain the
conviction.
People v. Schrader, 162 Misc. 2d 789, 617 N.Y.S. 2d 429 (Crim. Ct. 1994).
Defendant was charged with unlawfully soliciting in a subway station in violation of a
New York City Transit Authority rule. Defendant argued that the charge should be
dismissed because the rule violated his right to free speech, which is protected by the
New York State Constitution, and because the rule was broader than necessary to achieve
a legitimate state objective. The court held that although begging in general was a form
of protected speech under both the New York State and U.S. Constitutions, the subway
system was not a public forum, and that a ban on begging in the subway system was a
reasonable limitation on speech in the particular forum as a safety precaution. The court
also found that the rule was not a viewpoint-based restriction on speech.
State of Florida v. O’Daniels, 2005 WL 2373437 (Fla. App. 3 Dist. Sept. 28, 2005).
Defendant O’Daniels was arrested and charged with violating a city ordinance requiring
street performers and art vendors to have a permit. O’Daniels moved to dismiss the
103

See D.C. Code §§ 22-2301 to 2306 (2002).

137

charge, claiming that the ordinance violated the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the
U.S. Constitution and a provision of the Florida Constitution. The county court found the
ordinance unconstitutional because it unnecessarily infringed on various constitutional
rights.104 First, the permit-issuing scheme lacked adequate procedural safeguards to
avoid unconstitutional censorship. Second, the ordinance was not content-neutral, was
not narrowly tailored to serve a significant government interest, and did not leave open
ample alternative channels of communications. Third, the ordinance was void for
vagueness because it failed to give fair notice of the conduct it prohibited and lacked
guidelines for police to avoid arbitrary application. Fourth, the ordinance was facially
invalid because it was overbroad. Finally, the ordinance violated substantive due
process.
The city appealed, arguing that the ordinance was content neutral and was a reasonable
time, place, and manner regulation. The city contended that the ordinance did not violate
the First Amendment and was not overbroad in that it only restricted street performers
and art vendors in certain areas. Furthermore, the city argued that it provided alternative
channels of communication.
On appeal, the ACLU of Florida filed a brief amicus curiae supporting O’Daniels. The
ACLU’s argument focused on the First Amendment right to artistic expression. The
ACLU contended that the ordinance has a chilling effect because of its permit
requirements, criminal penalties, and provisions regarding indemnification. Moreover,
the ordinance unconstitutionally delegates to the private sector the power of review.
The appellate court affirmed the lower court’s ruling. First, the court acknowledged that
street performances and art vending are protected forms of expression under the First
Amendment. Next, the court held that the ordinance was content neutral, noting that the
city’s principal justification for the ordinance was its “desire to preserve the ‘reasonable
expectations of residents to the enjoyment of peace and quiet in their homes, the ability to
conduct their businesses and serve their patrons uninterrupted, and the public’s use of the
City’s rights-of-way.’” Therefore, the court applied the time, place, and manner test.
Because the ordinance bans street performances and art vending throughout the city
except for 11 specified locations, the court held that it is “substantially broader than
necessary to address the City’s stated traffic concerns.” Lastly, while the city argued that
the ordinance only prohibits performing and vending that takes place in a fixed location,
the court held that “[i]t is up to the street performer to decide whether to stand in a fixed
position rather than to perform on the move” and the alternative means of communication
must not only exist but also be “ample.” Accordingly, the court affirmed the holding that
the ordinance violated the Constitutions of the United States and Florida.

State of Minnesota v. McDonald, No. 03085478 (Minn. Dist. Ct. 2004).
A homeless man charged with violating a Minneapolis ordinance that prohibited begging
in public or private areas challenged the ordinance. The defendant was holding a begging
sign and had approached vehicles when the police ticketed him. He had been cited under
104

Case No. B03-30046 (Miami-Dade County Ct. 2003).

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the same ordinance several times before. The City of Minneapolis argued that the
governmental interest behind the statute is to address the dangers of begging because the
manner in which beggars ask for money can be intimidating, dangerous, can involve
unwanted touching, and frighten people who are approached.
The court found that begging is free speech protected by the First Amendment and that
the ordinance offers no alternatives for beggars to express themselves. The judge looked
to Loper v. New York City Police Department,105 in which the court found begging to be a
protected right, and noted that there was little difference between those who solicit for
themselves and those who solicit for organized charities. The court rejected the city’s
argument, saying that there are at least some beggars who are peaceful as well as charity
workers who are aggressive or intimidating, and there also are other state statutes that
address threatening behavior generally that would already cover the behavior the
ordinance was trying to address.
State of Texas v. John Francis Curran, No. 553926 (Tex. Mun. Ct. City of Austin 2005).
In 2003, the Austin police issued John Curran a $500 ticket for holding a sign asking for
donations at a downtown intersection. Curran is a homeless man represented by Legal
Services Corporation grantee Texas RioGrande Legal Aid. Although Curran did not
contest his guilt, he fought the ticket on constitutional grounds. The ordinance, under
which the police issued the ticket, prohibited people from soliciting “services,
employment, business or contributions from an occupant of a motor vehicle.” The
municipal court judge declared the city ordinance prohibiting panhandling to be
unconstitutional because the law violates the First Amendment, explaining that it is not
“narrowly tailored in time, place, and manner.”
III. Challenges to Vagrancy, Loitering, and Curfew Laws

A. Federal Court Cases
City of Chicago v. Morales, 527 U.S. 41 (1999).
The city of Chicago challenged the Supreme Court of Illinois’ decision that a Gang
Congregation Ordinance violated the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of
the U.S. Constitution for impermissible vagueness -- lack of notice of proscribed conduct
and failure to govern law enforcement. The ordinance prohibited criminal street gang
members from loitering in a public place. The ordinance allowed a police officer to order
persons to disperse if the officer observed any person loitering that the officer reasonably
believed to be a gang member. The Supreme Court affirmed the judgment of the Illinois
Supreme Court and ruled the ordinance unconstitutionally vague under the Due Process
Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Specifically, the court
ruled that the ordinance violated the requirement that a legislature establish guidelines to
105

999 F.2d 699 (2d Cir. 1990).

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govern law enforcement. Additionally, the ordinance failed to give the ordinary citizen
adequate notice of what constituted the prohibited conduct – loitering. The ordinance
defined “loitering” as “to remain in any one place with no apparent purpose.” The
vagueness the Court found was not uncertainty as to the normal meaning of “loitering”
but to the ordinance’s definition of that term. The court reasoned that the ordinary person
would find it difficult to state an “apparent purpose” for why they were standing in a
public place with a group of people. “Freedom to loiter for innocent purposes,” the court
reiterated, is part of the liberty protected by the due process clause of the fourteenth
amendment.
Gaffney v. City of Allentown, 1997 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 14565 (D. Pa. 1997).
Plaintiffs challenged a juvenile curfew ordinance on due process and equal protection
grounds. The court applied strict scrutiny and found the ordinance unconstitutional. The
court held that the statute burdened a minor’s right to move freely and that the case did
not present factors justifying differential treatment of minors that would allow the court
to employ a lesser standard of review. Although the parties agreed that the city had a
compelling interest in passing the ordinance, i.e., the protection of minors from nighttime
crime and the prevention of the same, it nevertheless failed because it was not narrowly
tailored to advance that interest. The statistical evidence the city presented to the court
showed no correlation between the passage of the ordinance and the incidence of juvenile
crime, and the city did not present evidence that comparatively more juveniles were
victims of nighttime crime.
Hodgkins v. Peterson, 355 F.3d 1048 (7th Cir. 2004).
A parent and her minor children brought a class action to seek a preliminary injunction
against the enforcement of Indiana’s juvenile curfew ordinance on First Amendment and
due process grounds.106 The district court maintained that a First Amendment exception
was necessary in a juvenile curfew ordinance to ensure that it was not overly broad. The
plaintiffs argued that since a minor arrested under the ordinance could use the First
Amendment only as an affirmative defense, the ordinance unduly chilled a minor’s First
Amendment rights. The district court found no evidence, however, that the threat of
arrest actually chilled minors’ exercise of their First Amendment rights. The court also
found that the ordinance left ample alternative channels for minors’ communication. The
court went on to find that the right of a parent to allow her minor children to be in public
during curfew hours was not a fundamental right, and accordingly applied intermediate
scrutiny to the statute. The ordinance survived intermediate scrutiny, because of its
limited hours of operation and numerous exceptions.
106

The district court had struck down a previous version of the Indianapolis juvenile curfew ordinance on
overbreadth grounds because it lacked an exception for First Amendment activities. See Hodgkins v.
Peterson, 2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 11801 (S.D. Ind. 2000), amended by 2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 11758 (S.D.
Ind. 2000). Subsequently, the plaintiff challenged an amended version of the ordinance on grounds that it
violated her liberty interest in raising her children without undue government interference. The court
denied a preliminary injunction on those grounds. See Hodgkins v. Peterson, 2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 20850
(S.D. Ind. 2000).

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The plaintiffs appealed, and the Seventh Circuit reversed. While the court recognized
that the curfew ordinance did not have a disproportionate impact on First Amendment
rights, it did regulate the ability of minors to participate in a range of traditionally
protected forms of speech and expression, including political rallies and various evening
religious services. Applying the “no more restrictive than necessary” standard, the court
found that even with the First Amendment affirmative defense, whereby arrest is avoided
based on the facts and circumstances in a police officer’s actual knowledge, the ordinance
did not pass intermediate scrutiny because it violated minors’ free expression rights.
Hutchins v. District of Columbia, 188 F.3d 531 (D.C. Cir. 1999).
The district court granted summary judgment to plaintiff’s challenge of a juvenile curfew
ordinance and found it unconstitutional on due process and vagueness grounds. A
divided panel of the D.C. Circuit initially affirmed, but upon a rehearing en banc, the
ordinance was upheld. The court refused to recognize a fundamental right for juveniles
to be in a public place without adult supervision during curfew hours, nor was it willing
to acknowledge a fundamental right for parents to allow their children to be in public
places at night. The court applied intermediate scrutiny to the ordinance and held that the
District had adequate factual bases to support its passage of the ordinance. In addition,
the court found the ordinance enhanced parental authority as opposed to challenging it,
owing to the ordinance’s exceptions for activities where parents were supervising their
children. The court dismissed plaintiffs’ vagueness and Fourth Amendment claims.
Johnson v. City of Cincinnati, 310 F.3d 484, 2002 WL 31119105 (6th Cir. 2002).
Two plaintiffs, including a homeless man, successfully challenged a Cincinnati ordinance
creating “drug-exclusion zones.” The ordinance prohibited an individual from entering a
drug-exclusion zone for up to ninety days if the individual was arrested or taken into
custody within such a zone for any number of enumerated drug offenses. If the
individual was thereafter convicted of the offense, the ordinance extended the exclusion
to a year. People who violated the ordinance could be prosecuted for criminal trespass.
The ordinance empowered the chief of police to grant variances to individuals who were
bona fide residents of the zone, or whose occupation was located in the zone. The
homeless plaintiff claimed that he had been prohibited from entering the drug-exclusion
zone in question for four years for drug-related offenses and spent four hundred days in
jail for violating the ordinance. He regularly sought food, clothing, and shelter from
organizations located in the zone, and his attorney’s office was located in the zone.
The district court held the ordinance unconstitutional on its face and as applied to the
plaintiffs, finding that it violated their rights to free association, to travel within a state,
and, as to the homeless plaintiff, to be free from double jeopardy.
The Sixth Circuit affirmed.107 The court held that the ordinance burdened the plaintiffs’
fundamental right to intrastate travel and the homeless plaintiff’s First Amendment
107

The Sixth Circuit agreed to hear the appeal even though the Ohio Supreme Court had already found that
the ordinance violated both the state and federal constitutions. See State v. Burnett, 93 Ohio St. 3d 419
(2001) infra.

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associational right to see his attorney. Applying strict scrutiny, the court found the
ordinance was not narrowly tailored to advance the compelling state interest in enhancing
the quality of life of its citizens. The ordinance swept too broadly as it forbade innocent
conduct within the zones. In addition, it did not provide for any particularized finding
that an individual was likely to engage in recidivist drug activity within the zones. Nor
had the city adequately demonstrated that there were no less restrictive alternatives to the
ordinance.
In discussing the homeless plaintiff’s interest in his relationship with his attorney, the
court noted that since he was homeless he had “no readily available, realistic alternative
to communicate with his attorney” other than meeting him at his office in the drugexclusion zone. His attorney could not visit him anywhere, and he had no phone
available for a private conversation. “An urban street corner simply does not provide a
sufficient guarantee of privacy and a realistically effective guard against disclosure of
privileged and confidential information to be considered a viable alternative. … [the
plaintiff] is a homeless man, existing at the margin of our society, where he is uniquely
vulnerable and in particular need of unobstructed access to legal representation and a
buffer against the power of the State.”
Justin v. City of Los Angeles, No. CV-00-12352 LGB, 2000 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 17881
(C.D. Cal. Dec. 5, 2000).
Plaintiffs, a group of homeless people living on the streets and in shelters of Los Angeles,
filed suit alleging a violation of their First and Fourth Amendment rights and then filed
for a temporary restraining order (TRO) in federal district court. Plaintiffs were
ultimately seeking only injunctive relief. Plaintiffs sought the TRO to stop defendants
from using two anti-loitering statutes, California Penal Code § 647(e) and Los Angeles
Municipal Code § 41.18(a), to harass plaintiffs. The court denied the TRO as to
preventing the authorities from using the codes to ask homeless individuals to “move
along.” However, the court granted the TRO as to all other acts because plaintiffs
established that they had shown a substantial likelihood of prevailing on the merits,
would suffer irreparable harm if the TRO was not granted, and that the balance of
equities tipped in their favor.
The case has now been settled and a permanent injunction is in force for 48 months with
the possibility of a court-granted extension for up to an additional 48 months.
Defendants did not admit liability but were “enjoined as follows with respect to all
members of the Class, when such Class members are in the Skid Row area described in
plaintiffs’ complaint: (1) Officers will not conduct detentions or ‘Terry’ stops without
reasonable suspicion. However, officers may continue to engage in consensual
encounters with persons in the Skid Row area, including members of the Class; (2)
Officers will not demand identification upon threat of arrest or arrest individuals solely
due to their failure to produce identification in circumstances where there is no
reasonable suspicion to stop or probable cause to arrest; (3) Officers will not conduct
searches without probable cause to do so, except by consent or for officer safety reasons
as permitted by law; (4) Officers will not order individuals to move from their position on

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the sidewalk on the basis of loitering unless they are obstructing or unreasonably
interfering with the free passage of pedestrians on the sidewalk or ‘loitering’ for a legally
independent unlawful purpose as specified in California Penal Code section 647; (5)
Defendants will not confiscate personal property that does not appear abandoned and
destroy it without notice. However, defendants may continue to clean streets and
sidewalks, remove trash and debris from them, and immediately dispose of such trash and
debris. Where applicable, defendants will give notice in compliance with the temporary
restraining order issued in Bennion v. City of Los Angeles (C637718). Any personal
property that does not appear intentionally abandoned collected by defendants will be
retained for 90 days as provided by California Civil Code section 2080.2; (6) Officers
will not cite individuals for violation of either Penal Code section 647(e) (loitering) or
that portion of Los Angeles Municipal Code section 41.18 which makes it unlawful to
“annoy or molest” a pedestrian on any sidewalk. However, officers may cite for
obstructing or unreasonably interfering with the free passage of pedestrians on the
sidewalk.”108
Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352 (1983).
Plaintiff challenged the constitutionality of a California state statute that required persons
who loiter or wander on the streets to provide “credible and reliable” identification and
account for their presence when asked to do so by a police officer. The Supreme Court
found that the statute failed to adequately explain what a suspect must do to satisfy its
requirements, and thus vested complete discretion in the hands of the police officers
enforcing it, encouraging arbitrary enforcement. The court held that the statute was
unconstitutionally vague in violation of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth
Amendment.
Langi v. City and County of Honolulu, Civil No. 06-428 DAE/LEK (D. Haw. Aug. 6,
2006).
In March 2006, defendants Julia Matsui Estrella and Utu Langi, homeless advocates ,
along with at least 50-60 others, marched to the City Hall grounds to protest the nightly
closure of Ala Moana Beach Park. The closure displaced more than 200 homeless
individuals; no adequate living alternatives were provided. Estrella and Langi were cited
for simple trespass on city property and ultimately arrested for criminal trespass in the
second degree. In August 2007, the ACLU filed a motion in criminal court on behalf of
Estrella and Langi, alleging that the City conduct unlawfully interfered with Estrella and
Langi’s First Amendment rights to free expression and assembly and subjected them to
unlawful arrest. The motion also alleged violations of the Fourth Amendment right to be
free from unlawful seizure and arrest and the Fourteenth Amendment right to equal
protection, and alleged claims of false arrest/false imprisonment, battery and negligent
infliction of emotional distress.
Shortly after the ACLU filed its motion, the prosecution dropped all criminal charges
against Langi and Estrella. In January 2007, the parties entered into a settlement and
108

Justin v. City of Los Angeles, No. CV 00-12352 LGB (AIJx) (C.D. Cal. Nov. 5, 2001).

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mutual release agreement, in conjunction with and simultaneous to the settlement of
Nakata v. City and County of Honolulu (discussed below). Under the terms of the
agreement, the City will pay $65,250 to settle claims of damages, attorneys’ fees and
other costs. The majority of this money will be paid by the City to one or more nonprofit organizations, including H-5 Project (Hawaii Helping the Hungry Have Hope),
whose mission is to assist Honolulu’s homeless population. In addition, the City will
implement training for Honolulu law enforcement personnel on the use of trespass laws
on public property and recent changes in the law. Lastly, the City agreed to notify and
consult with the ACLU of Hawaii in the future concerning the public’s right of access to
the grounds of City Hall.
Leal v. Town of Cicero, 2000 WL 343232 (N.D. Ill. March 31, 2000).
The plaintiff was arrested for violating a Cicero ordinance prohibiting loitering on a street
corner after a police officer has made a request that the individual move on. The officer
had observed the plaintiff doing no more than remaining in a certain area for a short
period of time. The plaintiff challenged the ordinance on vagueness grounds, and the
court agreed that the law was unconstitutionally vague. The fact that the ordinance made
the police officer’s request to move on the basis for any potential arrest, as opposed to the
loitering per se, did not save it from constitutional scrutiny. As in City of Chicago v.
Morales, 527 U.S. 41 (1999), if the loitering is harmless or justified, then the dispersal
order itself is an unjustified impairment of liberty. Additionally, the ordinance invited
uneven police enforcement, as it contained no guidelines for the exercise of official
discretion.
NAACP Anne Arundel County Branch v. City of Annapolis, 133 F. Supp. 2d 795 (D.
Md. 2001).
The NAACP brought a facial challenge on federal and state constitutional grounds to an
Annapolis ordinance prohibiting loitering within certain posted drug-loitering free zones.
The ordinance made it a misdemeanor for a person observed, inter alia, “making hand
signals associated with drug related activity” or “engaging in a pattern of any other
conduct normally associated by law enforcement with the illegal distribution, purchase or
possession of drugs” within a designated drug-loitering free zone to disobey the order of
a police officer to move on. After finding that both the individual members of the
NAACP and the NAACP itself had standing to bring the lawsuit, the district court ruled
that the ordinance was unconstitutionally vague and overbroad. The court held that the
plain language of the ordinance contained no mens rea requirement, and that, as it was
interpreting a state law, the court had no authority to read a specific intent requirement
into the ordinance. Without the narrowing device of the mens rea requirement, the
ordinance was void for vagueness since it failed to provide adequate warning to the
ordinary citizen to enable her to conform her conduct to the law and it vested unbridled
discretion in police officers enforcing the ordinance. The ordinance was also
unconstitutionally overbroad since without the specific intent requirement it reached a
host of activities ordinarily protected by the constitution, such as selling lawful goods,
communicating to motorists, and soliciting contributions.

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Nakata v. City and County of Honolulu, Civil No. CV 06 004 36 SOM BMK (D. Haw.
Aug. 10, 2006).
In a case related to and settled simultaneously with Langi v. City and County of Honolulu
(discussed above), Reverend Robert Nakata and other homeless advocates sued the city
and county of Honolulu alleging that they had been harassed and unlawfully threatened
with arrest during the course of March and April 2006 protests against the nightly closure
of Ala Moana Beach Park, where over 200 homeless individuals regularly slept. The
lawsuit specifically charged that the city unlawfully restrained free speech by subjecting
protests by people experiencing homelessness and their advocates to more restrictive
conditions than other members of the public.
In January 2007, in conjunction with the settlement of the Langi case, the Nakata parties
entered into a settlement agreement. Under the terms of the settlements of the cases, the
City will pay $65,250 to settle claims of damages, attorneys’ fees and other costs. The
majority of this money will be paid by the City to one or more non-profit organizations,
including H-5 Project (Hawaii Helping the Hungry Have Hope), whose mission is to
assist Honolulu’s homeless population. In addition, the City will implement training for
Honolulu law enforcement personnel on the use of trespass laws on public property and
recent changes in the law. Lastly, the City agreed to notify and consult with the ACLU
of Hawaii in the future concerning the public’s right of access to the grounds of City
Hall.
Nunez by Nunez v. City of San Diego, 114 F.3d 935 (9th Cir. 1997).
Minors and parents brought an appeal challenging constitutionality of San Diego’s
juvenile curfew ordinance. The Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit held that the
statute was unconstitutionally vague, that it violated the First and Fourteenth
Amendments, and that it violated the right of parents to rear their children. The phrase
“loiter, idle, wander, stroll or play” did not provide reasonable notice of what conduct
was illegal and allowed the police excessive discretion in stopping and arresting
juveniles. While the court found that the city had a compelling interest in protecting
children and preventing crime, the city failed to provide exceptions in the statute allowing
for the rights of free movement and expression, and thus struck down the statute as not
narrowly tailored to meet the city’s interest.

Papachristou v. City of Jacksonville, 405 U.S. 156 (1972).
Eight individuals convicted under Jacksonville’s vagrancy ordinance challenged the
constitutionality of the law. The Supreme Court overturned the decision of the Florida
Circuit Court and found that the ordinance was void for vagueness under the Due Process
Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment on the ground that the ordinance “fails to give a

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person of ordinary intelligence fair notice that his contemplated conduct is forbidden by
the statute” and “encourages arbitrary and erratic arrests and convictions.”
Qutb v. Strauss, 11 F.3d 488 (5th Cir. 1993), cert. denied, 511 U.S. 1127 (1994).
The district court permanently enjoined the operation of a juvenile curfew ordinance on
grounds that it violated the First Amendment and the equal protection clause. The Fifth
Circuit reversed. The court assumed that the ordinance burdened a fundamental right of
minors to travel, and applied strict scrutiny. The statute survived because the city
provided sufficient data to establish that the ordinance was narrowly tailored and the
defenses in the ordinance ensured that it employed the least restrictive means available.
The court also relied on the defenses in rejecting the parental plaintiffs’ argument that it
burdened their fundamental right to make decisions concerning their children.
Ramos v. Town of Vernon, 353 F.3d 171 (2d Cir. 2003).
Plaintiffs sought a preliminary injunction against the enforcement of Vernon,
Connecticut’s juvenile curfew ordinance on First Amendment, Fourth Amendment, equal
protection, vagueness, due process, and state constitutional grounds. The district court
denied the injunction.109 The court found that the ordinance’s exception for First
Amendment activities saved it from an overbreadth challenge. The ordinance did not
authorize unconstitutional searches and seizures. In analyzing the equal protection claim,
the court applied intermediate scrutiny to the statute and found that the history and
perception of crime in Vernon and some evidence that the ordinance was effective
indicated that it was substantially related to its goals. Further, the ordinance adequately
described the conduct it prohibited, and provided police with reasonable guidelines for its
enforcement. Finally, since the ordinance contained an exception for minors
accompanied by their parents, it did not unduly burden parents’ liberty interest in raising
their children. The court certified the state constitutional claims to the Connecticut
Supreme Court.110
Plaintiffs appealed, and the Second Circuit reversed, applying intermediate scrutiny to
hold that the city ordinance infringes on minors’ equal protection rights. The court noted
that although the curfew ordinance sought to reduce nighttime juvenile crime and
victimization, the city did not consider nighttime aspects of the ordinance in its drafting
process. Furthermore, the ordinance’s age limit is not targeted at those who were likely
to cause trouble or to be victimized. Indeed, one of the city’s expert witnesses stated that
“the adoption of the curfew itself probably could be considered a knee jerk reaction.”
Richard v. Nevada, No. CV-S-90-51 (D. Nev. Apr. 25, 1991).
Four Franciscan clergymen and four homeless individuals challenged Nevada’s statute
prohibiting criminal loitering and vagrancy and related provisions of the Las Vegas
109

48 F. Supp. 2d 176 (D. Conn. 1999).
The Connecticut Supreme Court upheld the ordinance against each of the plaintiffs’ state constitutional
claims. See Ramos v. Town of Vernon, 254 Conn. 799 (2000).
110

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Municipal Code alleging that they were unconstitutionally vague and/or overbroad. The
U.S. District Court for the District of Nevada held that the section of the Nevada statute
defining vagrancy was unconstitutionally vague in violation of the Due Process Clause of
the Fourteenth Amendment. However, the court abstained from making a decision on the
other challenged section of the Nevada statute or sections of the Las Vegas Municipal
Code. The court certified those matters to the Nevada Supreme Court, which
subsequently held that both provisions were unconstitutionally vague.111
Schleifer v. City of Charlottesville, 159 F.3d 843 (4th Cir. 1998), cert. denied, 1999 U.S.
LEXIS 1908 (1999).
Plaintiffs challenged a juvenile curfew ordinance on due process and equal protection
grounds. The district court upheld the ordinance, and the Fourth Circuit affirmed.
Recognizing the greater state latitude in regulating the conduct of minors, the court
applied intermediate scrutiny to the statute. The ordinance sought to advance compelling
state interests, i.e., the reduction of juvenile crime, the protection of juveniles from crime,
and the strengthening of parental responsibility for children. The court found that the
ordinance was substantially related to these interests, as the city had before it adequate
information that the ordinance would create a safer community and protect juveniles from
crime. Further, the court found the ordinance narrow enough to survive strict scrutiny,
were it to be applied. Nor did the ordinance burden parents’ privacy interests in raising
their children. The Fourth Circuit also rejected the plaintiffs’ vagueness claim, citing the
ordinance’s exceptions for First Amendment activities.
B. State Court Cases
City of Salida v. Edelstein, Case No. 97CR62 (Colo. Dist. Ct. 1998).
Defendants were arrested for violating a Salida ordinance prohibiting anyone from
loitering in one place for more than five minutes after 11:00 PM at night. One defendant
had been speaking with friends on the sidewalk outside his home, while another
defendant had been observing a police officer issue loitering citations to other
individuals. The defendants challenged the ordinance on First Amendment, due process,
and vagueness grounds. The municipal court found the ordinance unconstitutional, and
the district court affirmed. The court held that the ordinance interfered with citizens’
fundamental rights to stand and walk about in public places. The ordinance was not
narrowly drawn to regulate that right, and the city failed to convince the court that any
plausible safety concerns existed to justify the ordinance. Additionally, the court found
the ordinance void for vagueness, since it failed to provide law enforcement with proper
standards to prevent its arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement.

111

State v. Richard, 108 Nev. 626, 836 P.2d 622 (Nev. 1992).

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Commonwealth v. Asamoah, 2002 Pa. Super. LEXIS 2896 (Pa. Super. Ct. 2002).
The defendant was convicted for loitering pursuant to a York, Pennsylvania ordinance.
Police observed Asamoah near a man they believed to be carrying drugs, although
Asamoah himself did no more than stand on the sidewalk with money in one of his
hands. Police arrested him for violating that part of the ordinance forbidding “acts that
demonstrate an intent or desire to enter into a drug transaction.” The Superior Court
overturned his conviction, finding the ordinance was unconstitutionally vague and
overbroad. The ordinance’s language provided inadequate guidance as to what
constituted illegal behavior and left police free to enforce it in an ad hoc and subjective
manner. The ordinance also proscribed and punished protected activities such as
“hanging around” and “sauntering.”
Johnson v. Athens - Clarke County, 529 S.E.2d 613 (Ga. 2000).
Plaintiff was arrested for violating an Athens municipal ordinance prohibiting loitering or
prowling. A policeman had observed Johnson at a particular intersection four times over
a two-day period. At trial, the policeman testified that the location where he arrested
Johnson was a known drug area, although the state presented no evidence of drug
activity. The Georgia Supreme Court found the ordinance void for vagueness, since there
was nothing in the ordinance’s language that would put an innocent person on notice that
particular behavior was forbidden. There was no way a person of average intelligence
could be aware of what locations were known drug areas and what innocent-seeming
conduct could seem to be drug-related in the opinion of a police officer. The ordinance
also failed scrutiny because it did not provide adequate safeguards against arbitrary or
discriminatory enforcement.
State v. Burnett, 755 N.E.2d 857 (Ohio 2001).
The defendant successfully challenged a Cincinnati ordinance creating “drug-exclusion
zones.”112 The defendant was arrested for one of the designated drug offenses and given
a ninety-day exclusion notice from the Over-the-Rhine exclusion zone, which the city
extended to one year. He was subsequently arrested for criminal trespass for being
present in the zone.
The Ohio Supreme Court denied the defendant’s freedom of association claim, but found
that the ordinance impermissibly burdened his fundamental right to travel and that it
violated the Ohio state constitution. As to the first amendment claim, the court found that
the ordinance did not, on its face, interfere with the defendant’s fundamental, personal
relationships. However, the court went on to hold that the due process clause of the
federal constitution included the fundamental right to intrastate travel. Under the
required compelling interest analysis, the ordinance failed because it was not narrowly
tailored to serve Ohio’s compelling interest in protecting the health, safety, and welfare
112

See Johnson v. City of Cincinnati, 310 F.3d 484, 2002 WL 31119105 (6th Cir. 2002), supra.

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of its citizens. The ordinance reached a host of innocent conduct, including visiting an
attorney, attending church, and receiving emergency medical care. Finally, the court
found the ordinance violated the Ohio state constitutional provision forbidding
municipalities from adopting laws that conflicted with the “general laws” because it
added a criminal penalty for a drug offense that was not imposed by a court or authorized
by a statute.113
IV. Challenges to Restrictions on Food Sharing

A. Federal Court Cases
Big Hart Ministries v. City of Dallas, No. 3-07CV0216-P, 2007 WL 606343 (N.D. Tex.
Jan. 31, 2007).
In January 2007, following extensive negotiation with the city of Dallas to reduce the
impact of an ordinance that restricts sharing food with homeless individuals in public,
two groups that serve food to homeless individuals in public spaces sued the city to
challenge its food sharing restrictions. Plaintiffs Big Hart Ministries and Rip Parker
Memorial Homeless Ministry are each non-profit religious organizations that conduct
food sharing programs for and share religious teachings with homeless individuals in the
City of Dallas. These organizations jointly filed a suit challenging the enforcement of
Dallas City Ordinance 26023, which requires all operators of “Food Establishments” (as
defined in the ordinance and including churches and other charitable organizations
operating out of a mobile facility) to obtain a permit from the Director of the Department
of Environmental Health Services for the City of Dallas in order to provide food in public
places. Exceptions are made to the permit requirement, but only if food distribution takes
place in specified areas of the city, of which only two areas are practicable for the
plaintiffs. Violation of the ordinance is punishable by a fine of between $50 and $2,000
per day.
Plaintiffs’ allege that the ordinance (i) violates such organizations’ right to freely exercise
their religious beliefs, guaranteed by the First and Fourteenth Amendments, (ii) violates
such organizations’ and homeless persons’ right to free association, also guaranteed by
the First and Fourteenth Amendments, (iii) violates such organizations’ and the homeless
persons’ right to travel, as guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment, and (iv) violates
certain Texas state constitutional and statutory provisions.
The city of Dallas indicated an intention to make substantial changes to the ordinance in
connection with the opening of a new Homeless Assistance Center (“the Bridge”) in
downtown Dallas in the spring of 2008. However, the city has not yet made any changes
to the ordinance. The city has agreed to continue to refrain from enforcing the current
113

One justice concurred only in the state constitutional holding, arguing that no fundamental right to
intrastate travel existed under the federal due process clause. See 93 Ohio St. 3d at 869.

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ordinance against the plaintiffs other than by issuing written warnings. The case is
pending.
Daytona Rescue Mission, Inc. v. City of Daytona Beach, 885 F. Supp. 1554 (M.D. Fla.
1995).
Plaintiffs, Daytona Rescue Mission and its founder, president and executive director,
Gabriel J. Varga, brought suit against the City of Daytona Beach and the Daytona Beach
City Commission, alleging that enforcement of a city ordinance would violate their rights
under the Establishment Clause and the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment,
the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and the Religious Freedom
Restoration Act of 1993 (the “RFRA”). Plaintiffs, who provide the homeless with
portable bags of food and other services, sought injunctive and declaratory relief.
Plaintiffs argued that because the zoning code’s definition of Church or Religious
Institution “excludes homeless shelters and food banks as customarily related activities,”
their application for semi-public use in their facility’s zone was denied.
The court held that because the zoning code provisions were neutral and generally
applicable and furthered the city’s significant interest, plaintiffs’ rights under the Free
Exercise Clause were not violated. Similarly, “the burden on religion is at the lower end
of the spectrum” and other facilities exist for the homeless in the city. Therefore, the
court held that protections under the RFRA did not apply. Lastly, the court found that the
city had a compelling interest in regulating shelters and food banks for the homeless and
the zoning code was the least restrictive means to furthering that interest.
Family Life Church v. City of Elgin, 2008 WL 2440658 (N.D. Ill. June 18, 2008).
Family Life Church invited H.E.L.P.S., A Ministry of Caring (“HELPS”) to operate a
homeless shelter in its church and challenged the city’s requirement to obtain a
conditional use permit and the delays it encountered in obtaining the permit. Responding
to a complaint that HELPS was operating the shelter without proper approval, a city code
enforcement officer inspecting the premises found three violations, including the lack of
a permit to run a shelter and the lack of an occupancy permit for the building. When
HELPS applied for the permit in September 2006, a further inspection purportedly
revealed 105 building, fire and life-safety code violations. In October 2006, the city
insisted the shelter be shut down until the permits were obtained.
In November 2006, the City of Elgin zoning board recommended that the permit
application be approved subject to certain conditions. When the matter was still not on
the city council’s agenda on January 11, 2007, Family Life and Frank Cherrye, a
homeless individual, filed a lawsuit in federal court. The court denied plaintiffs’ request
for a temporary restraining order against the city. The permit was granted on May 9,
2007.
The court granted the city’s motion for summary judgment, as it found that the permit
application process and accompanying delays did not violate plaintiffs’ rights under the

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First Amendment’s Free Exercise Clause and the “substantial burden” provision of the
federal Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (the “Act”). The court
found that the permit requirement was facially neutral and that the eight-month permit
process did not rise to the level of a substantial burden. Furthermore, the court found that
much of the delay was self-imposed: Family Life prematurely opened the shelter before
seeking a permit and then had to close down the shelter during the pending permit
process. With the same reasoning, the court rejected Family Life’s Equal Protection
claim and claim of disparate treatment under the Act, as well as Family Life’s state claim
under the Illinois Religious Freedom Restoration Act. Finally, the court rejected
Cherrye’s individual Equal Protection claim regarding the city’s requirement that
homeless persons staying at a particular shelter for more than three days demonstrate a
connection with the city prior to entering the shelter. Because this residency requirement
did not require someone to live in Elgin for any particular period of time, the court
applied a rational basis standard and found that the requirement did not violate Cherrye’s
fundamental right to travel.
First Assembly of God of Naples, Florida, Inc. v. Collier County, Florida, 27 F.3d 526
(11th Cir. 1994).
First Assembly was zoned as a multi-family residential district that also permitted various
community uses, including churches and their “customary accessory uses.” In 1989, First
Assembly converted a relatively new building into a homeless shelter. The surrounding
community raised health and safety concerns. In 1991, a county official alleged that First
Assembly’s shelter violated several zoning ordinances. The Collier County Code
Enforcement Board agreed that the shelter did not constitute a “customary accessory use”
of the church. First Assembly closed the shelter.
First Assembly and plaintiffs brought suit against Collier County, seeking a temporary
restraining order, a preliminary injunction, and permanent injunctive relief. The lower
court denied plaintiffs’ motions and granted the County’s motion for summary judgment.
First Assembly filed an appeal, arguing that it was denied due process in the enactment of
the zoning laws and in the County’s failure to codify the laws annually as required under
Florida law. In addition, First Assembly argued that by enforcing the zoning laws, the
County prevented the church from practicing an essential aspect of its religion: sheltering
the homeless. Therefore, the County violated the Free Exercise Clause of the First
Amendment.
The Eleventh Circuit affirmed the lower court ruling. Regarding the due process claim,
the court found that although First Assembly had a protectable property interest, it was
given a notice and an opportunity to be heard that was adequate under the federal
Constitution. The court did not agree with plaintiffs that the published notice, which was
smaller than a quarter page in size, did not include a geographic location map, and did not
have a headline in 18-point font, was inadequate. Regarding the Free Exercise claim, the
court found that the zoning law was neutral and of general applicability. The law applied
to group homes generally and provided regulations and locations for their operation. The
intent was to address health and safety concerns, not to inhibit or oppress any religion.

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First Assembly’s petition for writ of certiorari was denied.
First Vagabonds Church of God v. City of Orlando, No. 6:06-CV-1583-Orl-31KRS
(M.D. Fla. filed Oct. 12, 2006).
First Vagabonds Church of God and Food Not Bombs, a homeless ministry and antipoverty group, respectively, filed suit in federal court challenging a city ordinance that
prohibits “large group feedings” in parks in downtown Orlando without a permit, and
also limits the number of permits for each park to two per year per applicant.114 “Large
group feedings” are defined under the ordinance as events that intend to, actually or are
likely to feed 25 or more people.
Prior to the enactment of the ordinance, the plaintiff organizations had been regularly
distributing free food to homeless persons in certain Orlando parks for a long period of
time. Following enactment of the ordinance, the organizations attempted to remain in
compliance with the law by distributing food outside of or adjacent to city parks, but
found such distribution to be impracticable. The plaintiffs’ suit sought a declaration that
the ordinance is unconstitutional (under the First Amendment’s free speech and religious
exercise clauses and Fourteenth Amendment’s due process clause) and in violation of
certain Florida statutes, including Florida’s Religious Freedom Restoration Act. Further,
the plaintiffs sought an injunction prohibiting enforcement of the ordinance and
unspecified damages.
In January 2008, the City of Orlando moved for summary judgment. The court held that
resolution of the FRFRA claim involves disputed issues of material fact that cannot be
resolved by summary judgment. With respect to the Free Exercise claim, the court held
that the City had provided no rational basis for the law because no evidence showed that
moving group feedings from one park to another would help to alleviate the City’s
concerns. Therefore, the Free Exercise claim survived summary judgment. Similarly,
the court found that the City had not provided a defense to the Free Assembly claim.
The court dismissed plaintiffs’ facial challenge because the conduct regulated by the
ordinance is not, on its face, an expressive activity. In contrast, however, the court found
that the as-applied challenge was not entitled to summary judgment, because it is possible
that, after examining the context, the conduct of feeding people could be expressive. The
City was entitled to summary judgment on the Equal Protection and Due Process claims.
In September 2008, the court ruled in favor of the plaintiffs on their claims that the food
sharing restriction violated their rights to free speech and to freely exercise their religious
beliefs under the First Amendment. The court found that Orlando Food Not Bombs’ food
sharing activities was expressive conduct, the ordinance did not further a substantial
interest of the city, and the ordinance placed too great a burden on plaintiffs’ free speech
rights. With respect to the free exercise claim, the court found that there was no rational
basis for the ordinance, as none of the interests claimed by the city were served by the
114

Code of the City of Orlando § 18A.09-2 (2007).

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ordinance. Further, the ordinance was more than an incidental burden on First
Vagabonds Church’s free exercise rights.
NLCHP filed an amicus brief in favor of the plaintiffs in this case. The case is currently
on appeal.
Layman Lessons, Inc. v. City of Millersville, 2008 WL 686399 (M.D. Tenn. Mar. 7,
2008).
In 2005, Layman Lessons set up Blessingdales Charity Store, which was both a place to
store donated clothing and personal items and distribute them to the needy, and a retail
store to sell these items to raise money. Layman Lessons applied for a Certificate of
Occupancy, but its application was placed on hold due to a then-pending ordinance that
would have limited Layman Lessons’ use of the property as planned. In addition, the city
required the construction of a “buffer strip,” such as a fence or landscaping to serve as a
buffer between properties. Layman Lessons’ property only abutted commercial
properties, however, and buffer strips were typically only required on properties abutting
residential property.
In 2006, Layman Lessons filed a complaint, alleging that the city’s actions violated its
rights under the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (“RLUIPA”)of its
constitutional rights under the First and Fourteenth Amendments and the Tennessee
Constitution.
In March 2008, the court ruled on both parties’ respective motions for summary
judgment, granting in part and denying in part each motion. The court found Layman
Lessons did not state a valid claim under RLUIPA for enforcement of the buffer strip
requirement as it was not a substantial burden and was neutral. Because the city planner
did not have authority to unilaterally deny an application for a Certificate of Occupancy,
the court did not find the city liable under § 1983 for the city planner’s actions. The court
also found that Layman Lessons failed to prove its Equal Protection claim.
However, the court granted Layman Lessons’ summary judgment motion on its claim
that city actions (aside from the city planner’s actions) that delayed issuance of a
Certificate of Occupancy burdened Layman Lessons’ free exercise rights in violation of
the RLUIPA. In addition, the court found that the city’s “arbitrary and irrational
implementation and enforcement of [the buffer strip ordinance]” violated Layman
Lessons’ right to Due Process.
McHenry v. Agnos, 983 F.2d 1076 (9th Cir. 1993).
Keith McHenry is the co-founder of Food Not Bombs, an organization which distributes
free food to, and advocates increased public assistance for, the homeless and hungry of
San Francisco. McHenry filed suit against the city of San Francisco and various city
officials after being enjoined from distributing food to members of the homeless
community in San Francisco based on the organization’s failure to comply with

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ordinances regarding the distribution of food in public. Specifically, the ordinances
required that organizations which distribute food to more than 25 persons in public parks
obtain a permit and meet certain sanitation standards.
McHenry’s suit alleged that such city ordinances and the injunction violated his First
Amendment rights and were facially invalid. The district court granted summary
judgment in favor of the defendants, finding that McHenry’s food distribution activity did
not constitute protected expression and that even if it did, the permit ordinances would
constitute reasonable time, place, and manner restrictions on such expression. On appeal,
the Ninth Circuit upheld the district court’s decision, finding that the ordinances were
constitutional, as the government interests behind the ordinances were substantial and the
ordinances were sufficiently content neutral and narrowly tailored.
Pacific Beach United Methodist Church v. City of San Diego, Docket No. 07-CV-2305LAB-PCL (S. D. Cal. Dec. 7, 2007).
Pacific Beach United Methodist Church, its pastor and its congregation brought suit
against the City of San Diego, alleging that the city had threatened to fine and punish
them for sharing a meal and religious services with hungry, homeless, and other
individuals. Plaintiffs argued that ministering to and caring for hungry, homeless and
poor individuals is at the core of their religious and spiritual identities and, therefore, the
city’s actions violated the United States and California Constitutions and the Religious
Land Use & Institutionalized Persons Act.
Plaintiffs alleged that, on October 31, 2007, while Plaintiffs were preparing for that
evening’s service, defendants “raided” Plaintiffs’ church property “without warning, in a
show of authority designed to chill the Plaintiffs’ exercise of their ministry and intimidate
Plaintiffs.” Defendants stated that they were acting on an anonymous complaint to
perform an inspection to determine whether Plaintiffs’ activities were violating any laws,
ordinances or municipal codes. Further, In November 2007, Defendants informed
Plaintiffs that their religious activities were a violation of four San Diego municipal
codes relating to residential multiple unit dwelling developments, use regulations of
residential zones, and homeless facilities.
Plaintiffs argued in their complaint that these ordinances are facially inapplicable to
Plaintiffs’ activities. Further, Plaintiffs argued that the city’s actions violated the
Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act of 2000 and the First, Fourth, Fifth,
Ninth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution. Plaintiffs sought
injunctive relief to protect their freedom to continue their ministries to the poor, hungry
and homeless. In April 2008, the parties settled the case. Under the settlement
agreement, Plaintiffs will be allowed to continue their Wednesday Night Ministry without
a permit and without the threat of fines or citations from the City of San Diego. The City
may conduct inspections at the church and enforce other laws and ordinances.

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Sacco v. City of Las Vegas, Docket No. 2:06-CV-0714-RCJ-LRL (D. Nev. June 12,
2006).
Several individuals who share food with homeless individuals as a component of their
charity work and as a part of a broader political demonstration associated with Food Not
Bombs, an all-volunteer organization dedicated to nonviolent social change, filed suit in
federal court challenging (i) the enforcement of Las Vegas Municipal Code §
13.36.055(A)(6), which prohibits “the providing of food or meals to the indigent for free
or a nominal fee” in public parks, (ii) city ordinances requiring that a permit be obtained
in order to hold events in city parks that are attended by more than 25 people, (iii)
restriction that three particular parks may be used solely by children or
supervisors/guardians of children and (iv) laws permitting the police to ban people who
commit crimes on city property from entering public parks.
In January 2007, the federal district court granted a preliminary injunction enjoining
enforcement of the ordinance prohibiting provision of food or meals to indigent persons.
In August 2007, the court ruled on the plaintiffs’ motion to make the injunction
permanent and to approve the other measures being sought, including the challenges to
the permit requirements and the children’s parks and trespass laws (described above).
Basing its decision on the plaintiff’s equal protection and due process arguments, the
court granted the motion for a permanent injunction against enforcement of the ordinance
restricting food sharing with indigent persons, but denied the plaintiffs’ other challenges.
Santa Monica Food Not Bombs v. City of Santa Monica, 450 F.3d 1022 (9th Cir. 2006).
Santa Monica Food Not Bombs, an all-volunteer organization dedicated to nonviolent
social change, and other organizations and individuals seeking to share food with
homeless individuals brought suit against the City of Santa Monica, California, alleging
that certain permit requirements and limitations on outdoor meal programs violated
plaintiffs’ rights under the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution,
and various provisions of the California Constitution. The district court granted Santa
Monica’s motion for summary judgment, holding that the challenged ordinances were not
facially unconstitutional. Food Not Bombs appealed to the Ninth Circuit.
The Ninth Circuit held that Food Not Bombs’ challenges to an ordinance prohibiting
banners outside of city-sponsored events and an ordinance prohibiting food distribution
on sidewalks were moot because those ordinances had been amended after the suit was
filed. The court held that the third events ordinance being challenged, which required
permits for parades, events drawing 150 people or more, and events involving setting up
tents, was a content-neutral time, place and manner regulation that did not violate the
First Amendment. The court found the ordinance was not directed to communicative
activity as such, and the object of the permitting scheme was “to coordinate multiple uses
of limited space, to assure preservation of the park facilities, to prevent uses that are
dangerous, unlawful, or impermissible” under the park district’s rules, and to assure
financial accountability for damage the event may cause. In addition, an instruction to
the ordinance provided that “no consideration may be given to the message of the event,

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the content of speech, the identity or associational relationships of the applicant, or to any
assumptions or predictions as to the amount of hostility which may be aroused in the
public by the content of speech or message conveyed by the event.”
Food Not Bombs also contended that the events ordinance was not sufficiently narrowly
tailored. The court rejected this argument as applied to sidewalks and park paths because
a limiting instruction limited the application of the ordinance to activities that are “likely
to interfere” with traffic flow. However, the court held that the ordinance was
insufficiently narrowly tailored with respect to all other city streets and public ways, to
which the limiting instruction did not apply. The court also found that there were ample
alternatives for speech.
Stuart Circle Parish v. Board of Zoning Appeals of the City of Richmond, 946 F. Supp.
1225 (E.D. Va. 1996).
Stuart Circle Parish, a partnership of six churches of different dominations in the Stuart
Circle area of Richmond, Virginia, sought a temporary restraining order and permanent
injunctive relief to bar enforcement against them of a zoning code limiting feeding and
housing programs for homeless individuals. The ordinance limited feeding and housing
programs to up to 30 homeless individuals for up to seven days between October and
April. Plaintiffs conduct a “meal ministry” for 45 minutes every Sunday, to provide
“worship, hospitality, pastoral care, and a healthful meal to the urban poor of Richmond.”
Some, but not all, of the attendees are homeless. Neighbors of the host church
complained to the city’s zoning administrator, alleging unruly behavior by attendees of
the meal ministry. The zoning administrator found that plaintiffs violated the city
ordinance limiting feeding and housing programs. Although plaintiffs appealed, the
Board of Zoning Appeals upheld the determination.
Plaintiffs then brought suit in federal district court. Plaintiffs alleged that their rights to
free exercise of religion were protected by the First Amendment and the Religious
Freedom of Restoration Act (the “RFRA”)115 and would be violated if the ordinance were
enforced against them. To plaintiffs, the meal ministry is “the physical embodiment of a
central tenet of the Christian faith, ministering to the poor, the hungry and the homeless
in the community.” Furthermore, plaintiffs argued that injunctive relief would not work
irreparable injury on the city and that the city failed to show a compelling state interest,
especially given that there was no showing of unruly and disruptive behavior on more
than one occasion.
The court granted plaintiffs’ motion for a temporary restraining order. The court held
that plaintiffs would suffer irreparable injury without such injunctive relief because they
would otherwise be prevented from engaging in the free exercise of their religion. In
addition, defendants failed to show that the injunctive relief would work irreparable
injury on them; such injunctive relief would only “return the parties to their status quo
ante positions.” The court also found that plaintiffs were likely to succeed on the merits
115

In 1997, the RFRA was struck down as unconstitutional. City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507.
However, a number of states have similar laws.

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because the plaintiffs demonstrated that the meal ministry is a central tenet of their
religious practice and that it is important that the meal ministry be provided in the church.
On the other hand, the city failed to show a compelling state interest in prohibiting
plaintiffs from continuing their meal ministry as currently conducted. Lastly, the court
found that granting the temporary restraining order serves the public interest by providing
a federal forum in which plaintiffs can vindicate their federal rights, which they were
unable to do in the state process.
Western Presbyterian Church v. The Board of Zoning Adjustment of the District of
Columbia, 862 F. Supp. 538 (D.D.C. 1994).
Western Presbyterian Church brought suit against defendants to enjoin enforcement of (i)
a decision of the District of Columbia Zoning Administrator, which was upheld by the
Board of Zoning Adjustment of the District of Columbia, and (ii) the District of
Columbia zoning regulations as applied to the Church’s program to feed homeless
individuals on its premises. Section 216 regulates programs conducted by church
congregations or groups of churches in an R-1 (residential) district. The zoning
regulations provide that “any other accessory use . . . customarily incidental to the uses
otherwise authorized by this chapter shall be permitted in [a special purpose] district.”
Plaintiffs sought protection of their rights under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act
of 1993 (the “RFRA”),116 the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the First and Fifth
Amendments. Plaintiffs argued that defendants violated their rights to free exercise of
religion and their due process and equal protection rights by (i) enforcing the Zoning
Regulations in an arbitrary and capricious manner, (ii) denying fair notice and chilling
their First Amendment rights, (iii) interpreting the Zoning Regulations so as to impose a
more onerous burden on churches in special purpose zones than that imposed on churches
in residential zones, and (iv) interpreting the Zoning Regulations to deny churches the
ability to engage in accessory uses as a matter of right in special purpose zones, to the
extent such uses are considered church programs under Section 216.
The court granted plaintiffs a permanent injunction and granted plaintiffs’ motion for
summary judgment. The court noted that “[i]t is difficult to imagine a more worthwhile
program,” and that “[t]he federal government and the District of Columbia have been
unable to deal with the problem of the homeless, but here, a private religious
congregation is spending its own funds to help alleviate a serious societal problem.” The
court added that “[i]t is paradoxical that local authorities would attempt to impede such a
worthwhile effort.” The court held that the enforcement of the zoning laws to regulate
religious conduct violated plaintiffs’ right to free exercise of religion in violation of the
First Amendment and the RFRA.

116

In 1997, the RFRA was struck down as unconstitutional. City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507.
However, a number of states have similar laws.

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B. State Court Cases
Abbott v. City of Fort Lauderdale, 783 So. 2d 1213 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 2001).
Plaintiff, who conducted a feeding program on the beach in Fort Lauderdale for homeless
individuals, sought injunctive and declaratory relief to prevent the city from enforcing
against him a city ordinance that prohibited the use of parks “for business or social
service purposes unless authorized pursuant to a written agreement with the City.”
Arnold Abbot and his group, Love Thy Neighbor, had fed poor and homeless people each
Wednesday on the public beach across from the Radisson Bahia Mar, as part of their
religious beliefs. The city believed that the regular feedings at a set location constituted a
social service agency. Moreover, the city noted that there were other services and
agencies in the city that the homeless could rely upon, including at the Homeless
Assistance Center, which allegedly made plaintiff’s feedings unnecessary.
The trial judge rejected plaintiff’s claims that the ordinance violated his rights to equal
protection and due process of law as well as his First Amendment rights under the Florida
Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1998 (the “FRFRA”). The trial judge held that
because the rule violated plaintiff’s rights under the FRFRA, the city would have to
provide an alternative public property site where plaintiff could conduct the feeding
program.
Plaintiff appealed, challenging on post-trial motion that the city’s site selection did not
follow the intent of the trial court’s order. The city cross-appealed the trial court’s
holding that the rule violated the FRFRA. On appeal, the court concluded that the trial
court’s order implied that the alternative public property site “would at least be minimally
suitable for the purposes intended” and would “represent[] the ‘least intrusive means’ of
furthering the government’s compelling interests.” The court reversed and remanded to
the trial judge to determine whether the selected site complied with the order’s
requirements and with the FRFRA.
V. Miscellaneous
A. Federal Court Cases
Currier v. Potter, 379 F.3d 716 (9th Cir. 2004), cert. denied, 125 S. Ct. 2935 (2005).
Three homeless individuals in Seattle brought suit against the Postal Service for denying
them certain types of mail service, such as no-fee postal boxes available to other classes
of individuals, and general delivery service at all postal branches. The plaintiffs alleged
violations of postal service regulations, the Postal Reorganization Act, the Administrative
Procedures Act, and the Constitution. Defendants moved to dismiss for lack of subject
matter jurisdiction and failure to state a claim. The lower court dismissed the complaint

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in its entirety. It held that postal service regulations as well as the Administrative
Procedure Act did not create a cause of action for the plaintiffs in this case. While the
plaintiffs did establish the court’s jurisdiction under a provision of the Postal
Reorganization Act prohibiting discrimination among users of the mail, the court
dismissed that claim sua sponte on the basis that the postal service regulations passed
muster under an ordinary rational basis review.
The court also dismissed plaintiffs’ constitutional claims. As to the First Amendment,
the court agreed that the right to receive mail is fundamental, but refused to apply strict
scrutiny because the Postal Service was not purporting to censor the content of any mail.
Under a reasonableness review, the court found the regulations content-neutral and that
they reasonably advanced “Congressionally-mandated goals of delivering mail efficiently
and economically.”117 Turning to the equal protection claim, the court found that the
Postal Service’s distinctions among persons who could and could not receive no-fee post
office boxes were reasonable. “The relevant postal regulations that govern the no-fee
boxes make it clear that only residents who have a physical residence or a business
location at a fixed delivery point are eligible for the [no-fee boxes].”118 Moreover,
providing general delivery service at all post office branches would increase costs and
complicate investigations of illegally shipped material.
The plaintiffs appealed the court’s ruling. NLCHP filed an amicus brief on Currier’s
behalf, arguing that the postal service regulations provide a private right of action and
that the Postal Service has waived its immunity with respect to claims under those
regulations. NLCHP contended that the district court erred in finding it did not have
subject matter jurisdiction over some of Currier’s claims because the Postal
Reorganization Act confers federal jurisdiction in actions involving the postal service,
and the postal service regulations provide a substantive legal framework creating a cause
of action. The court also had jurisdiction under the Administrative Procedure Act, which
does not foreclose judicial review of Postal Service regulations. NLCHP also argued that
the postal service regulations violate the First Amendment rights of homeless people by
requiring them to pay for post office boxes and by limiting the locations and hours of
operation of post offices that offer general delivery. Finally, NLCHP argued the
regulations violate the Equal Protection Clause by automatically denying homeless
people no-fee post office boxes while simultaneously offering them to other customers
who are ineligible for carrier delivery.
The Ninth Circuit affirmed the lower court decision. Regarding jurisdiction, the Ninth
Circuit upheld both the lower court’s dismissal of plaintiffs’ claim regarding the no-fee
box regulation, and the lower court’s exercise of subject matter jurisdiction over
plaintiffs’ statutory claim. The court limited the relevant forum to the general delivery
service and concluded that such forum is a nonpublic forum because the postal service’s
“provision of general delivery service is meant merely to facilitate temporary mail
delivery to a limited class of users.”119 The court then ruled that the postal service acted
117

Currier v. Henderson, 109 F. Supp. 2d 1221, 1230 (W.D. Wash. 2002).
Id. at 1231.
119
379 F.3d at 729.
118

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reasonably in confining general delivery service to a single Seattle location.
Furthermore, the court rejected plaintiff’s First Amendment challenge to the no-fee postal
box regulations, holding that such boxes are nonpublic fora and that the postal service is
“not constitutionally obligated to provide no-fee boxes to homeless persons.”120 Because
these First Amendment claims fail, the court also rejected plaintiffs’ Equal Protection
claims on rational-basis review.121
Plaintiffs filed a petition for a writ of certiorari, arguing that the Ninth Circuit erred in
determining that the forum at issue was the general delivery service. Instead, because
general delivery is the only means homeless people have to access the mail system, the
plaintiffs argued the proper forum is the entire “mail system,” which they argued is a
public forum.122 Alternatively, even if the entire mail system is not the relevant forum,
plaintiffs contended that general delivery and no-fee boxes are public fora because they
are modes of public communication.123 In response, defendants argued that the Ninth
Circuit was correct in evaluating general delivery and no-fee boxes as the relevant forum
and determining that they were nonpublic fora.124 Plaintiffs’ petition for writ of certiorari
was denied on June 20, 2005.
Fitzgerald v. City of Los Angeles, No. CV 03-1876 NM (C.D. Cal. 2003), 485 F. Supp.
2d 1137 (C.D. Cal. 2007).
Plaintiffs brought suit to challenge a police practice of taking homeless people from the
Skid Row area of the city into custody and detaining them after performing warrantless
searches without reasonable suspicion to believe such persons’ parole or probation had
been violated. Plaintiffs alleged that the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) had
adopted a policy and practice of harassment, intimidation and threats against the residents
of the Central City East area of Los Angeles, including homeless individuals in that area
and residents of Skid Row’s Single Room Occupancy (SRO) housing units. Plaintiffs
claimed that the police’s stated reason for such actions – that they were looking for parole
violators and absconders – was a pretext.
The court certified the plaintiff class for settlement purposes and issued an injunction
against such police practices, based on plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment claims as well as
“Plaintiffs’ rights under California Civil Code § 52.1 to be free from interference and
attempts to interfere with Plaintiffs’ Fourth Amendment rights by threats, intimidation, or
120

Id. at 731.
Judge Gould, in his concurring opinion, leaves open the possibility of a homeless person’s as-applied
challenge, in which case he “would hold that, although the Post Office need not routinely make general
delivery available at all branch post offices for all persons who are homeless, the Postal Service’s
regulations, to comply with the First Amendment, must make due provision for general delivery to a
homeless person at a branch office when that person has shown undue hardship in retrieving mail at the
main post office.” Id. at 733.
122
Brief of Petitioner-Appellant at 17, Seattle Housing and Resource Effort (SHARE) v. Potter, 2005 WL
415085 (Feb. 15, 2005).
123
Id. at 21.
124
Brief for Respondent-Appellee, Seattle Housing and Resource Effort (SHARE) v. Potter, 2005 WL
415085 (May 20, 2005).
121

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coercion.” In December 2003, the parties settled the case, agreeing to a stipulation to a
permanent injunction limiting detentions, “Terry” stops and searches without the
necessary reasonable suspicion, probable cause and/or search warrants. The injunction
would remain in effect for 36 months, and could be extended upon a showing of good
cause for an additional 36 months.
In November 2006, plaintiffs learned of allegations that the police were violating the
injunction. The court granted the plaintiffs’ motion to extend the injunction. The parties
settled the case in December 2008 and the court approved the settlement agreement in
February 2009. The settlement agreement set forth specific rules officers must follow
with respect to searches incident to arrest, searches of parolees and probationers,
handcuffing and frisks and prolonged detention for the purpose of running warrants.
Warrant checks may only be conducted “if the time required to complete the warrant
check does not exceed the time reasonably required to complete the officer’s other
investigative duties.” In addition, the settlement agreement requires that the LAPD
develop and conduct training sessions covering these issues. All officers assigned to
patrol the Skid Row area must attend the training sessions.
Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177 (2004).
Larry Hiibel was arrested and convicted under Nevada’s stop and identify statute for
refusing to identify himself during an investigatory stop for a reported assault. Hiibel
appealed the conviction, claiming that his arrest and conviction for refusing to identify
himself violated his Fourth and Fifth Amendment rights. The appellate court and the
Nevada Supreme Court affirmed his conviction. The Supreme Court granted Hiibel’s
petition for certiorari.
NLCHP, NCH, and other homelessness advocacy groups filed an amicus brief supporting
Hiibel in the Supreme Court. The advocacy groups contended that arresting people for
failing to identify themselves violated their Fourth Amendment rights to be free from
unreasonable searches and seizures, particularly in light of the difficulty homeless
persons have maintaining and obtaining identification. The advocacy groups noted that
police were more likely to stop homeless people and ask for identification, and homeless
people were more likely not to have identification. The advocacy groups pointed to
restrictive state documentation requirements as one reason many homeless persons did
not have identification.
The Supreme Court ruled that Hiibel’s arrest for refusing to identify himself did not
violate either his Fourth or Fifth Amendment rights. However, the Court’s holding
merely applied to refusing to identify oneself in a situation where a police officer has
reasonable suspicion to investigate, but did not reach the question whether a person could
be arrested in the same circumstances for failure to produce an identification card.

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Horton v. City of St. Augustine, 272 F.3d 1318 (11th Cir. 2001).
Plaintiff, a “one-man band” street performer, challenged an ordinance regulating street
performances in a four-block area of St. Augustine on grounds of vagueness,
overbreadth, and as an invalid time, place, and manner restriction. The district court
granted a preliminary injunction against the enforcement of the ordinance, finding that it
failed to give proper notice as to what conduct it prohibited, and it promoted arbitrary and
discriminatory enforcement. On the city’s appeal, the Eleventh Circuit first held that the
case was not mooted by the city’s amendment of the ordinance following entry of the
preliminary injunction. The court then ruled that the district court had applied the wrong
standard for facial challenges based on vagueness, and that under the proper standard, the
ordinance did not suffer for vagueness. It precisely identified where in the city it applied
and included a sufficiently precise definition of the word “perform.” The court
distinguished the loitering ordinance invalidated in City of Chicago v. Morales, 527 U.S.
41 (1999). The ordinance also gave law enforcement adequate guidelines for what
constitutes a street performance. The Eleventh Circuit also held that the ordinance was
not unconstitutionally overbroad on its face, as it specified a limited area in which
distinct means of expression and conduct could not take place. The ordinance left many
types of speech untouched. As to the time, place, and manner challenge, the court found
that the restriction was valid. It was viewpoint neutral and promoted justifiable
enumerated municipal purposes.
Mason v. City of Tucson, No. CV 98-288 (D. Ariz. June 12, 1998).
Plaintiff sought a preliminary injunction, damages, declaratory and injunctive relief
against the City of Tucson and the Tucson City Police for engaging in a policy of
“zoning” homeless people charged with misdemeanors in order to restrict them from the
downtown areas. Plaintiff argued that such restrictions violated his constitutional right to
travel, constituted a deprivation of liberty without due process of law in violation of the
5th amendment and implicated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th amendment. The
zone restrictions placed on the plaintiff included a two-mile square area covering most of
downtown Tucson. This area includes all of the local, state and federal courts, voter
registration facilities, a soup kitchen, places of worship and many transportation and
social service agencies.
On July 13, 1998, the District Court granted a preliminary injunction stating that the
plaintiff had demonstrated some probability of success on the merits in that the zone
restrictions promulgated against the plaintiff were likely unconstitutionally broad as to
geographical area.125 The District Court granted plaintiff’s preliminary injunction to the
extent that, as to the plaintiff, defendants were enjoined from enforcing the zone
restrictions, from imposing or enforcing similarly overbroad zone restrictions, or from
imposing or enforcing any zone restrictions unless such restriction is specifically
authorized by a judge.
125

Mason v. City of Tucson, No. CV 98-288 (D. Ariz. July 13, 1998).

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Subsequent to the court’s ruling on the preliminary injunction, the parties settled.
Osborn v. City of Atlanta, No. 1:90-CV-1553 (N.D. Ga. 1991).
Plaintiff was a homeless activist who voluntarily became unemployed and homeless.
Police repeatedly asked him to leave a public park, and arrested him on at least one
occasion. The plaintiff challenged the police conduct on equal protection and due
process grounds. The court granted the defendant’s motion for directed verdict as to the
equal protection claim, and the jury found against the plaintiff on his due process claim.
B. State Court Cases
Homes on Wheels v. City of Santa Barbara, 119 Cal. App. 4th 1173 (Cal. App. 2 Dist.
2004); 2005 WL 2951480 (Cal. App. 2 Dist. Nov. 7, 2005) (not reported in Cal. Rptr.
3d).
Plaintiffs, a homeless advocacy group and 3 homeless individuals, brought suit in March
2003 challenging the newly enacted Santa Barbara Vehicle Code Sections 22507 and
22507.5, which prohibited the parking of trailers, semis, RV’s, and buses on all city
streets between the hours of 2:00 and 6:00 a.m. This ordinance had the effect of
requiring homeless persons living in vehicles to park in a designated area of the city or on
private property. The city posted 33 signs throughout the city stating: “No Parking
Trailers, Semis, Buses, RV’s or Vehicles Over 3/4 Ton Capacity Over 2 Hours or from 2
am to 6 am SBMC 10.44.200 A & B Violator subject to fine and/ or tow-away....” The
city did not post signs at all the entrances into the city. Plaintiffs filed a complaint for
injunctive, declaratory, and mandamus relief seeking to enjoin enforcement of the
ordinance. Plaintiffs then moved for a preliminary injunction alleging, inter alia, that the
ordinance exceeded the city’s authority under Vehicle Code Sections 22507 and 22507.5
and that the signs did not provide sufficient notice for the ordinance to be effective under
Vehicle Code Section 22507.
On March 27, 2003, the Santa Barbara Superior Court granted a TRO for the plaintiffs,
halting all ticketing under the ordinance until April 11, 2003. The trial court later denied
the plaintiff’s motion for a preliminary injunction. The appellate court affirmed the city’s
power to enact the ordinance, but reversed and remanded for a factual determination as to
whether the city’s signs provided adequate notice of the parking restriction.
On remand, the trial court determined that the city did not provide adequate notice of the
parking restriction and issued a preliminary injunction to enjoy in the city from enforcing
the law. The city appealed.
In November 2005, the appellate court affirmed the lower court’s decision in an
unpublished opinion. The court found that there was no conclusive evidence regarding
whether posting “perimeters” was as effective as “posting each block.” Therefore, the

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court concluded that substantial evidence supported the trial court’s finding that the city
did not provide adequate notice to motorists of the parking restrictions required by the
provision at issue.

164

Prohibited Conduct Chart
The chart below provides data regarding prohibited conduct in cities around the country.
With the assistance of the law firm Manatt, Phelps, Phillips, NLCHP and NCH gathered
the data by examining the city codes of the cities listed in the chart and identifying laws
that target or are likely to have a particularly heavy impact on homeless individuals.

Prohibited Conduct Chart

See end notes for explanation of number
codes for particular prohibited acts*

X
X
X
X

Other

X

Closure of particular public places

X
X

Obstruction of Sidewalks/Public places

X
X
X
X

X

Vagrancy

Loitering/Loafing/Vagrancy city-wide

X
X
X
X X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X

Loitering/Loafing in particular public places

Loitering

Sitting or lying in particular public places

Camping in particular public places

X
X

X

X X
X X
X X
X

Camping in public city-wide

Sleeping in particular public places

Sleeping in public city-wide

X

Sitting/Lying

Camping

Sleeping
"Aggressive" panhandling

Begging in particular public places

Begging in public places city-wide

Urination/defecation in public

Bathing in particular public waters
PR
PR
PR
PR
GA
NM
PA
TX
AK
PR
NC
GA
GA
NJ

Begging

Sanitation

Adjuntas
Aguada
Aguas Buenas
Aibonito
Albany
Albuquerque
Allentown
Amarillo
Anchorage
Arecibo
Asheville
Athens
Atlanta
Atlantic City

X

16, 17
16
X
16
X
X
X
4, Note A
X
X
X X X 3, 5
X
X X 1, 2, 12, 13
X
X
X
X X 13
16
X
X X
X X 3
X
X
5, 7
X
X X
X X X 1, 6, 10, 12
X
X X X 1, 5

165

X

Augusta
Augusta
Austin
Bakersfield
Baltimore
Bangor
Barceloneta
Barranquitas
Baton Rouge
Bayamón
Beaverton
Berkeley
Bettendorf
Billings
Biloxi
Bloomington
Boise
Boston
Boulder
Bradenton
Brunswick
Buffalo
Burlington
Cabo Rojo
Caguas
Camuy
Carolina
Cataño
Cayey
Cedar Rapids
Ceiba
Charleston
Charleston
Charlotte
Cheyenne
Chicago
Ciales
Cidra
Cincinnati
Clearwater
Cleveland
Coamo

GA
ME
TX
CA
MD
ME
PR
PR
LA
PR
OR
CA
IA
MT
MS
IN
ID
MA
CO
FL
GA
NY
VT
PR
PR
PR
PR
PR
PR
IA
PR
SC
WV
NC
WY
IL
PR
PR
OH
FL
OH
PR

X

X

X

X

X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X X

166

X X 1, 3, Note B
X
3, Note C
X X X
X
X 2
X X 1, 2, 10
X X X 3, Note A
16
X
16
X
1, 2, 5, 10
16
X
Note D
X X X 12, 16
X X 15
X X 1, Note E
X X 1, 3
X X 1, 3, 11
X X 1, 3, 9
X X
2, 7
X
9
X
X 1, 13
X 5, Note F
X X X 1, 5, 7
X X 16
X
16
19
X

9,16

16
X
X X X 3
12,16
X X 1, 9
X
X 1, 2
X X X 13
X
1
X
X 2, Note G
16
X
X X X 1
X X 9, 16, Note H
X X X 10, 15 ***
16
X

Colorado Springs
Columbia
Columbus
Columbus
Comerío
Concord
Corozal
Corpus Christi
Corvallis
Covington
Dallas
Davenport
Dayton
Daytona Beach
Denver
Des Moines
Detroit
Dorado
Dover
Eau Claire
El Cajon
El Paso
Elkton
Eugene
Evanston
Fairbanks
Fajardo
Fall River
Fargo
Fayetteville
Fort Lauderdale
Fort Myers
Fort Worth
Frederick
Fresno
Gainesville
Glendale
Grand Forks
Gurabo
Hallandale Beach
Hartford
Hatillo

CO
SC
GA
OH
PR
NH
PR
TX
OR
KY
TX
IA
OH
FL
CO
IA
MI
PR
DE
WI
CA
TX
MD
OR
IL
AL
PR
MA
ND
AR
FL
FL
TX
MD
CA
FL
AZ
ND
PR
FL
CT
PR

X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X

X

X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X

X
X X

X X
X
X
X X
X X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X X

X X
X
X X

X
X X
X
X
X
X

X
X X
X X

X
X

X X X X
X
X

X X
X X X 3, 4, 13
X X
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X X X 1, 3
16
X
X
X X
16
X
X
X X X 1
X
X X 9
X
X
X X 2, 4, 13
X
X X X 2, 3, 6
X
X X X 3, 6
X X X 3, 4, 5, 6, 15
X
X
X X X 1, 3
X
X X
X X X 1, 3
X X X X 1, 3
X X X
1, 2, 4, 6, 16
X
X
6, 7
X
X X X
3, 13
X X
X X X X 1, 4
X X X
X X
X
X
X X X 1, 7, 10, 12
X X
2, 3, 4, 6
X X
X
X
3, 21
X
X X X 1, 3
13, 21
X
X X
X
1, 3
X
X X X 21
X
X X
X
1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 21
X
X
X
X X 3, 12
X
X
X X 3, 12, 13
X
X X X 1,3,9
X X
X X X 2,4,13
X X X 3, 12, 13
X
X 4,9, 13
3, 7, 21
X
X X
X X 3, 4, 6, 9, 15
X X X X 1, 3
X
7

167

Honolulu
Houston
Humacao
Huntington
Idaho Falls
Indianapolis
Isabela
Jacksonville
Jeffersonville
Juneau
Kalamazoo
Kansas City
Key West
Lafayette
Lajas
Lake Worth
Lakewood
Las Piedras
Las Vegas
Lawrence
Lexington
Lincoln
Little Rock
Long Beach
Los Angeles
Louisville
Madison
Manatí
Manchester
Maricao
Maui County
Mayaguez
Memphis
Mesa
Miami
Milwaukee
Minneapolis
Mobile
Moca
Modesto
Montgomery
Montpelier

HI
TX
PR
WV
ID
IN
PR
FL
IN
AK
MI
MO
FL
LA
PR
FL
CO
PR
NV
KA
KY
NE
AR
CA
CA
KY
WI
PR
NH
PR
HI
PR
TN
AZ
FL
WI
MN
AL
PR
CA
AL
VT

X X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X

X
X
X X
X
X
X
X

X

X
X
X X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X X X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X

X
X
X X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X X

X

X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X X X
X
X

X
X
X X
X
X
X X

X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X X

X
X

X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X X
X
X
X
X
X X

X
X

168

X
X X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X X
X X X
X X X
X X
X X X
X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X
X X X X

X
X

X 1
X 7

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

8
3, 4
1, 3, 14
7, 16, 17
1, 3, 9, 12
2,4,6,7,9,10,21
1, 10, 21
1
1, 3
1, 3, 10
3, 4, 7, 14
16
9

1, 2, 3, 9
1
1, 3
1, 3, 4, 13
2, 3, 5, 15
1, 2, 10
2, 3, 12, 14
3, 6, 21
1, 4
16, 20
3
16

X
X
X
X
X
X

16
3, 5
1, 3, 7
9, 14
1, 2, 4
1, 2, 8, 9
1, 3, 6, 14

X 2, 3, 4
X 1, 3, 9
14, 15

Morovis
Naples
Naranjito
Nashville
New Haven
New Orleans
New York
Newark
Newport
Norfolk
North Las Vegas
North Little Rock
Norwalk
Oakland
Oklahoma City
Olympia
Omaha
Orlando
Pahrump
Palm Bay
Patillas
Philadelphia
Phoenix
Pierre
Pittsburgh
Pocatello
Ponce
Pontiac
Portland
Portland
Providence
Raleigh
Rapid City
Redondo Beach
Reno
Richmond
Rincón
Roanoke
Rochester
Sacramento
Salinas
Salt Lake City

PR
FL
PR
TN
CT
LA
NY
NJ
RI
VA
NV
AR
CT
CA
OK
WA
NE
FL
NV
FL
PR
PA
AZ
SD
PA
ID
PR
MI
ME
OR
RI
NC
SD
CA
NV
VA
PR
VA
NY
CA
PR
UT

X X

X
X
X

X
X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X
X X
X X
X X

X

X

X

X

X
X

X
X
X X

X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X X X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

6, 16
3
7, 16
1, 4
1, 3
1, 9, 12
1, 7
1, 3
7
1, 2, 6
2, 15

1, 3
1,3
3, 6,15
3, 6

X

16
X
X X
X
X X
1, 2, 3
X
X X X
X
X
X X X 9
X
X X
X
X X
X
X 1
X
X
X
X 1, 3
7, 16
X X X
X X
X X
X X
1
X X
X
X
X X 5
X X
X
X
X
X X X 1, 6, 13
X X
X
X
X
X X 1, 7
X X X
X
X
X
X X
3, 4, 15
X X
X
X X
X X X 1, 3
X
X X
X X X 7
X X
X X
X
X X
X X 3, 4, 9
X X
X
X
X
X X X 1
15
X X X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X X 1, 4, 6, 12
X
X X
X
X
X
1
X
X X
X
X
X X X 1, 2, 4
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X X X 1, 3

169

San Antonio
San Bruno
San Diego
San Francisco
San Germán
San Jose
San Juan
San Lorenzo
San Louis Obispo
Santa Barbara
Santa Cruz
Santa Fe
Santa Isabel
Sarasota
Savannah
Scottsdale
Seattle
Shreveport
Sioux Falls
South Bend
South Lake Tahoe
Spokane
St. Augustine
St. Louis
St. Paul
Stamford
Statesboro
Stone Mountain
Suffolk
Tampa
Tempe
Toa Baja
Toledo
Topeka
Tracy
Trenton
Tucson
Tulsa
Ukiah
Union City
Utuado
Vega Alta

TX
CA
CA
CA
PR
CA
PR
PR
CA
CA
CA
NM
PR
FL
GA
AZ
WA
LA
SD
ID
CA
WA
FL
MO
MN
CT
GA
GA
VA
FL
AZ
PR
OH
KA
CA
NJ
AZ
OK
CA
CA
PR
PR

X

X

X
X X
X
X X

X X
X X
X
X
X
X X X
X
X
x
X
X X
X

X X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X X X
X
X X
X X X
X
X X X X
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X X
X
X
X
X X
X

X X
X
X X
X

X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X

X
X 1, 7, 12, 13
X
X
X X
1, 7, 13, 15
X X X 2, 9, 3
7, 16
X X X 13, 2
16
X
X
16
X
X X
X X 7, 9
X X X 7

X

X

170

X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X

X

X 1, 3, 7
1, 5, 7, 9
X 4, 9
X 3
X 1, 2, 7
X 3
X 1
X 4, 9, 13
X 3, 8, 15
1, 3
X 1, 2, 5, 11, 13
X 1,4
1

X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X X
X X
X 3, 9
X
X
2, 7
X
X X 9
X7
X X X 3, 7
X X 1, 6, 12
X
X
X
X X 1
X
X X X
X X X 1, 5, 9
X
X
X 4, 9, 12
X
X X X 9, 10, 12
X
12, 16
16, 18
X

Vega Baja
Virginia Beach
Washington ***
Washington
Waterloo
Wichita
Wilmington
Woodinville
Woodstock
Worcester
Yauco

PR
VA
DC
GA
IA
KA
DE
WA
IL
MA
PR

X
X

X X X
X X
X
X X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X

X
X X
X X
X
X X X
X X X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

16
3, 9
3, 6, 9, 12
6, 7, 12
4, 12
3, 4, 14
3, 15
2, 3

16

* 1) Spitting, 2) Having/Abandoning shopping carts away from premises of owner,
3) Failure to disperse, 4) Maintaining junk or storage of property, 5) Street performer,
6) Prohibition on entering vacant building, 7) Rummaging/scavenging, 8) Creating odor,
9) Vehicular residence, 10) Walking on highway, 11) Bringing paupers/insane persons
into city, 12) Washing cars or windshields, 13) Demolition of vacant property habitually
inhabited by “vagrants”, 14) Prohibition to allow “vagrants” to use one’s property, 15)
Prohibition on panhandling w/out permit, 16) Prohibition on helping park a car or
watching over cars, 17) improper or inopportune kind of begging, 18) being without a
shirt, 19) inadequate use of property, 20) required to present personal ID/information to
public officers, 21) Making “unreasonable” or “improper” noise
**This information was obtained through online research, city clerk offices, and localized
researchers. Some sources could only be updated every three months and so pending
or recently passed resolutions may not appear in this report.
*** Sitting/lying in a particular public space is not expressly prohibited by D.C. law (which
outlaws setting up a "camp or temporary abode" in a public place), but is prohibited by
federal law, which applies to most of the parks in the District of Columbia.
Note A: Prohibits peddlers and transient merchants at certain times and locations
Note B: Prohibits “vagrants” – able-bodied persons with no means of supporting
themselves who are not engaged in pursuit of business or occupation calculated to
support themselves.
Note C: Prohibits parking on streets at night for more than one hour without a permit.
Note D: Prohibits parking of vehicular residences in commercial lots overnight.
Note E: Prohibits using recreational vehicles for living or sleeping for more than five
days when parked off-street or in a residential neighborhood.
Note F: Prohibits unlawful use of any square, park, or public place for any private use.
Note G: Prohibits pick-up of hitchhikers
Note H: Prohibits hitchhiking

171

Appendix
Sources for Narratives
Anne Arundel County, MD
Raymond McCaffrey and Lisa Rein, State Bans Panhandling Along Roads in County, The Washington
Post, Apr. 12, 2007, at AA03. Also available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2007/04/11/AR2007041100665.html.
Ashland, OR
Ashland, Or., Mun. Code § 10.46 (2008).
Press Release, American Civil Liberties Union, Southern Oregon Chapter, ACLU of Oregon Challenges
Ashland’s Anti-Camping Ordinance (Oct. 13, 2008) available at http://www.acluor.org/site/PageServer?pagename=Leg_localgovnmt_camping.
Paul Moss, David Berger, and Ralph Temple, American Civil Liberties Union Southern Oregon Chapter,
Decriminalizing Poverty: Reform of Ashland’s Camping Ordinance, Oct. 13, 2008 available at
http://www.aclu-or.org/site/DocServer/Ashland_Camping_FINAL_101008.pdf?docID=3701.
Athens, GA
Rebecca McCarthy, Down and out in Athens, Atlanta Journal-Constitution, June 2, 2008, available at
http://www.ajc.com/sports/content/metro/stories/2008/06/02/homeless.html?cxntlid=inform_artr.
Atlanta, GA
Tim Eberly, Atlanta police make 40 panhandling arrests, Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Aug. 22, 2008,
available at
http://www.ajc.com/metro/content/metro/atlanta/stories/2008/08/22/atlanta_panhandle_arrests.html.
Dionne Walker, Atlanta Targets Its Brazen Beggars, The Washington Post, Oct. 19, 2008, at A10-A11.
Atlantic City, NJ
Jennifer Husko, Homeless Boardwalk Sweep, NBC 40 Atlantic City, May 25, 2007, available at
http://www.nbc40.net/view_story.php?id=2007.
Austin, TX
L. Sandberg, Austin Weighs Panhandling Limits, San Antonio-Express News, Nov. 11, 2007, available at
http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/MYSA111107_07B_austinpanhandling_32d1e28_html5725.html.
Nicole Gonzales, Council Holds Off on Panhandlers, Seeks More Info, Austin-American Statesman, Dec.
7, 2007 at B11.
Katie Humphrey, Roadside Solicitation Limits Deemed Unconstitutional, Austin-American Statesman,
Mar. 26, 2008 at B01.
Austin City Connection, Solicitation Ordinance Proposal, available at
http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/news/2007/solicitation_ordinance.htm.
University of Texas at Austin, Most Roadside Solicitors Seek Return to Regular Employment, Aug. 20,
2008, available at http://www.utexas.edu/news/2008/08/20/roadside_solicitors/.
E-mail from Richard R. Troxell, National Coalition for the Homeless Board Member, Austin, Texas, to
National Coalition for the Homeless, Oct. 17, 2008 (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).

172

Baltimore, MD
Nichole Fuller, Homeless Told to Leave Areas along Guilford Ave, Baltimore Sun, Aug. 15, 2007,
available at http://outside.in/places/downtown-partnership-baltimore-baltimore,
Nichole Fuller, Homeless Protest at City Agency, Baltimore Sun, Aug. 23, 2007, at B3.
Nicole Fuller, Homeless booted from city site Downtown Partnership draws anger after confiscating boxes,
belongings near JFX, Baltimore Sun, Aug. 16, 2007, available at http://www.aclumd.org/aPress/News%202007/081607_Sun.html.
Umar Farooq, City's Approach to Homeless Lack Necessary Transparency, Baltimore’s Indypendent
Reader, July 2, 2008, available at http://indyreader.org/content/citys-approach-homeless-lack-necessarytransparency-%E2%80%94-umar-farooq.
Berkeley, CA
Carolyn Jones, Council Passes Plan to Stop Bad Street Behavior, San Francisco Chronicle, June 13, 2007,
available at http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/06/13/BAGQGQEGR11.DTL.
Linda Carson, War on the Homeless Heats Up in Berkeley, Indybay.org, June 28, 2007, available at
http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2007/06/28/18431523.php.
Judith Scherr, Council Ok’s “Public Commons Initiative” concept, Berkeley Daily Planet, June 15, 2007,
available at http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/issue/2007-06-15/article/27287?headline=Council-OKsPublic-Commons-Initiative-Concept.
Maura Dolan, Berkeley’s New Cause: Make Homeless Behave, Los Angeles Times, Nov. 29, 2007,
available at http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/la-mehomeless29nov29,1,6894267.story?ctrack=1&cset=true.
Will Kane, Council OKs Public Commons Initiative, Daily Californian, Nov. 28, 2007, available at
http://www.dailycal.org/sharticle.php?id=27031.
Outdated Berkeley loitering law repealed, The Oakland Tribune, Aug. 9, 2008, available at
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4176/is_/ai_n28039313.
Billings, MT
Billings, Mont., Mun. Code § 18-1000 (2007).
Birmingham, AL
Associated Press, Birmingham Homeless Camps Face City Evictions, Birmingham News, May 6, 2007,
available at http://hpn.asu.edu/archives/2007-May/010337.html.
Boerne, TX
Dave Pasley, City: Panhandlers must Pay, Boerne Star, Oct. 12, 2007, at A1.
Editorial, Star Editorial, Boerne Star, Oct. 16, 2007, at 4.
Jonathan Nolte, Panhandling in Boerne May Require Permit, Hill Country View, Oct. 18, 2007, at 2.
Boise, ID
Boise’s 10 Year Plan to Reduce and Prevent Chronic Homelessness (Nov. 2007).
Telephone interviews with Howard Belodoff, Associate Director, Idaho Legal Aid Services, Inc., (Feb. 25,
2009 and June 15, 2009).
Idaho Code § 49-709 (2008).

173

Boise, Idaho, Municipal Code § 06-01-07 (2006).
Boise, Idaho, Municipal Code § 9-10-02 (1993).
Boise, Idaho, Municipal Code § 13-03-04(E) (2007).
Boston, MA
David Abel, Curfew Targets Crime on Common, The Boston Globe, Aug. 30, 2007, available at
http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/08/30/curfew_targets_crime_on_common/.
Bradenton, FL
Robert Napper, Officer’s shopping cart haul disputed, Bradenton Herald, Jan. 18, 2007, available at
http://nl.newsbank.com/nlsearch/we/Archives?p_product=BH&p_theme=bh&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=Offic
er%92s%20shopping%20cart%20haul%20disputed%20AND%20date(all)&p_field_advanced0=&p_text_advanced0=(Officer%92s%20shopping%20cart%20haul%20disputed)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=
YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no.
Rebecca Blue, Officer in Cart Case Suspended 30 Days, Bradenton Herald, Feb. 2, 2007, at 1A.
Michael A. Scarcella, Homeless Man Won’t Be Persecuted for Sleeping in Public, Herald Tribune, Oct. 15,
2007, available at http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20071015/NEWS/710150411/1017/NEWS0501.
Brookville, PA:
E-mail from Reverend Jack L. Wisor, Just for Jesus Challenge Homeless Outreach, to National Coalition
for the Homeless (Sep. 2008) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Press Release, ACLU of Pennsylvania, ACLU of Pennsylvania Defends Church Forced to Shut Down Its
Ministry to Homeless, Nov. 17, 2008, available at
http://www.aclupa.org/pressroom/acluofpennsylvaniadefendsc.htm.
Cave Creek, AZ:
Press Release, ACLU of Arizona, ACLU and MALDEF File Lawsuit Against Arizona Town Over AntiSolicitation Law, Mar. 25, 2008, available at www.aclu.org/immigrants/discrim/34644prs20080325.html.
Charlotte, NC:
Catherine Carlock, Attorneys May Sue Police for Homeless, The Charlotte Observer, July 24, 2008,
available at http://charlotte.com/breaking_news/story/725689.html.
E-mail from William C. Tinker to, HPN-Homeless Peoples Network, to National Coalition for the
Homeless (July 23, 2008) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Chattanooga, TN:
Michael Davis, Downtown Homeless Camp to be Bulldozed, Chattanooga Times Free Press, Sep. 22, 2007,
at 1.
Karen Zatkulak, Tent City Bulldozed, News Channel 9 WTVC, Oct. 2, 2007, available at
http://www.newschannel9.com/articles/people_963360___article.html/says_homeless.html.
Cincinnati, OH:
Press Release from Greater Cincinnati Coalition for the Homeless, Homeless Coalition to release report on
criminalization and arrests of homeless individuals for minor misdemeanors, Ma y 15, 2007, (on file with
National Coalition for the Homeless).

174

E-mail from Georgine Getty, Executive Director of Greater Cincinnati Coalition for the Homeless,
Cincinnati, Ohio, to National Coalition for the Homeless (Sept. 2007) (on file with National Coalition for
the Homeless).
Gregory Flannery, Even Cincinnati isn’t that mean, Streetvibes, May 2008, at 13.
Dan Horn, Offender Sues for Right to Shelter, The Enquirer, Feb. 17, 2007.
Dan Horn, Homeless Man Stays in Shelter for Now, The Enquirer, Feb. 20, 2007.
Citrus Heights, CA:
Stan Oklobdzija, Citrus Heights Approves Camping Ban Aimed at Homeless, Sacramento Bee, Sep. 18,
2008, available at http://www.sacbee.com/citrus/story/1242044.html.
Cleveland, OH:
E-mail from Brian Davis, Executive Director, Northeast Ohio Coalition for the Homeless, to National
Coalition for the Homeless (April 25, 2009) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Susan Vinella, Cleveland Council oks aggressive beggars ban, Cleveland Plain Dealer, Nov. 28, 2006.
Diane Suchetko, Dispute between city, homeless unsolved, Cleveland Plain Dealer, June 14, 2007.
Richard Swartz, Elusive Dreams, Cleveland Plain Dealer, Feb. 19, 2006 at 1, 3.
Susan Vinella, Curfew may ban late gatherings on Public Square, Cleveland Plain Dealer, July 11, 2007,
available at http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2007/07/curfew_may_ban_late_gatherings.html.
Colorado Springs, CO
Lance Benzel, Group conducting homeless sweeps meets with critics today, The Gazette, Oct. 23, 2008,
available at http://www.gazette.com/articles/homeless_42284___article.html/sweeps_colorado.html.
Lance Benzel, Cleanup Sweeps suspended while city studies law, The Gazette, Oct. 23, 2008, available at
http://www.gazette.com/articles/homeless_42325___article.html/city_colorado.html.
Tom McGhee, Springs’ homeless decry site sweeps, Denver Post, Feb. 16, 2009, available at
http://www.denverpost.com/search/ci_11712981.
Columbia, SC:
Associated Press, Police Arrest Panhandlers; Charge them with Aggressive Begging, The Charlotte
Observer, Nov. 26, 2007, available at http://www.charlotte.com/205/story/379103.html.
Adam Beam and Rick Brundrett, Is Downtown Safe? City Aims to Ease New Fears, The State, Sep. 11,
2008, available at http://www.thestate.com/education/story/520637.html.
Columbus, GA:
Tim Chitwood, Fences for the Needy, Ledger-Enquirer, Feb. 12, 2007, at C1.
Concord, NH:
Dave Choate, New Bill: Take the ‘P’ out of Pervert, Seacoast Online, Jan. 29, 2008, available at
http://www.seacoastonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080129/NEWS/801290405&sfad=1.
Associated Press, N.H. makes peeing in public a violation, The Boston Globe, May 22, 2008, available at
http://www.boston.com/news/local/new_hampshire/articles/2008/05/22/nh_makes_peeing_in_public_a_vio
lation/.

175

Dallas, TX:
Emily Bazar, The Lord’s Table illegal in Dallas, USA Today, Mar. 26, 2007, available at
http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-03-26-homeless-inside_N.htm.
Kim Horner, Limits on feeding homeless challenged in suit vs. city, Dallas News, Feb. 1, 2007, available at
http://nl.newsbank.com/nlsearch/we/Archives?s_hidethis=no&p_product=DM&p_theme=dm&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s
_siteloc=&s_dispstring=Limits%20on%20feeding%20homeless%20challenged%20in%20suit%20vs.%20c
ity&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced0=(Limits%20on%20feeding%20homeless%20challenged%20in%20suit%20vs.%20city)&p_perpage=10
&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no.
Dave Levinthal, Dallas Gets Tough with Panhandlers, The Dallas Morning News, May 23, 2007, available
at
http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/dn/latestnews/stories/052407dnmetpanhandling.1652046.ht
ml.
Dave Levinthal, Leaders hope ‘Lend a Hand’ plan will Limit Dallas Panhandling, Dallas Morning News,
Dec. 19, 2007, available at
http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/news/city/dallas/stories/122007dnmetpanhandling.30ee8d8
8.html.
E-mail from William C. Tinker, HPN-Homeless Peoples Network, to National Coalition for the Homeless,
(Aug. 24, 2008) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Kim Horner, Homeless take Shelter in Dallas Church’s Parking Lot, Dallas Morning News, Oct. 6, 2007,
available at http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/news/city/dallas/stories/DNhomeless_06met.ART0.North.Edition1.4246d60.html.
Matt Curry, Church Establishes Homeless Safe Zone in its Parking Lot, Dallas Morning News, Oct. 11
2007, available at http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/APStories/stories/D8S79EVG0.html.
Lawrence Jones, Church Parking Lot Provides Safe Haven for Homeless Amid Police Crackdown, Oct. 18,
2007, available at
http://christianpost.com/article/20071018/29754_Church_Parking_Lot_Provides_Safe_Haven_for_Homele
ss_Amid_Police_Crackdown.htm.
Davie, FL:
Susannah Bryan, Davie law may target homes of homeless, South Florida Sun-Sentinel, Oct. 18, 2008,
available at http://www.sun-sentinel.com/community/news/davie/sflflbdaviehomeless1015sboct18,0,4636193.story.
City of Davie Town Council Agenda, Nov. 19. 2008, available at http://www.daviefl.gov/Gen/DavieFL_CouncilAgn/archives/PDFs/2008/11192008/A11192008.
Daytona Beach, FL:
Sara Kiesler, Daytona Beach leaders explore panhandling fix, Daytona Beach News-Journal, Jan. 25, 2008,
available at http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_action=list&p_topdoc=41.
Denver, CO
Luke Turf, 16th Street Mall Mishandle: Aid to the Homeless Brings out the Long Arm of the Law, Denver
Westword News, May 24, 2007, available at http://www.westword.com/2007-05-24/news/16th-street-mallmishandle.
Tim Harper, Denver Parking Meters Help Homeless, The Star, Aug. 19, 2007, available at
http://www.thestar.com/News/article/247725.

176

Patrick O’Driscoll, Parking Meters make a Change for Needy, USA Today, Oct. 18, 2007, available at
http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-10-17-parkingmeters_N.htm?csp=34.
Durham, NC
Samiha Khanna, Panhandling will be put to a vote, The News Observer, Jan. 14, 2008, available at
http://www.newsobserver.com/news/durham/story/878500.html.
Staff Reports, Panhandling rules to take effect July 1, The News Observer, Jan. 29, 2008, available at
http://www.newsobserver.com/news/story/908900.html.
Elkton, MD
S. Goss, Elkton Passes Stricter Loitering Laws, Loaves and Fishes, July-Aug. 2007, at 4.
Elkton is Sued for Harassment, Baltimore Sun, Aug. 2007, available at
http://www.topix.com/forum/county/cecil-md/T0URL90CBQ7FLOPUN#comments.
Elkton, Md., Code, § 9.12.010(3) (2007).
Brent Jones, Elkton Settles Lawsuit with Nine Homeless, Baltimore Sun, Dec. 9, 2008, available at
http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/local/bal-md.homeless09dec09,0,5113061.story.
Fayetteville, NC
Fayetteville City Council Passes Panhandling Ordinance, WRAL News, Jan. 18, 2008, available at
http://www.wral.com/news/news_briefs/story/2302480/.
Federal Way, WA
Steve Maynard, Federal Way: City Council Toughens Panhandling Ordinance, The News Tribune, Feb.
21, 2008, available at http://www.thenewstribune.com/news/local/story/288984.html.
Fredericksburg, VA
Stephanie Breijo, City Toughens Rules Against Panhandling, The Free Lance Star, Sep. 29, 2008, available
at http://fredericksburg.com/News/FLS/2008/092008/09292008/411975.
Fresno, CA
John Ellis, Fresno’s $2.3m Settlement in Homeless Case Finalized, The Fresno Bee, July 26, 2008,
available at
http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1496429/fresnos_23m_settlement_in_homeless_case_finalized/inde
x.html.
Gainesville, FL
Jeff Adelson, Tent City to Collapse Next Week, Gainesville Sun, Sep. 5, 2007, available at
http://www.gainesville.com/article/20070905/NEWS/709050331.
Jeff Adelson, Gainesville Plans for Life After Tent City, Gainesville Sun, Aug. 12, 2007, available at
http://www.gainesville.com/article/20070812/LOCAL/708120322/1078/rss.
Hailey Mac Arthur, A City Beneath Radar, Gainesville Sun, Nov. 1, 2008, available at
http://www.gatorsports.com/article/20081101/NEWS/811010976.
Jeff Adelson, City Outlaws Panhandling on Streets, Gainesville Sun, July 24, 2007, available at
http://www.gainesville.com/article/20070724/LOCAL/707240320.
Jeff Adelson, Panhandlers Leave Gainesville Streets, Gainesville Sun., Aug. 1, 2007, available at
http://www.gainesville.com/article/20070801/NEWS/708010307.

177

Megan Rolland, Panhandling Laws in Focus, Gainesville Sun, Apr. 28, 2008, available at
http://www.gainesville.com/article/20080428/NEWS/804280316.
E-mail from Kirsten Clanton, Staff Attorney, Southern Legal Counsel, to National Law Center on
Homelessness & Poverty, Jan. 14, 2009 (on file with National Law Center on Homelessness & Poverty).
Plaintiff’s Motion for Order to Show Cause at 8, Chase v. City of Gainesville, 2006 WL 2620260 (N.D.
Fla. 2006) (No. 1:06cv44).
City of Gainesville’s Response to Plaintiff’s Motion for Order to Show Cause at 9, Chase v. City of
Gainesville, 2006 WL 2620260 (N.D. Fla. 2006) (No. 1:06cv44).
Green Bay, WI
Paul Srubas, Plugging Green Bay Meters May Help the Homeless, The Green Bay Press-Gazette, March
12, 2008, available at
http://search.greenbaypressgazette.com/sp?&skin=100&keywords=Plugging+Green+Bay+Meters+May+H
elp+the+Homeless&pubDate=180&aff=1117&author=Paul+Srubas&start=81.
Honolulu, HI
ACLU of Hawaii Tells Court Protesters Were Unlawfully Arrested, August 2, 2006, available at
http://www.aclu.org/freespeech/protest/26443prs20060802.html.
Johnny Brannon, Ulehawa Park Homeless Face February Eviction, Honolulu Advertiser, Dec. 27, 2007,
available at http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Dec/27/ln/hawaii712270363.html.
Curtis Lum, Nanakuli Park to Close for Repairs, Honolulu Advertiser, January 31, 2009, available at
http://www.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/20090131/NEWS01/901310328/0/NEWS01.
Mary Vorsino, Bus Stop Bill Bans Sleeping, The Honolulu Advertiser, June 17, 2008, available at
http://www.ihshawaii.org/IHS%20News/upload/2008/PDF%20IHS%20news%20articles/06.17.08%20Bus
%20stops%20bill%20ban%20sleeping.pdf?print=on.
Mary Vorsino, Camping Law Aimed at Homeless takes Effect, Honolulu Advertiser, Sep. 5, 2008, available
at http://www.HonoluluAdvertiser.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID.
Mary Vorsino, Plan would buy airfare to send Hawaii homeless to Mainland, Honolulu Advertiser, Jan. 25,
2009, available at http://www.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/20090125/NEWS01/901250396.
Staff, City Shutdown of Ala Moana Beach Park Draws Praise and Protest, KHNL, March 27, 2006,
available at http://www.khnl.com/Global/story.asp?S=4687421.
Staff, Council Makes Kicking Homeless Out Easier, KITV, Aug. 25, 2008, available at
http://kitv.com/print/17290907/detail.html.
Honolulu pulls benches at bus stops to curb sleepers, Street Roots, Nov. 1, 2008, at 3.
State v. Beltran, 116 Hawai'i 146, 172 P.3d 458 (2007).
Humboldt County, CA
Sean Garmire, Humboldt Authorities Combat Transient Camps, Times-Standard, Sep. 3, 2008, available at
http://www.times-standard.com/localnews/ci_10369336.
Humboldt County Human Rights Commission, Minutes, Oct. 11, 2008, available at
http://co.humboldt.ca.us/HumanRightsCom/minutes/specia200810minutes.pdf.

178

Ashbaucher v. City of Arcata, CV 08 2840, N.D. Cal. filed June 6, 2008, available at
http://peopleproject.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/people-project-complaint-with-filestamp.pdf.
Dept. of Housing & Urban Development, HUD's 2006 Continuum of Care Homeless Assistance Programs:
Humboldt County CoC, Aug. 13, 2007, available at
http://www.hud.gov/offices/cpd/homeless/local/reports/2006_ca_522_pop_sub.pdf.
Memorandum from Phillip R. Crandall, Director, Dept. of Health & Human Services, to Board of
Supervisors, May 28, 2008, available at
https://co.humboldt.ca.us/board/agenda/questys/MG114637/AS114674/AS114677/AI130405/DO130406/B
OSAgendaItem.pdf.
Sean Garmire, Finding Refuge in the Eureka Marsh, Times-Standard, Oct. 20, 2008, http://www.timesstandard.com/ci_10766370?IADID=Search-www.times-standard.com-www.times-standard.com.
Sean Garmire, Looking Out or Looking In: Living Without a Home in Humboldt County, Times-Standard,
Oct. 27, 2008, available at http://www.times-standard.com/ci_10826716?IADID=Search-www.timesstandard.com-www.times-standard.com.
Indianapolis, IN
Vic Ryckaert, Police Initiative Targets Downtown’s Homeless, Indy Star, Aug. 19, 2007, available at
http://search.indystar.com/sp?skin=&aff=1117&keywords=Police+Initiative+Targets+Downtown%27s+Ho
meless&pubDate=&author=.
Jon Murray and Rob Schneider, Civil Right Lawsuit Targets Police Rousting of Homeless, Indy Star, Aug.
31, 2007, available at
http://search.indystar.com/sp?skin=&aff=1117&keywords=Homeless+Man++&pubDate=&author=Murray
Jon Murray, Begging Policy Prompts Suit, Indy Star, June 12, 2008, available at
http://search.indystar.com/sp?aff=1000&keywords=Begging+policy+prompts+suit.
Kelley Curran, No Being Poor Here; Indy Mayor’s Plan for Homeless is Typical, News and Tribune, Apr.
7, 2008, available at http://www.news-tribune.net/archivesearch/local_story_098113611.html.
Solution in a Box: Donations Will Really Help, Indy Star, Mar. 23, 2008, available at
http://search.indystar.com/sp?aff=1000&keywords=Solution+in+a+Box%3A+Donations+Will+Really+Hel
p.
Jon MurrAy, Begging Policy Prompts Suit, Indy Star, June 12, 2008, available at
http://search.indystar.com/sp?aff=1000&keywords=Begging+policy+prompts+suit.
Indianapolis mayor wants limits on spoken panhandling, Indy Star, Jan. 8, 2009, available at
http://www.pal-item.com/article/20090108/UPDATES/90108023/1008/rss.
Issaquah, WA
Sonia Krishnan, Issaquah Law to Crack Down on Panhandling, Seattle Times Eastside Bureau, Jan. 31,
2008, available at http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/eastsidenews/2004155575_panhandle31e.html.
Jacksonville Beach, FL
Caren Burmeister, Councilman Wants Forum on Homeless, Florida Times-Union, Apr. 14, 2007, available
at http://www.jacksonville.com/tu-online/stories/041407/nes_9184753.shtml.
Jacksonville, FL
Staff, City Leaders Pass Change to Rules on Feeding Homeless, News4Jax, Sep. 9, 2008, available at
http://www.news4jax.com/news/17432034/detail.html.

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Kalamazoo, MI
E-mail from KHAN, to National Coalition for the Homeless, June 13, 2007 (on file with National Coalition
for the Homeless).
Kathy Jessup, Homeless Activists Decry‘War Against the Poor,’ Kalamazoo Gazette, Mar. 4, 2008,
available at http://blog.mlive.com/kzgazette/2008/03/homeless_activists_decry_war_a.html.
KHAN Press Release, September 5, 2008.
KHAN Press Release, September 15, 2008.
Knoxville, TN
Jeff Lennox, Knoxville Police Frequently Move Homeless People under Bridges, WATE.com, July 17,
2007, available at http://www.wate.com/Global/story.asp?S=6802866.
Laguna Beach, CA:
Susannah Rosenblatt, Officer Gets Friendly with Laguna Beach’s Homeless, Los Angeles Times, Apr. 24,
2008, available at http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-homeless24apr24,1,7384974.story?page=1.
Kelli Hart, Laguna Beach officials ‘surprised’ by lawsuit over homeless, Orange County Register, Dec. 30,
2008, available at http://www.ocregister.com/articles/homeless-city-laguna-2269991-shelter-beach#.
Complaint, Sipprelle v. City of Laguna Beach, No. 08-01447, C.D. Cal., filed Dec. 23, 2008.
Lancaster, CA:
Karen Maeshiro, Homeless Camp in A.V. Field is Raided, LA Daily News, Feb. 20, 2007, available at
http://www.thefreelibrary.com/HOMELESS+CAMP+IN+A.V.+FIELD+IS+RAIDED+19+PEOPLE+ARR
ESTED+SITE+IS...-a0159974250.
Gideon Rubin, Raid Raises Homeless Issues, LA Daily News, Jan. 9, 2007, available at
http://www.thefreelibrary.com/RAID+RAISES+HOMELESS+ISSUES+ARRESTS+AT+ENCAMPMENT
+SHINE+LIGHT+ON...-a0157145217.
Las Vegas, NV:
National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty and National Coalition for the Homeless, Challenges to
restrictions on food sharing, Advocacy Manual, available at:
http://wiki.nlchp.org/display/Manual/Challenges+to+restrictions+on+food+sharing.
Mary K. Brunskill, Homeless Men Win $45,000 in Suit over Sleeping Near Feces, All Headline News, Mar.
29, 2007, available at http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1810256/posts.
Lynne Curtis, Don’t Sleep Near Feces or Urine, The Las Vegas Review Journal, Aug. 18, 2006, available
at http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2006/Aug-18-Fri-2006/news/9130007.html.
Gene Weingarten, Below the Beltway: Piling On, Washington Post Magazine, Apr. 22, 2007, at W36.
Matt O’Brien, Another Day in Paradise, City Life, May 7, 2007.
Matt O’Brien, Brother Can You Spare a Dime? City Life, Sep. 27, 2007, available at
http://www.lasvegascitylife.com/articles/2007/09/27/news/local_news/iq_16903124.txt.
Alan Choate, Churches Recruited to Assist Homeless, Las Vegas Review-Journal, Sep. 26, 2007, available
at http://www.lvrj.com/news/10031721.html.
Timothy Pratt, First things first: For homeless, a home, Las Vegas Sun, Apr. 22, 2008, available at
http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2008/apr/22/first-things-first-homeless-home/.

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Lincoln, NE:
Paul Hammel, Homeless Advocated: No Coins for Panhandlers, World-Herald Bureau, Apr. 19, 2007,
available at http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-162283950.html.
Little Rock, AR:
Rachel Corbett, Change for the Homeless, Arkansas Times, Sep. 15, 2008, available at
http://www.arktimes.com/Articles/ArticleViewer.aspx?ArticleID=dedd2a3c-d513-4114-8dea8be29871677f.
E-mail from Patty Lindeman, Executive Director, Hunger-Free Arkansas, to National Coalition for the
Homeless (Nov. 6, 2008) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Lodi, CA:
Daniel Thigpen, Lodi Police Crack Down on Homeless, Record Net, Sep. 30, 2007, available at
http://www.recordnet.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070930/A_NEWS/709300316.
Long Beach:
Louis Sahagun, Pastor to Defy City’s Order to Evict Homeless From Church Grounds, Los Angeles Times,
Jan. 20, 2007, available at
http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1197509761.html?dids=1197509761:1197509761&FMT=ABS
&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jan+20%2C+2007&author=Louis+Sahagun&pub=Los+Angeles+
Times&edition=&startpage=B.1&desc=Pastor+vows+to+defy+city+order+to+evict+homeless%3B+The+L
ong+Beach+cleric+says+allowing+people+to+sleep+on+the+church+steps+is+a+%27religious+act.%27+
Officials+cite+safety%2C+sanitation+concerns.
Greg Mellen, Church Refuses to Evict Homeless, Press-Telegram, Jan. 22, 2007, available at
http://nl.newsbank.com/nlsearch/we/Archives?p_product=LB&p_theme=lb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=allfiel
ds(Church%20Refuses%20to%20Evict%20Homeless)%20AND%20date(2007)&p_field_date0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=2007&p_field_advanced0=&p_text_advanced0=("Church%20Refuses%20to%20Evict%20Homeless")&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YM
D_date:D&xcal_useweights=no.
Local Church Refuses to Turn Away Homeless, KTLA, Jan. 22, 2007, available at
http://ktla.trb.com/news/ktla-longbeachhomeless,0,3438037,print.story?coll=ktla-news-1.
Speak Out on Homeless, Press-Telegram, Jan. 23, 2007.
Los Angeles, CA:
Ramona Ripston, A Police State on Skid Row, Los Angeles Times, Mar. 12, 2007, available at
http://lamp.hosting.astralmatrix.net/wp-content/uploads/2007/03/la-times-31207.pdf.
Sonya Geis, L.A. Police Initiative thins out Skid Row: Crime is down and Businesses are Hopeful, But some
Complain Policy Harms Homeless, Washington Post, Mar. 15, 2007, available at
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/14/AR2007031402271.html.
Associated Press, LA Judge Extends Ban on Skid Row Searches, CBS2.com, Apr. 25, 2007, available at
http://cbs2.com/local/Skid.Row.Homeless.2.530499.html.
Richard Winton, Skid Row Crime Drops 35%, but the Program is Faulted, Los Angeles Times, Sep. 26,
2007, available at http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-meskidrow26sep26,1,1694817.story?ctrack=1&cset=true.

181

E-mail from Bob Erlenbusch, Executive Director, Los Angeles Coalition to End Hunger and Homelessness,
to National Coalition for the Homeless (Sep. 26, 2007) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Gary Blasi and Philip Mangano, Stuck on Skid Row, Los Angeles Times, Oct. 29, 2007, available at
http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/asection/la-oemangano29oct29,1,3858934.story?ctrack=1&cset=true.
Richard Winton, Beefed-up LAPD Presence in Skid Row Begins Paying Off, Los Angeles Times, Jan. 27,
2007, available at http://articles.latimes.com/2007/jan/27/local/me-skidrow27.
Associated Press, L.A.’s Skid Row Homeless Seek Options, Foxnews.com, Feb. 1, 2007, available at
http://origin.foxnews.com/wires/2007Feb01/0,4670,LAHomeless,00.html.
R. W. Dellinger, Skid Row Crackdown Spreads Homeless around Southland, The Tidings, Feb. 9, 2007,
available at http://www.the-tidings.com/2007/020907/crackdown_text.htm.
Evan George, From Skid Row to Sacramento, Los Angeles Downtown News, June 18, 2007, available at
http://www.downtownnews.com/articles/2007/06/18/news/news02.prt.
Group Claims LAPD Officers Beat Homeless Woman, CBS, June 5, 2007.
Steve Hymon and David Zahniser, LA Homeless Advocates Reach Deal on Sidewalk Sleeping, Los Angeles
Times, Oct. 10, 2007.
Randal Archibald, Los Angeles to Permit Sleeping on Sidewalks, New York Times, Oct. 11, 2007.
Susannah Rosenblatt, Survey Finds Homeless Numbers Drop Countywide but are up on Skid Row, Los
Angeles Times, Oct. 12, 2007.
Solomon Moore, Some Respite, if Little Cheer, for Skid Row Homeless, New York Times, Oct. 30, 2007,
available at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/31/us/31skidrow.html?_r=1&oref=slogin.
Richard Winton and Cara Mia DiMassa, LAPD, ACLU agree on restrictions for skid row searches, Los
Angeles Times, Dec. 19, 2008, available at http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-police-search192008dec19,0,4877336.story.
Louisville, KY:
Dan Klepal, Aggressive Begging May Bring Jail, Fine, The Courier-Journal, Sep. 27, 2007, available at
http://search.courierjournal.com/sp?aff=1100&skin=100&keywords=Aggressive+Begging+May+Bring+Jail%2C+Fine.
.Louisville City Council, Ordinance No. 291, Louisvilleky.gov, Dec. 20, 2007, available at
http://www.louisvilleky.gov/MetroCouncil/IWantTo/Find+most-requested+ordinances.htm.
Madison, WI:
Staff, Alderwoman Seeks to Protect Homeless at Parks, Channel3000, Sep. 8, 2008, available at
http://www.channel3000.com/news/17415230/detail.html.
Manatee, FL:
Archived Agenda Summaries, Manatee County Government, Apr. 24, 2007, available at
http://www.mymanatee.org/.
Nicholas Azzara, Panhandling Law Would Levy Fines, Jail Time, Centre Daily Times, Jan. 25, 2007.
Frank Gluck, Library Rules Aimed at Homeless, Herald Tribune, Feb. 6, 2007, available at
http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20070206/NEWS/%20702060570&SearchID=73321036735919.

182

Manchester, NH:
Kathryn Marchocki, Some surprised by city’s curfew crackdown, The New Hampshire Union Leader, Aug.
27, 2008, available at: http://nhunderground.com/forum/index.php?action=printpage;topic=15179.0.
Staff, Curfew protest ignored by police, The New Hampshire Union Leader, Sep. 7, 2008, available at
http://www.unionleader.com/article.aspx?articleId=35c5a18b-d0c7-41b8-ae79-9a3b24c79d4e.
Mercer Island, WA:
Staff, Feeding the Homeless in the Face of Opposition, Covenant News Service, Aug. 19, 2008, available
at http://www.covchurch.org/cov/news/item6521.
Miami, FL:
Michael Vasquez, Miami Arts Center a Big Draw for Panhandlers, Miami Herald, Mar. 5, 2007.
Carol J. Williams, Homeless Take the Football and Run with It, Los Angeles Times, Feb. 2, 2007,
available at
http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1208860561.html?dids=1208860561:1208860561&FMT=ABS
&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Feb+2%2C+2007&author=Carol+J.+Williams&pub=Los+Angeles
+Times&edition=&startpage=A.10&desc=THE+NATION%3B+Homeless+take+the+football+and+run+w
ith+it%3B+Activists+in+Miami+use+the+city%27s+Super+Bowl+spotlight+to+make+their+case+for+mor
e+low-income+housing.
Gary Rotstein, In Miami, Protest Shows Homeless’ Plight, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Feb. 5, 2007, available
at http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07036/759515-294.stm.
Miami Beach, FL:
ACLU Sues Miami Beach over Panhandling Laws, Orlando Sentinel, June 24, 2007, available at
http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/orlandosentinel/access/1293812471.html?dids=1293812471:1293812471&FM
T=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Jun+24%2C+2007&author=The+Associated+Press&pub=Orlando+Senti
nel&edition=&startpage=B.7&desc=ACLU+sues+Miami+Beach+over+panhandling+laws.
Press Release, ALCU of Florida, Panhandlers and Street Performers Targeted by City, June 22, 2007,
available at http://www.aclufl.org/news_events/?action=viewRelease&emailAlertID=2798.
Minneapolis, MN:
Lisa Kiava, Bridge Rods Intended to Deter Homeless Criticized, WCCO, Jan. 25, 2007, available at
http://wcco.com/local/local_story_025195702.html.
Mike Mosedale, What Lurks Beneath?, City Pages, Feb. 28, 2007, available at
http://www.citypages.com/databank/28/1369/article15168.asp.
Chris Steller, City Hall Monitor: Lurking repeal is down for count, dog doings are up in lights, Minnesota
Independent, June 21, 2008, available at http://minnesotaindependent.com/4639/city-hall-monitor-lurkingrepeal-is-down-for-count-dog-doings-are-up-in-lights.
Katherine Kersten, Panhandler Restrictions Considered in Minneapolis, Fox 9 News, May 27, 2007.
Terry Collins, Minneapolis Wants to Get Tougher with Panhandlers, Star Tribune, May 27, 2007, available
at http://nl.newsbank.com/nlsearch/we/Archives?p_product=MN&p_theme=mn&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=(Mi
nneapolis%20Wants%20to%20Get%20Tougher%20with%20Panhandlers)&p_field_advanced0=&p_text_advanced0=("Minneapolis%20Wants%20to%20Get%20Tougher"%20with%20"Panhandlers")&xcal_numdocs=20&
p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no.

183

Michelle Bruch, Council Proposal would strengthen restrictions on panhandling in certain areas of the
city, Downtown Journal, Minneapolis, May 28, 2007.
Susan Albright, Stronger Panhandling Restrictions Needed, Star Tribune, June 6, 2007, available at
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-164568200.html.
Terry Collins, Stricter Panhandling Law Awaits Full Council Vote, Star Tribune, June 7, 2007.
Ewen McKenna, Minneapolis Toughens Panhandling Ordinance, The Minnesota Daily, June 7, 2007,
available at http://www.mndaily.com/articles/2007/06/20/71997.
Margaret Hastings, Livability Issue? First Civil Rights, Star Tribune Letter to the Editor, June 10, 2007.
The Future of Downtown is Threatened by Beggars, Star Tribune, June 13, 2007.
Terry Collins, Council Vote May Not be the Las Word on Panhandling, Star Tribune, June 16, 2007,
available at http://www.startribune.com/local/11587471.html.
Nick Coleman, Bill Would Give Those Living in Cars Right to Last Few Possessions, Star Tribune, Mar.
13, 2008.
Nashville, TN:
E-mail from Matthew Leber, Organizer, Nashville Homeless Power Project, to National Coalition for the
Homeless (Aug. 17, 2007) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
E-mail from Matthew Leber, Organizer, Nashville Homeless Power Project, to National Coalition for the
Homeless (Nov. 15, 2007) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Amanda M. Maynord, Police Crack Down on Homeless Activity, Advocates Question Move, Nashville City
Paper, Nov. 30, 2007, available at http://www.nashvillecitypaper.com/news.php?viewStory=58152.
Tracy Loew, Cities Crack Down on Panhandling, USA Today, Jan. 22, 2008, available at
http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-01-22-panhandle_N.htm.
Tennessee Indymedia Staff, Mayoral Candidate Forum on Homelessness, Tennessee Indymedia, Aug. 17,
2007, available at http://tnimc.blogspot.com/2007/08/mayoral-candidates-debate.html.
Nashville Metropolitan Council, ORDINANCE NO. BL2007-66: An ordinance amending Chapter 12 of
Article 11 of the Metropolitan Code to prohibit aggressive panhandling and certain other panhandling
activities, Jan. 15, 2008, available at http://www.nashville.gov/mc/minutes/01_15_08_minutes.html.
Anna Thompson, Nashville’s Homeless Deliver over 700 Signatures to Mayor’s Office, Tennessee
Independent Media Center, Feb. 9, 2007, available at
http://www.tnimc.org/feature/display/22417/index.php.
Gail Kerr, Homeless Rally Arrest was Wrong, The Tennessean, Mar. 25, 2007.
Staff, Deadline Extended For Residents To Leave Homeless Camp, News Channel 5, Sep. 9, 2008,
available at http://www.newschannel5.com/global/story.asp?s=8981192.
New York, NY:
Fernanda Santos, Loitering arrest of panhandler is dismissed as unlawful, New York Times, May 30, 2007,
available at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/31/nyregion/31loiter.html.
The Associated Press, Brother, you don’t have a crime, New York Daily News, May 31, 2007, available at
http://www.nydailynews.com/news/2007/05/31/2007-05-31_brother_you_dont_have_a_crime.html.

184

Oahu, HI:
Lee Cataluna, Displaced Homeless Go Inland, Honolulu Advertiser, June 17, 2007, available at
http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Jun/17/ln/ FP706170349.html.
Ocala, FL:
Stephen Hudak, Homeless Face New, Harsher Wilderness at Ocala National Forest, Orlando Sentinel, July
29, 2007, available at http://www.wtlv.com/news/florida/news-article.aspx?storyid=88001.
Christopher Curry, County Pays Homeless Man $10,000 in Civil Suit, Star-Banner, Sep. 6, 2008, available
at:
http://www.ocala.com/article/20080906/NEWS/809060277/1402/NEWS&title=County_pays_homeless_m
an.
Christopher Curry, Suit Challenges Panhandling Rules, Star-Banner, July 19, 2007, available at
http://www.ocala.com/article/20070719/NEWS/207190349/1001/ NEWS01&MaxW=270&MaxH=200.
Olympia, WA
Roberta Romero, Olympia Homeless Set Up Tent City, King 5 News, Feb. 4, 2007.
Jennifer Byrd, Homeless Encampment is Forced Off Olympia Lot, Seattle Times, Feb. 10, 2007, available
at http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003565920_tentcity10e.html.
P-I News Services, Homeless protestors move encampment, Seattle Post Intelligencer, Feb. 10, 2007,
available at http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/303238_localbriefs10.html.
Associated Press, Tent City Given 90 Days to Stay at Church in Olympia, KXLY.com, Feb 19, 2007,
available at http://www.kxly.com/news/ ?story_id=8633&view=text.
Staff, Time to do more for homeless, The Olympian, Sep. 28, 2008, available at
http://www.theolympian.com/opinion/story/599937.html.
Orlando, FL
Orlando Bans Feeding Homeless Downtown, Clickorlando.com, July 25, 2006, available at
http://www.clickorlando.com/news/9570734/detail.html.
Todd Lewan, Orlando’s Homeless Laws Spark Debate, Washington Post, Feb. 3, 2007, available at
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/03/AR2007020300659.html.
Orlando: Food Not Bombs Run in to the Police Again, Infoshop News, May 14, 2007, available at
http://media.www.centralfloridafuture.com/media/storage/paper174/news/2007/05/14/News/Police.Stop.Gr
oup.From.Feeding.The.Homeless-29027474.shtml.
Clergy Would Take Crime out of Feeding the Homeless, Knight Ridder. May 17, 2007, available at
http://www.beliefnet.com/story/218/story_21886_1.html.
Homeless Protest Disrupts Mayor’s Fundraiser, Wftv, May 17, 2007, available at
http://www.wftv.com/news/13336733/detail.html.
Florida Police Arrest Activist for Feeding Homeless, Reuters, May 18, 2007, available at
http://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN0517193520070405.
Man Headed to Trial for Feeding the Homeless, The North County Gazette, June 7, 2007, available at
http://www.northcountrygazette.org/2007/06/07/man-headed-to-trial-for-feeding-the-homeless/#more-80.

185

Willoughby Mariano, Federal judge: Orlando’s law against feeding homeless a civil rights violation, The
Orlando Sentinel, Sep. 26, 2008, available at http://www.orlandosentinel.com/orl-orlando-homelessfeeding-civil-rights-092608,0,7674823.story.
Staff, We think: Orlando should drop plans to appeal homeless feedings, Orlando Sentinel, Oct. 27, 2008,
available at http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/opinion/orl-ed27208oct27,0,3304544,print.story.
Mark Schuleb, Orlando might ban Nighttime Begging; Reports of aggressive panhandling spur a push for
the city council to consider more limits, Orlando Sentinel, Sep. 8, 2007, at B.1.
Palm Springs, CA
Stephanie Frith, No Info, No Bus Ticket for Homeless, Say Police, Desert Sun, Feb. 6, 2007, available at
http://nl.newsbank.com/nlsearch/we/Archives?p_action=search&s_search_type=keyword&p_product=DSSB&p_theme=gannett&s_s
ite=mydesert&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=No%20Info,%20No%20Bus%20Ticket%20for%20Homeles
s,%20Say%20Police&p_text_advanced0=(No%20Info,%20No%20Bus%20Ticket%20for%20Homeless,%20Say%20Police).
Palo Alto, CA
Brandon Bailey, Palo Alto Homeless Man Faces Trespass Charge, San Jose Mercury News, July 9, 2007.
Peterson, Christina, Stanford Ousts Grove-Dweller, Palo Alto Daily News, July 6, 2007, available at
http://www.paloaltodailynews.com/article/2007-7-6-pa-worden-miller.
Kristina Peterson, Transient Repeats Offense: Stanford Dweller Again Arrested Under Oak Tree, Palo Alto
Daily News, Aug. 21, 2007.
Panama City, FL
Brady Calhoun, Sergeant Resigns After Excessive-Force Probe, News Herald, Aug. 29, 2008, available at
http://www.newsherald.com/articles/kimbro_67914_article.html/warr_police.html.
Editorial, Over the Line, News Herald, Sep. 3, 2008, available at
http://www.newsherald.com/articles/kimbro_67914___article.html/warr_police.html.
E-mail from Mike Abbott to Michael Stoops, Executive Director, National Coalition for the Homeless
(Sep. 9, 2008) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Mike Abbott, Viewpoints: Community Shares Blame in Mistreatment, News Herald, Sep. 12, 2008,
available at http://www.newsherald.com/articles/city_68121___article.html/degree_beach.html.
Philadelphia, PA
Pittsburgh Food Not Bombs under attack, Infoshop News, June 10, 2008, available at
http://news.infoshop.org/article.php?story=20080610023048638&query=Pittsburgh%2BFood%2BNot%2B
Bombs%2Bunder%2Battack.
Pittsburgh, PA
Theodore Kim, Proposed Parking Ban May Drive Man out of Plano Library Lot, The Dallas Morning
News, Apr. 14, 2008.
Plano, TX
E-mail from Lauren Schmidt to Michael Stoops, Executive Director, National Coalition for the Homeless,
(May 6, 2008) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Port Charlotte, FL
E-mail from Lauren Schmidt to Michael Stoops, Executive Director, National Coalition for the Homeless,
(May 6, 2008) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).

186

Portland, OR
Jenn Darden, Sarah Rogers and Beau Wayland, Privatized Public Safety, Street Roots, May 18, 2007,
available at
http://www.streetroots.org/TTInc/viewpage.php?url=.%2Fpast_issues%2F2007%2F05_02%2Findex.shtml
&needle=privatized+public+safety.
Park Exclusions Handed out by PPI continue to rise, Street Roots, Nov. 1, 2007, at 3.
A. Dworkin, Move Along, or Get a Ticket, Oregonian, Aug. 16, 2007.
Pitkin, James, Homeless May Get Extra Time to Sit, Lie, June 5, 2007, available at
http://www.wweek.com/popup/wwire_print.php?index=8075.
Sidewalk obstruction warnings all go to homeless, Street Roots, Dec. 16, 2007, available at
http://www.streetnewsservice.org/index.php?page=archive_detail&articleID=2105.
A New Sit-Lie Law, Portland Mercury, Dec. 27, 2007.
Cassandra Koslen, Sit-lie Ruled Constitutional by Local Court, Street Roots, Oct. 3, 2008, available at
http://www.streetroots.org/past_issues/2008/10_01/10_03_2008.pdf.
Dan Newth, Sweeps illustrate the divide between city and the streets, Street Roots, June 1, 2007, available
at http://www.streetroots.org/past_issues/2007/06_01/column_newth.shtml.
Redmond, WA
Amy Roe, Tent City 4 to Stay at Redmond Church, Seattle Times, Mar. 31, 2007, available at
http://seattletimes.nwsource.com.
Redmond Church Risks Fines Hosting Homeless Camp, Seattle Times, Feb. 11, 2007, available at
http://www.tdn.com/articles/2007/02/12/ap-state-wa/d8n7vppg0.prt.
Reno, NV
The Associated Press, Homeless being removed from Reno tent city, Rgj.com, Oct. 7, 2008, available at:
http://www.rgj.com
Sacramento, CA
Jocelyn Wiener, City Orders Homeless to Abandon Tent City, The Sacramento Bee, Nov. 4, 2007,
available at http://www.sacbee.com/city/story/470679.html.
Homeless Could Get New Home in Posh Neighborhood, CBS13.com, Nov. 7, 2007, available at
http://cbs13.com/local/Homeless.Camp.Natomas.2.537616.html.
M.S. Enkoji, Homeless Campers Get Motel Vouchers Instead of Citations, Sacramento Bee, Nov. 8, 2007,
available at http://www.sacbee.com/crime/story/478423.html.
Jackson Yan, Sacramento Sued over Handling of Homeless, California Aggie, Aug. 9, 2007.
Complaint, Lehr v. City of Sacramento, No. 2:2007 at 00707 (E.D. Cal Aug. 2, 2007).
Mark E. Merin, My View: Tent Cities Can Offer Answer to Homelessness, Sacramento Bee, Dec. 22, 2008,
available at http://www.sacbee.com.
San Diego, CA
Jeanette Steele, City allows sleeping in public: homeless people won’t be ticketed, San Diego Union
Tribune, Feb. 22, 2007.

187

Ronald W. Powell, Sidewalk sleepers may be in for rude awakening, San Diego Union-Tribune, Mar. 3,
2008, available at http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20080303/news_1m3nohome.html.
Kelly Davis, Being neighborly: Homeless are swept out of the civil concourse, San Diego Union-Tribune,
Mar. 25, 2008, available at http://sdcitybeat.com/cms/story/detail/being_neighborly/6779/.
Ashley A. Smith, Alcohol ban driving drunks from beaches, USA Today, Feb. 29, 2008.
Ronald W. Powell, City to allow food-for-needy program, San Diego Union-Tribune, Apr. 22, 2008,
available at http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/metro/20080422-9999-1m22nohome.html.
Liz Neely and Anne Krueger, Homeless in camps told to leave or be arrested, San Diego Union-Tribune,
June 13, 2008, available at http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20080613/news_1m13sweep.html.
Ruth McKinnie Braun, Next Move on Homeless Camp Weighed; Work Begins on Playing Fields, San
Diego Union- Tribune, July 9, 2008, available at http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/justfixit/200807099999-lz1m9fixit.html.
San Francisco, CA
Robert Selna, S.F. D.A. Cracking Down on Tickets Issued to Homeless. San Francisco Chronicle, Oct. 29,
2007, available at
http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/10/29/BASJT19QA.DTL&hw=cracking+down+ticke
ts+homeless&sn=001&sc=1000.
Bonnie Eslinger, Homelessness Gets Center Stage, The Examiner, Oct. 5, 2007, available at
http://www.examiner.com/a-973060~Homelessness_gets_center_stage.html.
Paul Hogarth, Religious Leaders Denounce Crackdown on Homeless, BeyondChron, Oct. 5, 2007,
available at http://www.beyondchron.org/news/index.php?itemid=4980.
Associated Press, Patrols to Move SF Homeless away from Tourist Centers, Mercury News, Oct. 3, 2007,
available at http://www.mercurynews.com/search/ci_7073284?IADID=Search-www.mercurynews.comwww.mercurynews.com&nclick_check=1.
E-mail from William Tinker to National Coalition for the Homeless (Jan. 30, 2008) (on file with National
Coalition for the Homeless).
Heather Knight, Newsom moves to Give Police Freer Hand to Clear Homeless from Parks, San Francisco
Chronicle, Aug. 22, 2007, available at
http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/08/22/BAGBMRNGC26.DTL .
Christina Brown, Emily L. Dahm, David M. Hymas and Chad Russell, Citing the Homeless Keeps them on
the Street, San Francisco Chronicle, Aug. 24, 2007, available at http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/08/24/EDR5RNEE7.DTL&hw=Citing+the+Homeless+Keeps+them+on+the+St
reet&sn=002&sc=518.
San Francisco Cracks Down on Homeless Encampments, NBC 11, Nov. 5, 2007, available at
http://www.nbc11.com/news/14518538/detail.html.
TJ Johnston, City Wants Panhandlers’ Change, Street Sheet, June 2008.
Santa Ana, CA
Feed the homeless, go to jail? Long Beach Press-Telegram, May 8, 2008.

188

Susannah Rosenblatt, Outreach resumes on state beach, Los Angeles Times, Sep. 16, 2008, available at
http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/16/local/me-doheny16.
Santa Cruz, CA
Ari Bird, Police Ban Loiterers: Offenders banned from Pacific Ave. to make downtown safer, City on a Hill
Press, Apr. 26, 2007.
Shanna McCord, Downtown Business is Homeless Protestors’ Latest Target, Santa Cruz Sentinel, Sep. 23,
2007.
E-mail from Robert Norse, Homeless United for Friendship and Freedom (HUFF), to Kate Benevenaci
(Dec. 10, 2007) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Tim Rumford, Santa Cruz Homeless Crack Down in Full Selective Force, Indybay.org, Feb. 17, 2007,
available at http://www.indybay.org/ newsitems/2007/02/17/18364936.php.
Santa Monica, CA
Martha Groves, Beggars can’t be sitters on Santa Monica’s benches, Los Angeles Times, Aug. 15, 2008,
available at http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-panhandle15-2008aug15,0,5164705.story.
Santa Monica, Cal., Mun. Code §4.54.035 (2008).
Sarasota, FL
Todd Ruger, Jailing homeless expensive, Sarasota Herald-Tribune, Feb. 25, 2008, available at
http://www.heraldtribune.com/article/20080226/NEWS/802260343.
Seattle, WA
Sharon Pian Chan, Homeless Advocates Decry City’s Tactics, Seattle Times, Nov. 27, 2007, available at
http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com/cgibin/texis.cgi/web/vortex/display?slug=homelesscamps27m&d
ate=20071127&query=homeless+advocates.
John Iwasaki, 48-hour notice may not suffice, critics warn, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Jan. 11, 2008,
available at www.seattlepi.nwsource.com.
John Iwasaki, City of Seattle plan for clearing homeless encampments called inhumane, Seattle PostIntelligencer, Jan. 28, 2008, available at www.seattlepi.nwsource.com.
John Iwasaki, Deadline passes for ‘Nickelsville,’ Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Sep. 25, 2008, available at
http://www.seattlepi.com/local/380687_nickelsville26.html.
John Iwasaki, Homeless count rises, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Jan. 30, 2009, available at
http://www.seattlepi.com/local/398138_homeless31.html.
Angela Galloway, A new plan for homeless camp sweeps, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Apr. 11, 2008,
available at http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/358756_homeless12.html.
Casey McNerthney, Homeless camp out at City Hall, protest tent camp sweeps, Seattle Post Intelligencer,
June 9, 2008, available at http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/366290_homeless09.html.
Erik Lacitis, Nickelsville Emptied in Uneventful Police Sweep; 22 Arreseted, Seattle Times, Sep. 27, 2008,
available at http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2008208268_nickelsville27m.html.
Steve Shay, Police Sweep “Nickelsville” residents from site, West Seattle Herald, Sep. 20, 2008, available
at http:/www.westseattleherald.com/articles/2008/09/28/news/local_news/news01.txt.

189

Jonathan Martin, Seattle crews trashed nearly everything, homeless advocates complain, Seattle Times,
June 14, 2008, available at
http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2004476904_homeless14m.html.
Seattle/King County Coalition for the Homeless, 2009 One Night Count, 2009, at
http://www.homelessinfo.org/onc.html.
Simi Valley, CA
Avi Rutschman, Homeless Forced from Camps in the Arroyo Simi, Simi Valley Acorn, Feb. 9, 2007,
available at http://www.simivallyacorn.com/news/2007/ 0209/Front_Page/004.html.
Sonora, CA
E-mail from Jason Frye, Resource Advocate, Homeless Outreach and Engagement Program, to National
Coalition for the Homeless (Dec. 28, 2007) (on file with National Coalition for the Homeless).
Springfield, IL
Belongings of Homeless Removed from Library, State Journal- Register, June 6, 2007, available at
http://nl.newsbank.com/nlsearch/we/Archives?p_product=JR&p_theme=jr&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_text_search0=belongings%20AND%20of%20AND%20homeless%20AND%20removed%20AND%20from%20AND
%20library&s_dispstring=belongings%20of%20homeless%20removed%20from%20library%20AND%20
date(6/1/2007%20to%207/1/2007)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date0=6/1/2007%20to%207/1/2007)&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no.
St. Petersburg, FL
Robert Farley, Pickets Greet Mayor at Church, Tampabay.com, Jan. 8, 2007, available at
http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sptimes/access/1191336671.html?FMT=FT&dids=1191336671:1191336671&
FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Jan+8%2C+2007&author=ROBERT+FARLEY&pub=St.+Petersbur
g+Times&desc=Pickets+greet+mayor+at+church.
Abhi Raghunathan and Alisa Ulferts, Police slash open tents to roust the homeless, St. Petersburg Times,
Jan. 20, 2007, available at http://www.sptimes.com/2007/01/20/Southpinellas/
Police_slash_open_ten.shtml.
Associated Press, Raid on Homeless Camp Sparks Criticism, Orlando Sentinel, Jan. 24, 2007, at D.7.
Abhi Raghunathan, Homeless Camp Raid to Be Reviewed, St. Petersburg Times, Jan. 24, 2007, available at
http://sptimes.com/2007/01/24/news_pf/Southpinellas/ Homeless_camp_raid_to.shtml.
Mike Deeson, Major Gave Order to Cut Homeless Tents, First Coast News, Jan. 24, 2007, available at
http://www.firstcoastnews.com/printfullstory.aspx?storyid=74253.
Abhi Raghunathan, Homeless Fight Back with High Tech, Tampabay.com, Feb. 2, 2007, available at
http://www.sptimes.com/2007/02/02/news_pf/.
New homeless laws to take effect in St. Pete, Jan. 26, 2008, available at www.myfoxtampabay.com.
Stephen Thompson, Ordinance Aimed at Homeless Enforced, Feb 2, 2008, available at www.2.tbo.com.
Abhi Raghunathan, No ‘last resorts’ needed yet, St. Petersburg Times, Mar. 17, 2007, available at
http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/17/Southpinellas/No__last_resorts__nee.shtml.
Alisa Ulferts, Tent city: Back to site one, St. Petersburg Times, Mar. 1, 2007, available at
http://www.sptimes.com/2007/03/01/Southpinellas/Tent_city__Back_to_si.shtml.

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Eddie R. Cole, St. Petersburg Officials to Homeless: Move your stuff or we will, St. Petersburg Times, July
31, 2008, available at http://www.tampabay.com/news/localgovernment/article748454.ece.
Abhi Raghunathan, Public Defender will stop working homeless cases in St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg
Times, Jan. 31, 2007, available at
http://www.sptimes.com/2007/01/31/Southpinellas/Public_defender_will_.shtml.
Tacoma, WA
Stuart Glascock, Anti-Soliciting Laws are a Tough Sale, Los Angeles Times, Jan. 20, 2008, available at
http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jan/20/nation/na-panhandle20.
Casey Mcnerthney, City in no rush to change panhandling law, Seattle Post- Intelligencer, Feb. 8, 2008,
available at http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/350571_panhandle08.html.
Towson, MD
Bryan P. Sears, Anyone tell panhandlers about law? Permit required to solicit, but enforcement lags,
Towson Times, Feb. 14, 2007.
Tucson, AZ
Teya Vitu, Steps taken to Address Criminal Homelessness, Tucson Citizen, Sep. 14, 2007, available at
http://nl.newsbank.com/nlsearch/we/Archives?s_site=tucson&f_site=tucson&f_sitename=Tucson+Citizen+%28AZ%29&p_theme=g
annett&p_product=TUCB&p_action=search&p_field_base-0=&p_text_base0=Steps+taken+to+Address+Criminal+Homelessness&Search=Search&p_perpage=10&p_maxdocs=200&
p_queryname=700&s_search_type=keyword&p_sort=_rank_%3AD&p_field_date0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date%3AB%2CE&p_text_date-0=.
Ventura, CA
Scott Hadly, Police Roust Homeless People from Ventura River Bottom, Ventura County Star, Feb. 2, 2007.
West Palm Beach, FL
Sonja Isger, Jury Sides with County in Homeless Case, Palm Beach Post, Feb. 10, 2007, at 1A.
Sonja Isger and Christian Duty, County Law at Odds in Westgate Trial, Palm Beach Post, Jan. 31, 2007, at
1A.
Dianna Cahn, West Palm votes to ban feeding of homeless at downtown parks, South Florida Sun-Sentinel,
Sept. 25, 2007, available at http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/palmbeach/sflflphomeless0925pnsep25,0,6860944.story.
Dave Wahl, Ban on feeding homeless losses in court again, WDBO.com, Dec. 16, 2008, available at
http://wdbo.com/localnews/2008/12/ban-on-feeding-homeless-loses.html.

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