Doj Report Policing and Homicide 1976-98
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U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics Policing and Homicide, 1976-98: Justifiable Homicide by Police, Police Officers Murdered by Felons Number of homicides 500 400 300 Felons justifiably killed by police 200 Police officers murdered by felons 100 0 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs 810 Seventh Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20531 John Ashcroft Attorney General Office of Justice Programs World Wide Web site: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov Bureau of Justice Statistics World Wide Web site: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/ For information contact: BJS Clearinghouse 1-800-732-3277 U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Statistics Policing and Homicide, 1976-98: Justifiable Homicide by Police, Police Officers Murdered by Felons Jodi M. Brown and Patrick A. Langan, Ph.D. BJS Statisticians March 2001, NCJ 180987 U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics Lawrence A. Greenfeld Acting Director This report was prepared by Jodi M. Brown and Patrick A. Langan of the Bureau of Justice Statistics. Matthew Durose and Donna Oliphant assisted with verification. Tina Dorsey and Tom Hester edited and produced the report. Jayne Robinson prepared the report for printing. Frankie Kelley of the Federal Bureau of Investigation provided tabulations of LEOKA data specially for this report. Staff members of the Criminal Justice Information Services Division of the Federal Bureau of Investigation read drafts of this report and responded with many helpful comments. Police departments in the following cities contributed valuable descriptions of actual cases of justifiable homicide by police in 1996: Atlanta, Baltimore, Cleveland, Houston, Los Angeles, New York City, Oklahoma City, and Philadelphia. The data and the report, as well as others from the Bureau of Justice Statistics, are available through the Internet — http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/ ii Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Highlights This report brings together in a single publication national statistics on two distinct types of homicide: the justifiable homicide of felons by police, and the murder of police officers by felons. Although the two are fundamentally different — the use of deadly force against a police officer is almost never justified, while the use of deadly force by police often is — certain connections can be made between them beyond the fact that both always involve the police. Sometimes one directly results in the other: 1 in 6 murders of a police officer result in the justifiable killing of the murderer. (Still, of all the justifiable homicides by police only about 3% occur in connection with the murder of a police officer.) The two also share demographic similarities. For example, almost all the felons justifiably killed by police (98%) and almost all of the felons who murdered a police officer (97%) are males; in both types of homicide just over half of the felons are ages 18 to 30; and in both types just over half of the felons are white. Percent of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Male Ages 18-30 White Black Young white males Young black males 98% 53% 56% 42% 16% 16% From 1976 to 1998, the U.S. population age 13 or older grew by about 47 million people and the size of the police force in the United States grew by over 200,000 officers, but the number of felons justifiably killed by police did not generally rise. Justifiable homicide by police, 1976-98 In this report, killings by police are referred to as “justifiable homicides,” and the persons that police kill are referred to as “felons.” These terms reflect the view of the police agencies that provide the data used in this report. A growing percentage of felons killed by police are white, and a declining The killing of a felon by police is consid- percentage are black (figure 4). ered justified when it is done to prevent Race of felons killed imminent death or serious bodily injury 50% White 49% Black to the officer or another person. Police 1978 1988 59% White 39% Black justifiably kill on average nearly 400 1998 62% White 35% Black felons each year (the figure below and figure 1). Felons justifiably killed by police represent a tiny fraction of the total populaNumber of justifiable homicides by police tion. Of the 183 million whites in 1998, 500 police killed 225; of the 27 million blacks, police killed 127. While the rate 400 (per million population) at which blacks were killed by police in 1998 was about 300 4 times that of whites (the figure below 200 and figure 5), the difference used to be much wider: the black rate in 1978 was 100 8 times the white rate. 0 Percent of felons who murdered police officers, 1976-98 97% 54% 54% 43% 20%* 21%* *Percent is for 1980-98. The first section of the report deals with the justifiable homicide of felons by police; the second, with the murder of police officers by felons. Together, the two types account for around 2% of all intentional killings in the United States. The types of homicide not covered in this report are: negligent homicides; justifiable homicides by private citizens; and murders in which the victim is someone other than an officer slain in the line of duty. 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 Number of justifiable homicides by police per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older for each race 12 10 8 6 Black felons 4 2 White felons Other felons 0 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 iii The highest rates of justifiable homicide are of young black males. Of the Nation’s 3.4 million young black males (black males under age 25) in 1998, 48 were justifiably killed by police. That year, young black males made up 1% of the total U.S. population but 14% of felons justifiably killed by police. By comparison, of the Nation’s 18.3 million young white males, 53 were justifiably killed. Young white males were 7% of the population and 15% of those killed in 1998. In 1978, 1 in 4,000 police officers were murdered; in 1988, 1 in 6,000; and in 1998, 1 in 11,000 officers (figure 14). Throughout much of the 1990's, white police officers made up about 87% of all police officers in the United States and 83% of all officers murdered by felons. Black officers were 11% of police officers but 15% of those murdered. Officers of other races were 2% of police officers and 2% of those murdered (figure 15). Firearms claimed the lives of 92% of the officers killed in the line of duty from 1976 to 1998. The officer’s own gun was used in 12% of all murders of police officers. Murderers of police officers represent a tiny fraction of the total population. Of the Nation’s 18.3 million young white males (white males under age 25), 17 murdered a police officer in 1998. Of the 3.4 million young black males, 13 murdered an officer that year. From 1980 to 1998, young black males made up about 1% of the U.S. population but 21% of felons who murdered a police officer (figure 17); young white males were 8% of the population but According to the latest statistics (1998), From 1976 to 1998, two-thirds of the 20% of the murderers of law enforcefelons who murdered a police officer white officers are 87% of the Nation’s ment officers. Young black males had a prior criminal arrest (figure 16). police force and account for 82% of murdered police officers at a rate justifiable homicides by police. Black The majority of police officers murdered almost 6 times that of young white officers make up 11% of the Nation’s males (5.7 versus 1 per million populapolice and account for 17% of the justifi- by felons were killed while responding tion) (the figure below and figure 18). to disturbance calls (16%) or arrest able homicides (figure 10). situations (39%). Police officers murdered by felons, Young male felons who murdered police officers, 1976-98 Of all the felons justifiably killed by police from 1976 to 1998, 53% were ages 18 to 30, and 98% were males. On average, officers murdered from 1976 to 1998 had 9 years of law enforcement service. rate per 1 million U.S. males ages 13 to 24 for each race Since 1976, an average of 79 police officers have been murdered each year in the line of duty (figure 12). The number of officers murdered each year is dropping, and the rate at which police officers are being murdered is steadily falling (the figure below and figure 14). Police officers murdered by felons, rate per 100,000 officers 30 12 10 Young black male felons 8 6 4 25 20 2 15 10 0 1980 5 0 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 iv Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Young white male felons 1986 1992 1998 Contents Page Page Highlights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Justifiable homicide by police, 1976-98. . . . . 1 Annual trends in justifiable homicides by police. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Felons killed by police in justifiable homicides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Felons' gender Felons' race Felons' age Felons' gender and race Felons' gender, race, and age Officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Officers' gender Officers' race Officers' age Officers' gender and race Officers' and felons' gender Officers' and felons' race Detailed 1998 racial statistics Descriptions of actual cases of justifiable homicide by police, 1996. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 Felons who murdered police officers. . . . . . 24 Felons' age Felons’ gender Felons’ race Felons' criminal record Felons' race and officers' race, 1980-98 Felons' age, race, and gender, 1980-98 Descriptions of actual cases of police officers killed in the line of duty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 The SHR national database on justifiable homicides by police.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 9 Evolution of the SHR database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Nonjustifiable homicide by police. . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 13 Police officers murdered by felons, 1976-98. . 19 Drop in murders of police officers. . . . . . . . . 19 Errors in the SHR database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Nonjustifiable homicides by police in the SHR database Justifiable homicides by police missing from the SHR database Misinformation in the SHR database regarding officer characteristics Missing characteristics of felons and officers in the SHR database Cautionary note on this report's statistics on justifiable homicides by police. . . . . . . . . . . 30 Drop in rate of murders of police officers. . . 20 Police officers murdered with their own firearm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Circumstances at scene of incident. . . . . . . 22 Murdered police officers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Officers' age Officers' gender Officers' race Officers' other characteristics Detailed racial statistics for the 1990's Justifiable homicides by police in cases involving more than one officer. . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Source of national statistics on police officers murdered by felons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Source of size and characteristics of U.S. police force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Police use of non-lethal force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 A new source of data on police officers killed and assaulted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Data for figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data for tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 48 Appendix tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 v Justifiable homicide by police, 1976-98 When a police officer deliberately kills someone, a determination is made as to whether the homicide occurred in the line of duty and whether the homicide was justified to prevent imminent death or serious bodily injury to the officer or another person. If an investigation determines that the homicide did occur in the line of duty and that circumstances did warrant lethal force, a record of a justifiable homicide is voluntarily sent by the officer’s agency to the FBI in Washington. Each record of justifiable homicide received is then entered into a database. The database contains such information as the felon’s age, race, and gender, and such information on the officer as age, race, and gender. In this report, killings by police are referred to as “justifiable homicides,” and the persons that police kill are referred to as “felons.” These terms reflect the view of the police agencies that provide the data used in this report. According to FBI national data on justifi- • From 1976 to 1998, the U.S. populaable homicides by police from 1976 to tion age 13 or older grew by about 47 1998 — million people and the size of the police force in the United States grew by over • 8,578 felons were justifiably killed 200,000 officers, but the number of by police in the United States. felons justifiably killed by police did not generally rise. • The largest number of recorded justifiable homicides in a single year was 459 • On average each year about 2 (in 1994), and the smallest number was persons per 1 million residents age 13 or older were justifiably killed by law 296 (in 1987) (figure 1). enforcement officers (figure 2). • On average 373 felons were lawfully (Because police rarely kill someone killed by police each year. under age 13, the rate calculation is per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older.) Number of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Number of felons 500 400 300 Felons killed 200 Annual trends in justifiable homicides by police 100 Though the FBI database has records of justifiable homicides by police from 0 1998 1976 1982 1988 1994 1968, this report is concerned just with homicides occurring since 1976 (see Figure 1 Methodology page 28). The records Felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: since 1976 have fuller information than Rate per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older, 1976-98 earlier records, including information not only on the felons, but also on the police Rate per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older officers. 3 2.5 2 1.5 Felons killed 1 0.5 0 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 Figure 2 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 1 Throughout this report, the national statistics given on justifiable homicides by police were “unadjusted,” meaning no correction was made for the fact that some States did not report to the FBI any of the justifiable homicides that occurred in certain years. For example, Florida did not report in 1988, and so the national total of 339 justifiable homicides in 1988 is missing whatever number of justifiable homicides occurred in Florida that year. To illustrate what effect missing States might have, unadjusted and adjusted rates of justifiable homicide were plotted on the same graph (below). In calculating unadjusted rates, missing States were treated as having no justifiable homicides; in adjusted rates, missing States were treated as having the same number of justifiable homicides they had reported in the closest preceding year. For example, Florida submitted no data for 1988 but did report 24 justifiable homicides in 1987. The 1988 adjusted national rate therefore includes an estimated 24 Florida homicides. Rates of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides 3 2.5 2 Adjusted rates Unadjusted rates 1.5 1 0.5 0 1976 Adjusted year(s) 1988-91 1997-98 1988 1993-98 1995 1996 1998 1998 1982 1988 Missing State Florida Florida Kentucky Kansas Illinois D.C. D.C. Wisconsin 2 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 1994 1998 Estimate used to calculate adjusted rate Number Year 24 1987 6 1996 0 1987 7 1992 25 1994 12 1995 7 1997 5 1997 Table 1. Felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Percent killed with firearms, 1976-98 Year Total number Percent of justifiable with homicides firearms Table 2. Gender of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Year Total number Percent of of justifiable killed felons homicides Male Female • Police used a firearm (usually a handgun) in 99% of justifiable homicides (table 1). In many cases where police killed a felon with a firearm, the felon was shot multiple times. This is consistent with police training. When police have to shoot, they will keep shooting until the felon no longer poses a threat. Annual average 373 99.0% Annual average 373 98% 2% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 99.8% 99.0 99.7 98.9 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 99% 98 98 97 1% 2 2 3 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 98.9% 98.7 96.8 99.5 98.5 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 98% 99 98 99 98 2% 1 2 1 2 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 98.4% 99.0 99.0 98.8 99.2 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 98% 99 98 98 96 2% 1 2 2 4 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 99.2% 98.6 98.3 99.6 99.8 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 97% 96 98 97 96 3% 4 2 3 4 Of the 8,578 felons killed by police from 1976 to 1998, 98% of them had all 3 of their demographic characteristics recorded in the database. 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 99.2% 98.3 99.4 99.5 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 99% 98 97 98 1% 2 3 2 According to FBI national data on justifiable homicides by police from 1976 to 1998 — Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the type of weapon used is known. The type of weapon is known in 99.9% of the justifiable homicides committed by police between 1976 and 1998. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s gender is known in 99.9% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Felons killed by police in justifiable homicides Persons justifiably killed by police are referred to in the FBI's national database as "felons" because, at the time of the homicide, they were involved (or were thought to be involved) in a violent felony. The demographic information available on them in the database is their gender, race, and age. Felons' gender • 98% of persons justifiably killed by police were males (table 2). Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 3 Gender of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Rate per 10 million population age 13 or older, 1976-98 Rate per 10 million U.S. population age 13 or older 60 50 • In 1998, males made up 48% of the population age 13 or older, but accounted for 83% of persons arrested for violent crime and 98% of felons killed by police. The 1998 statistics illustrate both the comparatively high rate of justifiable homicide involving males and the similarity between persons arrested by police and felons killed by police. Male felons 40 30 20 10 Female felons 0 1976 1982 1988 • Males were slain by police in justifiable homicides at a rate almost 40 times that of females (39 deaths of males per 10 million male residents versus 1 death per 10 million female residents) (figure 3). 1994 1998 Felons' race Figure 3 Race of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Percent white, black, and other, 1976-98 Percent of killed felons 100% • Most felons killed by police each year were white (except for 1976 and 1977) (figure 4). • A growing percentage of felons killed by police are white, and a declining percentage are black. 80% White felons 60% 1978 1988 1998 40% Black felons 20% Other felons 0% 1976 1982 1988 Figure 4 4 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 1994 1998 Race of felons killed 50% white 49% black 59% white 39% black 62% white 35% black Race of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Rate per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older, 1976-98 Rate per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older 12 9 • In 1998 blacks made up 12% of the population age 13 or older but accounted for 40% of persons arrested for violent crime and 35% of felons killed by police. The 1998 statistics illustrate both the comparatively high rate of justifiable homicide involving blacks and the racial similarity between persons arrested by police and felons killed by police. 6 Black felons 3 White felons Other felons 0 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 Figure 5 Rates of arrest for violent crime (per 10,000) and justifiable homicide by police (per 10,000,000) age 13 or older, 1976-98 Rates of arrest and justifiable homicide 140 • Felons justifiably killed by police represent a tiny fraction of the total population. Of the 183 million whites in 1998, police killed 225; of the 27 million blacks, police killed 127. While the rate (per million population) at which blacks were killed in 1998 was about 4 times that of whites, the difference used to be much wider: the black rate in 1978 was 8 times the white rate (figure 5). • The rate at which blacks are killed by police in justifiable homicides is declining, while the rate at which whites are killed by police shows no consistent trend. 120 Black violent crime arrest 100 80 60 Black justifiable homicide by police 40 White violent crime arrest White justifiable homicide bty police 20 0 1976 Figure 6 1982 1988 1994 1998 1978 1988 1998 Rate of justifiable homicide by police (per 1 million population) White Black 1.0 8.0 1.2 5.7 1.2 4.8 Correlation with arrest for violent crime • There is little correspondence between trends in arrests for violent crimes and trends in justifiable homicides by police (the correlation is +0.2 for whites and -0.2 for blacks) (figure 6). Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 5 Felons' age Table 3. Age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 • Except for an 11-year-old killed by police in 1981 and a 12-year-old in 1992, all persons slain by police in justifiable homicides from 1976 to 1998 were in their teens or older. Total number of justifiable homicides 13-19 Annual average 373 11% 21% 21% 17% 11% 19% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 15% 12 14 13 25% 23 25 25 25% 21 17 21 13% 13 13 15 8% 10 11 9 14% 21 20 17 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 11% 12 10 8 10 27% 21 22 20 22 22% 26 26 21 21 17% 15 17 19 16 11% 10 9 9 10 12% 16 16 23 21 • Felons ages 18 to 30 (not shown in table 3) were 53% of justifiable homicides by police from 1976 to 1998. 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 7% 10 7 10 9 22% 18 21 16 19 25% 22 19 26 23 15% 21 16 19 19 11% 11 14 11 10 20% 18 23 18 20 • In most years, felons in their twenties accounted for more justifiable homicides than any other age categories (table 3). 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 9% 15 13 14 12 19% 20 22 20 21 22% 22 21 17 17 17% 18 16 16 17 12% 9 11 11 13 21% 16 17 22 20 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 13% 13 11 12 22% 19 17 18 15% 17 18 18 20% 19 17 16 12% 11 15 12 18% 21 22 24 • Persons in their twenties had the highest rates of being slain by police in justifiable homicides (almost 4 per million population) and persons in their early thirties had the next highest rate (figure 7). Year Percent of killed felons who were ages — 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40 or older Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s age is known in 98.7% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. The 13-19 age category includes one 11-year-old in 1981 and one 12-year-old in 1992. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Rate per 1 million population, 1976-98 Rate per 1 million U.S. population that age 6 Ages 20-24 25-29 30-34 4 2 0 1976 1982 1988 Figure 7 6 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 1994 1998 • The average age of felons justifiably killed by police from 1976 to 1998 was 31 years. • In 1998 persons in their twenties made up 16% of the population age 13 or older, but accounted for 31% of persons arrested for violent crime and 36% of felons killed by police. The 1998 statistics illustrate both the comparatively high rate of justifiable homicide involving persons in their twenties and the age similarity between persons arrested by police and felons killed by police. • According to latest statistics (1998), the average age of felons killed by police is 32, and half are age 30 or older. Felons' gender and race • Felons justifiably killed by police represent a tiny fraction of the total popula• The vast majority of felons killed by tion. Of the 89 million white males (age police each year (about 96%) are either 13 or older) in 1998, police killed 220; of the 12 million black males (age 13 or white males or black males (table 4). older), police killed 125. In 1998 black • Of the felons killed by police from males were around 6% of the general 1976 to 1998, 55% were white males, population (age 13 or older) but 34% of 41% were black males, 1% were white persons killed by police, and white females, 1% were black females, and males were 41% of the general populathe rest were mostly males in the "other tion (age 13 or older) but 61% of those races" category (Asian, Pacific Islander, killed. Alaska Native, and American Indian). • Among persons killed by police, white males outnumbered black males. Percent of all felons killed by police 1978 48% white males 49% black males 1988 57% white males 39% black males 1998 61% white males 34% black males Table 4. Gender and race of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides Total Percent of killed felons who were — Male Female White Black Other Total White Black Other Annual average 373 98% 55% 41% 2% 2% 1% 1% 0% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 99% 98 98 97 46% 47 48 49 51% 49 49 47 2% 2 1 2 1% 2 2 3 1% 0 1 1 0% 2 1 2 0% 0 0 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 98% 99 98 99 98 50% 54 51 54 56 47% 44 46 44 40 1% 1 2 2 1 2% 1 2 1 2 1% 0 1 0 2 1% 1 1 1 1 0% 0 0 0 0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 98% 99 98 98 96 59% 57 63 57 58 35% 40 33 39 36 4% 2 2 2 2 2% 1 2 2 4 2% 1 1 2 2 1% 0 1 0 2 0% 0 0 0 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 97% 96 98 97 96 61% 51 58 53 54 34% 42 38 41 39 2% 3 2 3 3 3% 4 2 3 4 1% 2 2 2 3 2% 1 0 1 1 0% 1 0 0 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 99% 98 97 98 59% 60 61 61 37% 36 34 34 3% 2 2 3 1% 2 3 2 1% 2 2 1 0% 1 1 1 0% 0 0 0 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police, whether or not the gender and race are known. The felon’s gender and race are both known in 99.3% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Due to rounding error, detail may not sum to total. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 7 Felons killed by police in justifiable homicide: Percent under and over age 25, by race and gender, 1976-98 Percent of killed male felons 60% White males age 25 or older 40% Black males age 25 or older White males under age 25 Black males under age 25 20% 0% 1976 1982 1988 Figure 8 1994 1998 Felons' gender, race, and age • The highest rates of justifiable homicide are of young black males. Of the Nation's 3.4 million young black males (black males under age 25) in 1998, 48 were justifiably killed by police. That year, young black males made up 1% of the total U.S. population but 14% of felons justifiably killed by police. By comparison, of the Nation's 18.3 million young white males, 53 were justifiably killed. Young white males were 8% of the population and 15% of those killed in 1998. • From 1976 to 1998 young black males (black males under age 25) made up about 1% of the population but 16% of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides; young white males made up about 8% of the population but 16% of felons killed by police (figure 8). • Of all felons justifiably killed by police from 1976 to 1998, the majority were young white males under age 25 (16%), young black males under age 25 (16%), white males age 25 or older (39%), and black males age 25 or older (25%). 8 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 • From 1980 to 1998 young black males were killed by police in justifiable homicides at a rate approximately 6 times that of young white males (16.5 versus 2.9 per million population) (figure 9). • Latest statistics (1998) indicate that white males ages 20 to 34 are 8% of the general population but 29% of those killed by police, and black males ages 20 to 34 are 1.4% of the general population but 20% of persons killed by police in justifiable homicides. • Average ages of felons killed by police from 1976 to 1998 were — Officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides Race White Black Other Males 32 yrs 29 29 Females 35 yrs 39 33 • Median ages of felons killed by police from 1976 to 1998 were — Race White Black Other Males 30 yrs 27 27 Females 33 yrs 36 33 • White and black males ages 20 to 34 made up most of the felons killed by police (56%) from 1976 to 1998. The police officer's gender, race, and age are a part of the record for each justifiable homicide entered into the national database, but since participation is voluntary, police agencies do not always supply this information. There were 8,578 felons killed by police from 1976 to 1998. The age, race, and gender of the officer involved in the homicide were recorded on 69% of them, and at least one of the three characteristics was recorded on 85%. • Based on latest statistics (1998), together white males and black males ages 20 to 34 are 10% of the general population but 48% of those killed by police. Young male felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Rate per 1 million young white and black males, 1980-98 Rate per 1 million U.S. population ages 13-24 30 Young black male felons 20 10 Young white male felons 0 1980 1986 1992 1998 According to FBI national data on justifiable homicides by police from 1976 to 1998 — Officers' gender • The officer in a justifiable homicide case is almost always a male (98%) (table 5). Table 5. Gender of police officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides: Percent male and female, 1976-98 Total number of justifiable homicides Percent of officers by police Male Female Year Annual average 373 98% 2% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 99% 98 99 99 1% 2 1 1 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 99% 99 98 98 99 1% 1 2 2 1 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 97% 99 96 97 98 3% 1 4 3 2 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 97% 98 98 98 99 3% 2 2 2 1 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 98% 98 97 97 2% 2 3 3 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The officer’s gender is known in 84.8% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Figure 9 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 9 Officers' race Race of police officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides: Percent white and black, 1976-98 • From 1976 to 1998 the officer in 84% of justifiable homicides by police was white, and the officer in 15% was black (figure 10). Percent of officers who killed felons 100% 80% White officers Officers' age 60% • In most years officers ages 25 to 29 accounted for more justifiable homicides than any other age category (table 6). 40% Black officers • The average age of the officer in a justifiable homicide by police was 33 years. 20% 0% 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 • 55% of officers in justifiable homicides were over age 30 (not shown in table 6). Figure 10 Table 6. Age of police officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides by police Under 20 Percent of officers who were ages — 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40 or older Annual average 373 1% 9% 28% 28% 17% 17% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 0% 0 1 0 10% 11 13 9 37% 39 35 30 30% 28 32 29 10% 10 12 16 13% 12 7 16 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 0% 0 0 0 0 9% 13 7 11 10 31% 26 30 24 22 34% 31 32 28 31 17% 18 19 19 23 9% 12 12 18 14 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 0% 0 1 0 0 7% 7 8 4 10 24% 28 29 25 27 31% 28 23 35 24 24% 21 22 18 22 14% 16 17 18 17 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 1% 0 0 1 2 7% 12 12 8 8 26% 29 25 33 25 23% 25 25 24 28 21% 17 16 12 18 22% 17 22 22 19 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 4% 0 2 2 8% 5 6 7 28% 31 28 27 26% 23 27 27 14% 15 20 22 20% 26 18 15 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police, whether or not the age of the police officer is known. The officer’s age is known in 70.1% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Due to rounding error, detail may not sum to 100%. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. 10 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Officers' and felons' race Table 7. Gender and race of police officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Total number of justifiable homicides by police White Annual average 373 83% 14% 1% 1% 1% 0% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 82% 82 85 83 15% 17 14 15 2% 0 0 1 0% 1 0 0 1% 0 1 1 0% 0 0 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 85% 86 85 89 87 13% 13 14 8 11 0% 0 0 1 2 1% 0 1 1 0 1% 1 0 1 0 0% 0 0 0 0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 84% 89 82 82 84 12% 10 11 12 13 2% 0 2 2 0 1% 1 4 3 3 1% 0 1 1 0 0% 0 0 0 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 81% 80 81 81 76 15% 17 15 16 22 1% 1 2 1 1 2% 1 1 1 1 1% 1 1 1 0 0% 0 0 0 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 83% 86 79 80 14% 11 16 16 1% 1 2 1 1% 1 2 2 1% 1 1 1 0% 0 0 0 Year Percent of officers who were — Male Female Black Other White Black Other Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police, whether or not the gender or race of the police officers is known. The officer’s gender and race are known in 77.2% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. In 77% of the 8,578 justifiable homicides by police in the Nation's database, the race of both the felon and the officer was recorded. Some of the justifiable homicides are interracial, with the race of the felon differing from that of the officer. Because statistics on interracial homicide are easily misinterpreted, a few preliminary comments are offered. If every police officer in the United States were white, then any time a nonwhite person was justifiably killed by police, the homicide would be interracial. This illustrates that the extent to which justifiable homicide is interracial in the United States is influenced by the racial makeup of the police. Since, according to latest available statistics (1998), approximately 87% of all police officers in the United States are white (11% are black and 2% are of other races), by chance alone the likelihood is high that the officer who kills a nonwhite felon is white. The likelihood is also high that the officer who kills a white felon is white. It should not be surprising to find that most black felons killed by police (just as most white felons killed by police) are killed by a white police officer. "Chance" factors are not the only ones According to FBI national data on justifi- affecting the likelihood that a justifiable able homicides by police from 1976 to homicide is interracial. Nonchance • The officer in a justifiable homicide is 1998 — factors have an effect as well. An almost always a white or black male obvious one is the policy that police • When a justifiable homicide by police departments may have for assigning (97%) (table 7). occurs, it is almost always a male officers to particular neighborhoods. • White male officers accounted for officer killing a male felon (96%). A common policy is to assign black 83% of justifiable homicides from 1976 officers to black neighborhoods. to 1998 and black male officers • When a male officer kills, the felon Consequently, it might be expected accounted for 14%. killed is almost always a male (98%). that, when a black officer kills a felon, there is a high likelihood that the felon Officers' and felons' gender • When a female officer kills, the felon is also black. In line with that expectakilled is almost always a male (93%). tion, national statistics indicate that There were 8,578 felons killed by police most of the felons killed by black from 1976 to 1998. In 85% of these • When a male felon is killed, the officer officers are themselves black. More homicides the gender of both the felon is almost always a male (98%). generally, national statistics indicate and the officer was recorded in the that most justifiable homicides by police • When a female felon is killed, the national database. are intraracial. officer is almost always a male (95%). Officers' gender and race Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 11 According to FBI national data on justifiable homicides by police from 1976 to 1998 — • In about 65% of justifiable homicides by police, the officer's race and the felon's race were the same (figure 11). Intraracial White officer kills white felon Black officer kills black felon Other-race officer kills otherrace felon 53.1% 11.8 0.3 Interracial White officer kills black felon Black officer kills white felon White officer kills other-race felon Black officer kills other-race felon Other-race officer kills white felon Other-race officer kills black felon 29.6% 2.8 1.6 0.1 0.5 0.2 • Interracial homicide by police (for example, the killing of a black felon by a white officer or the killing of a white felon by a black officer) make up about a third of justifiable homicides. Felon statistics give one perspective on the number of police justifiable homicides that are interracial (for example, from 1976 to 1998, police justifiably killed 4,786 white felons, and in 5% of these homicides the officer was black). Officer statistics gave another perspective (for example, from 1976 to 1998 white police officers justifiably killed 5,579 felons, and in 35% of these homicides the felon was black). The extent to which justifiable homicide by police officers are interracial depends on which statistics are used: • The majority of black felons killed were by white officers (71%); the majority of white felons killed were by white officers (94%); and the majority of other race felons killed were by white officers (81%). Percent interracial and intraracial 60% White officer kills white felon 40% White officer kills black felon 20% Black officer kills black felon Black officer kills white felon 0% 1982 1988 Figure 11 12 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Percent of all justifiable homicides by police White officer Black officer kills — kills — White Black White Black felon felon felon felon 1978 1988 1998 46% 38% 57 27 56 24 2% 3 5 14% 10 12 • When a white officer kills a felon, that felon is usually a white (63%); and when Detailed 1998 racial statistics a black officer kills a felon, that felon is usually a black (81%). According to latest statistics (1998) — Race of felons and police officers in justifiable homicides: Percent interracial and intraracial, 1976-98 1976 • White-officer-kills-white-felon makes up a growing fraction of all justifiable homicides by police, while white-officerkills-black-felon makes up a declining fraction (figure 11). 1994 1998 • White officers make up 87% of the Nation's 641,208 police and account for 82% of justifiable homicides by police. Black officers make up 11% of the Nation's police and account for 17% of all justifiable homicides. • White officers (42 justifiable homicides per 100,000 white officers in 1998) and black officers (44 justifiable homicides per 100,000 black officers) commit justifiable homicides at about the same rate, but the rate for officers of other races is lower (25 per 100,000). • The black-officer-kills-black-felon rate is 32 per 100,000 black officers in 1998, which is higher than the white-officerkills-black-felon rate of 14 per 100,000 white officers. • The white-officer-kills-white-felon rate is 28 per 100,000 white officers in 1998, which is higher than the black-officerkills-white-felon rate of 11 per 100,000 black officers. The descriptions below are of cases of justifiable homicide by police in 1996. The choice of which cases to describe was left to the police departments that voluntarily prepared and submitted the narratives. Only large urban police departments were asked to participate. One officer observed a subject reaching into his waistband, at which time the subject was ordered to the ground by the officer. The other officer observed a second subject reaching into his waistband as he ran from the scene. The suspect removed a dark colored handgun from his waistband. The Atlanta officers ordered the suspect to drop the weapon, but the suspect refused. The • On Saturday, December 14, 1996, two suspect continued to run. Numerous Atlanta police officers attempted to times the officer ordered the suspect to conduct a traffic stop. The suspect, a “stop and drop the weapon,” but the foot 25-year-old male, refused to stop his chase continued. The suspect fired vehicle and a chase ensued. The several rounds at the officer from his suspect wrecked, then exited his Smith and Wesson .357 caliber vehicle, brandishing a weapon. The revolver. The officer returned fire. The officers began to chase the suspect on suspect approached a vehicle parked foot. The suspect then turned and fired on the road. He entered the vehicle several shots in the direction of both from the passenger side and ordered officers. One officer returned fire, strik- the operator of the vehicle to “drive!” ing the suspect multiple times. The Instead, the operator fled. suspect ran into a nearby apartment complex where he collapsed and died. The suspect continued to fire at the officer from the parked vehicle. The • On Thursday, June 6, 1996, at officer returned fire, striking the approximately 5:00 p.m., several plain- suspect, the vehicle, and two additional clothes Atlanta fugitive investigators vehicles in the immediate area. The went to a residence to serve an arrest suspect was observed slumped in the warrant on a 30-year-old male. The front passenger seat of the vehicle with officers approached the residence and a gunshot wound to the right eye and a identified themselves. The suspect, gunshot wound to the back. He armed with a loaded handgun, tried to succumbed to his wounds at the scene escape through a bedroom window two and was pronounced dead by a medic stories off the ground. When the at 11:48 a.m. suspect looked down from the bedroom window, he saw officers outside, on the • At approximately 2:15 p.m., on Thursground below him. The suspect pointed day, January 25, 1996, a Baltimore City his weapon in the direction of the police officer was responding to a drugofficers. One of the officers discharged related call when he was stopped by an his service weapon striking the suspect elderly male who advised the officer in the chest. The suspect later died at a that a male had just discharged a local hospital. handgun in a nearby park and was still there. The elderly male pointed to the Baltimore park area and stated, "there he is," as he pointed to a male wearing a black • At approximately 11:35 a.m., on hat, green jacket, and blue jeans standMonday, June 24, 1996, two uniformed ing in the park. The officer broadcast Baltimore City police officers were over the police radio information relating working as a unit when they observed a to the man armed with a gun, giving large group of individuals in an alley. both physical and clothing descriptions. Knowing the area to be a high-crime, Two plainclothes officers (with visible high-drug area, they exited their vehicle police ID's on chains around their neck) to conduct field interviews. At that time, and one uniformed officer were together two of the subjects ran from the group. in a marked police vehicle when they spotted and approached the suspect. The suspect was advised by one of the officers to keep his hands in the air where the officers could see them. The suspect turned around to face the officers and lifted up his coat. The officers could see in the suspect's waistband a black pistol that appeared to be a semi-automatic. The suspect withdrew the pistol and fired at the officers. The officers returned fire with their departmentally issued weapons (each a Glock model 17). The suspect began to run while continuing to fire at the officers. The officers returned fire until the suspect was incapacitated. When the suspect finally dropped his gun, he was no longer a threat. One officer approached the suspect, kicked the pistol out of the suspect's reach, and handcuffed him. The officers immediately called for medical personnel because the suspect was still alive. The suspect was uncuffed to receive medical aid. The suspect was pronounced dead of multiple gunshot wounds at a local hospital. The decedent's green coat was found at the scene with a black ski mask, more than 80 .22 caliber cartridges, and a stainless steel Smith and Wesson break front revolver with 5 .32 caliber cartridges. Less than 1 year prior to his death, the deceased was released from a super maximum security prison where he had served a lengthy sentence for rape and burglary. • On Thursday, November 7, 1996, at approximately 11:05 a.m., responding to a report of a missing elderly woman, a Baltimore City police officer was sent to investigate the woman’s apartment. After discovering the elderly woman stabbed to death on her bed, the officer called the Baltimore City Homicide Unit to assist with a “questionable death” investigation. While searching the apartment for the possible murder weapon, a detective noticed the suspect’s feet under a daybed in the Policing and Homicide, 1976-96 13 living room. The officers ordered the person under the bed to come out. When the suspect did not respond to their commands, the officers began to move the bed, continuing to command the person to get up. Suddenly the suspect jumped up, armed with a large butcher knife raised over his head. The officers demanded several times that the suspect drop the knife, but the suspect refused and began to advance toward one of the officers. Both officers opened fire after the suspect’s continued refusal to drop the knife. The suspect fell to the floor after being struck several times in the upper torso. The suspect was a 41-year-old male. He was a drug user with a long prior record of arrests (including rape, assault, and attempted robbery). The elderly woman was his grandmother, with whom he lived. Family of the suspect reported that he frequently stole from her to support his drug habit and had been known to be physically abusive to her, on at least one occasion twisting her arm and pushing her to the ground. threatening to crash into a pole or a car and “take both of them out.” The officer was pleading with the suspect to stop the car. The suspect yelled to the officer, “if we don’t hit a pole and kill you, I’m going to pull your gun and shoot you.” At that time, the officer checked for his weapon and pulled it out. The officer placed the weapon to the head of the suspect telling him numerous times to stop the vehicle or the officer would be forced to shoot him. When the suspect would not stop, the officer fired one time, striking the suspect in the head. Prior to the vehicle striking a pole, the officer rolled out. The suspect died at the scene. As officers approached him, the suspect walked away, then attempted to run. One officer caught the suspect and wrestled him to the ground. As the suspect reached the ground, he pulled a pistol from his pocket and fired at the officers. Officers returned fire, killing the suspect. One sergeant involved in the shooting was shot in the side, but was not seriously injured because he was wearing body armor. • At approximately 9:57 p.m., on Friday, March 8, 1996, four Houston police officers were dispatched to a "home invasion in progress" call. As the officers approached the house, they observed a male standing in the Houston shadows of the doorway. Officers asked the man to step outside and • On Sunday, February 18, 1996, a remove his hands from his pockets. Harris County, Texas, deputy sheriff The suspect responded by telling the was working in uniform at an off-duty officers that he had a gun and for the job in a liquor store. (Officers may work officers to come in and get him. The off-duty jobs in uniform after the suspect then ran toward one of the employer has received a permit from officers, who discharged his weapon at the Harris County Sheriff’s Department.) the suspect, severing the left femoral Two males came into the store in an artery. attempt to purchase tequila. The A Baltimore City Fire Department medic deputy noticed that the males were • On the night of Tuesday, March 12, responded to the scene and a technialready intoxicated and advised the 1996, a Houston police officer working cian pronounced the suspect dead at clerk not to sell the alcohol. One of the an off-duty job was called to invest1:22 p.m. men threw four bottles of mineral water igate a loud noise complaint. As the into a tub with other bottles, walked out uniformed officer walked from his apartCleveland of the store, and got into his car. ment, he observed two vehicles — one Believing the bottles had broken, the had the engine running. The officer • On Friday, July 26, 1996, at approxideputy attempted to stop the man. The also observed a male standing between mately 10:29 p.m., a Cleveland police deputy stood between the driver’s seat the two vehicles. The officer heard a officer observed a vehicle driving and the open car door, but the suspect man say, "hurry up," then witnessed the without headlights. When the officer refused to turn off his vehicle. As the other man jump into the vehicle with its made a traffic stop, the suspect suspect backed his car away from the motor running. The officer ordered the indicated that he had no driver’s liquor store, the deputy was trapped and occupants to stop. The vehicle struck license. The officer asked the suspect believed that he would be dragged the officer in the right leg. The officer to step out of the car. Rather than under the car. Fearing for his life, the fired two rounds at the vehicle, but was obeying, the suspect put the vehicle deputy fired his weapon two times at the unsure whether he fired before or after into reverse, at which time the officer suspect, striking him one time in the he was struck. Approximately 10 reached into the vehicle in an attempt to chest. minutes later, one suspect was found turn off the key. The suspect began dead at his house from a gunshot driving at a high rate of speed holding • On Tuesday, February 27, 1996, wound to the head. The other suspect onto the officer. Houston police officers were searching confessed that they were burglarizing a for a male escapee who was wanted for vehicle when the officer confronted The officer was yelling for the suspect aggravated assault of a police officer. them. to stop the car, but the suspect refused. After receiving a tip on the suspect's In response to the officer hitting him location, the officers observed the with a flashlight, the suspect was suspect get off a bus. 14 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 • On Thursday, August 8, 1996, Houston police officers were assisting a "neighborhood protection inspector" with inspections of abandoned houses. As officers approached one house, a male walked out of and away from the house. One officer attempted to stop the suspect who was walking away, while the other officer walked onto the porch. When the officer stepped on the porch, another male suspect ran out of the house and grabbed the officer's weapon. Fearing for his life, the officer fired one time, striking the suspect in the chest. • On Sunday, December 15, 1996, a Harris County, Texas, deputy constable was dispatched to a "man down" call. The deputy observed the man lying in the grass and approached him. The man jumped up and grabbed a club, which consisted of two 2x4's nailed together with nails protruding from the wood. The deputy drew his service weapon, but the suspect began advancing toward him and threatening him with the club. After the deputy retreated approximately 140 feet, he shot the suspect one time in the chest. Los Angeles • On Friday, November 8, 1996, at 5:00 a.m., Houston police patrol officers observed two males walking down the street carrying a television, a radio, and a bucket of tools. As officers approached, the suspects began acting suspiciously and speaking Spanish to each other. Officers heard them use the word "pistola." One suspect reached into his pocket as if to retrieve a weapon. In Spanish, the officer ordered the suspect to raise his hands, but the suspect refused. The officer attempted to physically control the suspect, but the suspect broke away and continued reaching into his pocket. Being in fear for his life, the officer fired two times at the suspect. The suspect had been attempting to retrieve an open pocket knife. • On Tuesday, December 10, 1996, Houston police narcotic officers were attempting to buy 5 kilos of cocaine through an informant. Officers observed four suspects walking into the parking lot with the informant. As one of the officers was parking his car, he heard someone yell, "police, police." The officer then observed one male run past him carrying a gym bag. The officer chased the suspect, identified himself as a police officer, and ordered the man to raise his hands. As the suspect raised his left hand, he pulled a .25 caliber pistol from his right pocket. The officer fired two times at the suspect, striking him in the chest and leg. • At approximately 6:14 p.m. on Thursday, February 1, 1996, uniformed Los Angeles police officers driving a marked police vehicle approached the subject. The subject produced a 9 mm pistol and fired several shots at the officers, hitting the police vehicle and wounding one officer. Both officers returned fire, wounding the subject. The subject was subsequently transported to a Los Angeles medical center where he expired during surgery. • At approximately 6:25 a.m. on Saturday, April 20, 1996, the suspect, armed with a handgun, confronted and threatened to kill several of his apartment complex neighbors. Los Angeles police were notified and responded to the scene. Upon arrival at the apartment complex, officers were confronted by the suspect, who was still armed with a handgun. The suspect pointed the handgun at several officers, threatening to kill them. An officer-involved shooting occurred and the suspect sustained multiple gunshot wounds. A Los Angeles City Fire Department rescue ambulance responded to the scene. The suspect was pronounced dead at 7:42 a.m. • At approximately 9:40 p.m. on Saturday, July 20, 1996, an armed subject confronted Los Angeles police officers. The subject was shot to death. • At approximately 4:30 p.m. on Sunday, December 22, 1996, two uniformed Los Angeles police officers • At approximately 7:30 p.m. on Saturwere investigating a shoplifting in which day, June 22, 1996, Los Angeles police two six-packs of beer were stolen from responded to a radio call regarding a a convenience store. As the officers “man with a shotgun.” Arriving at the were driving in the alley to the rear of scene, officers were confronted by the the store, they observed the suspect suspect who was located at the top of a carrying a six-pack of beer in each stairwell in front of the apartment door. hand. As soon as the officers stopped The suspect was armed with a shotgun. their police vehicle behind the suspect, the suspect turned and immediately The Los Angeles Police Department’s walked toward the right side of the S.W.A.T. team was notified. S.W.A.T. police vehicle. The suspect pulled a officers were confronted by the suspect .380 caliber semiautomatic pistol from still armed with a shotgun. When the his right front pocket and fired two suspect pointed the shotgun at the rounds at the officer seated in the front S.W.A.T. officers, the officers opened passenger seat. Both officers opened fire. The suspect sustained multiple fire with their 9 mm pistols, killing the shotgun wounds to his chest. suspect. As a result of the suspect’s gunfire one officer died. A Los Angeles Fire Department rescue ambulance responded to the scene, where the suspect was pronounced dead at 11:05 p.m. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 15 • At approximately 5:00 p.m. on Monday, March 11, 1996, the suspect was driving a vehicle that was stopped in an alley. Uniformed Los Angeles police officers approached the vehicle to conduct a possible stolen vehicle investigation. During the course of the investigation, the suspect started the vehicle in an attempt to flee, dragging the officer alongside. was approached by a bus driver who told the officer that he had just seen a man armed with a shotgun enter a crowded office two blocks away. Responding to the location, the officer encountered a detective who had observed several people fleeing the building and had stopped to investigate. Looking through the front window, the officers observed the gunman shouting and waving the shotgun at a female An officer-involved shooting occurred hostage. The officers entered the buildand the suspect sustained a gunshot ing and were crawling on their hands wound to his neck. The suspect and knees toward the rear office when expired at the scene. Paramedics the gunman spotted them and twice responded and pronounced the suspect fired at them through the office window. As the hostage took cover under a dead at 5:04 p.m. desk, the detective and police officer New York City returned fire, striking the gunman six times and mortally wounding him. A • On Monday, April 8, 1996, two New total of 20 hostages were rescued from York City police officers were conductthe location. Recovered from the scene ing an undercover “buy and bust” drug were a 12-gauge shotgun, a fully loaded operation in the Bronx. As one officer .22 caliber revolver, 123 rounds, and approached a group of males to 103 shotgun shells. It was learned that purchase the drugs, he overheard the gunman had threatened to kill several of the males arguing. During everyone in the office until he located the argument a gun was mentioned. his estranged girlfriend, an employee The officer turned back to relay this who had transferred to another office information to his partner. As the two just days earlier. officers conferred, one officer observed one of the male suspects brandish a • Late one Friday night in July 1996, two gun and fire two bullets at another New York City police officers were on person in the group. The officers drew routine patrol when they received a their firearms and sought cover behind radio broadcast of a “man with a gun.” a telephone pole. One officer identified Although they were not yet aware of it, himself as a police officer and ordered the subject had just robbed a grocery the suspect to drop his weapon. The store while armed with a .44 caliber gunman, standing 25 feet away, turned revolver. As they pulled up to the toward the officers and began firing his scene, they observed one of the 9 mm semi-automatic pistol at them. robbery victims running from the store. Both officers returned fire. During the course of the gun battle, the officers He told the officers that the gunman exhausted their ammunition supply. was still inside. Suddenly, the suspect The perpetrator, with his gun in hand, emerged from the store with the then began to advance toward the weapon in his hand. Despite repeated officers. With no bullets remaining in orders to drop the weapon, the suspect their pistols, one officer retrieved his cocked the revolver and aimed it off-duty revolver and fired one shot at directly at the officers. The officers fired the advancing gunman, causing him to a total of five rounds and mortally stagger and collapse to the ground, wounded the perpetrator. where he succumbed to his wounds. • On Tuesday, September 3, 1996, • On the morning of Thursday, May 9, two police officers in Staten Island 1996, a New York City police officer responded to a family dispute. 16 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 The officers were met by the complainant across the street from the location. She stated that her estranged husband was in the house, in violation of an order of protection. She said he was not armed and informed the officers that he had ripped the telephone from the wall, forcing her to call the police from outside of the house. As the officers approached the building, the suspect fired a rifle from the second floor of the building, barely missing them, but piercing the gas tanks of a parked vehicle. As the officers took cover, the gunman fired two more shots. Pinned down by the rifle-wielding perpetrator and with no other way to protect either the civilian or themselves, the officers returned fire and mortally wounded the gunman. Oklahoma City • At approximately 4:37 p.m. on Thursday, April 4, 1996, Oklahoma City Police Department officers served a warrant for an immediate drug search of a residence. Upon arrival at the residence, the raid officers each went to the position that was assigned during the pre-raid briefing. The front door of the residence was broken open and, before making entry, the officers identified themselves as police officers. As the first two officers entered the living room, they observed a subject lying on a sofa. The subject raised up and pointed a long barreled handgun at the officers. The two officers fired their service weapons. Both officers stopped shooting when the armed subject collapsed to the floor. Another subject appeared in the doorway to the living room. He had apparently come from another area of the residence. The officer nearest the doorway was grabbed from behind by the second subject. That officer turned and fired at the second subject. One suspect died at the scene, and the second suspect died later at a local hospital. • At approximately 12:37 a.m. on Friday, August 6, 1996, several Oklahoma City Police Department officers were attempting to locate an armed subject who was reported to be en route to his girlfriend’s residence. Information about the suspect had been announced in a general broadcast over the police radio. The suspect had been recently released from the Oklahoma State penitentiary. Initially, officers did not have an address but after searching phone records from the enhanced 911 system, dispatchers were able to find an address for the subject’s girlfriend. While on the phone with someone at the girlfriend’s residence, a female dispatcher heard what she thought were three gunshots. From inside the bedroom and out of sight of the officer, the suspect announced he was going to push the two children out through the bedroom door. As the suspect came into view of the officer in the bathroom, the officer could see that the suspect was still armed with a handgun. The suspect moved and was standing directly over the body of the dead female. He began to raise his weapon and then pointed it in the direction of the officer in the bedroom. The officer responded by firing two rounds from his .45 caliber service weapon. Both rounds struck the suspect, killing him. The deceased suspect had just committed three homicides. Philadelphia • On Friday, June 21, 1996, at approximately 3:38 p.m., a Philadelphia police officer responded to a “man with a knife” disturbance. Upon arrival at the residence, the officer was informed by a woman yelling from the second floor of the house that the suspect was downstairs in the house. She told the officer to enter through the front door as it was already open. The officer drew his gun, then entered the residence. Inside, a 50-year-old male was carrying a steak knife while walking out of the kitchen and toward the officer. Despite several demands from the officer to drop the knife, the suspect continued to approach the officer. The officer fired his service weapon (a Glock model 17) one time striking the suspect in the chest. With the knife still in his right hand, the suspect fell to the floor. When rescue services and back-up officers arrived, the knife was recovered and the suspect was transported to a local hospital. The suspect was pronounced dead at 4:05 p.m. • At approximately 5:25 a.m. on Tuesday, November 16, 1996, several Oklahoma City Police Department officers met for breakfast at a local 24-hour restaurant. While adjusting tables to accommodate other officers who had not yet arrived, the officers observed a subject sitting in a booth by himself. The subject matched the description of a suspect who was wanted in connection with an “assault • On Friday, November 15, 1996, at The officers kicked open the apartwith a deadly weapon with intent to kill” approximately 8:51 a.m., a Philadelphia ment’s front door. The first officer to that had occurred earlier in the evening. police officer at a school crossing was enter confirmed a body on the floor. approached by a 29-year-old male in a The officer stepped over the body in the One officer went over to the suspect car. The man asked for directions. hallway and moved toward a bedroom while the other officers moved into The officer noticed a gun in the where he observed the body of another position to back up the confronting suspect’s vehicle. While the officer was female also on the floor. A small child officer. To confirm that the suspect was investigating the incident, the suspect was sitting on the shoulder of the dead the one who was wanted for the pulled out another gun and shot at the female, looking at the officer. Another assault, the officer asked to look at the officer, striking him one time in the child was nearby. As the officer began suspect’s forearm. The officer was chest. The officer returned fire, striking to move into the bedroom, a voice from looking for an identifying tattoo. the suspect several times in the chest the bedroom warned the officer that if and neck. Both officer and suspect he came in he would be shot. The only When the officer saw the identifying were taken to a local hospital. Because light in the bedroom was that of a televi- tattoo, he immediately began to back the officer had been wearing a bulletsion. The officer observed the silhouaway from the booth where the suspect proof vest, he was not seriously injured ette of a man holding a handgun. The was seated. The seated suspect, with and was soon released. The suspect officer immediately retreated to a his right hand, reached into his waistwas pronounced dead at 9:20 a.m. nearby bathroom. The officers identiband and produced a semiautomatic fied themselves and ordered the pistol. The officer ordered the suspect suspect to drop his weapon. When the down, but the suspect ignored the order gunman changed locations inside the and brought the gun above the table bedroom, the officer attempted to top. All four officers began shooting at verbally coax the children out of the the suspect. The suspect was struck bedroom. several times and died at the scene. When responding officers arrived at the apartment, the first responding officer knocked on the front door without a response. Officers were able to peer inside the apartment through a window near the front door. From the window the officers observed what appeared to be blood spattered on the walls and a person lying on the floor. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 17 • On Sunday, November 17, 1996, at approximately 1:08 a.m., three Philadelphia police officers responded to a “burglary in progress” call. While covering the rear of the residence, two officers witnessed a male exiting the property. The suspect fired a weapon at the officers. Both officers returned fire with their service weapons (Glock, model 17; Glock, model 19), hitting the suspect in the chest, neck, shoulder, and hand. A second male suspect pushed open the front door. Seeing a police officer covering the front of the residence, the second suspect fired a weapon from inside the house at the officer. The officer returned fire, hitting the second suspect in the chest. The suspect collapsed on the sidewalk in front of the house. At the time of the shooting, the other two officers were inside the house. The first suspect was taken to a local hospital where he was pronounced dead. The second suspect was pronounced dead at the scene. Both guns used by the suspects were recovered at the scene. 18 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Police officers murdered by felons, 1976-98 Throughout this report, the term “police officer” refers to persons with sworn arrest powers. Such persons include sheriffs, deputies, State troopers, and other law enforcement officers. police officer, and such information on • On average, 79 law enforcement the felon as age, race, gender, and prior officers were murdered in the United record. States each year from 1976 to 1998, but the annual number is dropping Drop in murders of police officers (figure 12). When a felon murders a police officer in the line of duty, the deceased officer’s agency voluntarily sends a record of the offense to the FBI in Washington. The record is then entered into a national database. The database contains such information as the officer’s age, race, and gender, the number of years as a According to national data on felonious killings of police officers — • 1,820 law enforcement officers were murdered between 1976 and 1998. Number of police officers murdered by felons, 1976-98 Number of police officers 1978 1988 1998 Number of police officers murdered 93 78 61 • There is little correspondence between trends in the murder of police officers and trends in justifiable homicides by police (the correlation is +0.3) (figure 13). • Of all the murders of police officers from 1987 to 1998 (834), about 1 in 6, or 15% (129), were by felons who were then killed by police in a justifiable homicide. 100 • Of all the justifiable homicides by police from 1987 to 1998 (4,535), about 3% (129) were of felons who had murdered a police officer. Police officers murdered 50 0 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 Figure 12 Number of police officers murdered by felons compared to the number of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Number of homicides 480 Felons killed 400 320 240 160 Officers murdered 80 0 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 Figure 13 Policing and Homicide, 1976-96 19 Table 8. Police officers murdered by felons: Percent wearing body armor at the time of death, 1981-98 Year Percent of murdered officers wearing body armor Annual average 33% 1981 1982 1983 1984 12% 15 25 24 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 19% 24 25 26 32 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 25% 34 27 56 47 1995 1996 1997 1998 46% 56 42 57 Note: Data on police killed wearing body armor are not available prior to 1981. Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Perhaps an explanation for the drop in police officer murders has something to do with increasing police use of bullet-proof vests and other types of body armor. Presumably the more often that police wear body armor, the less often that police die in violent encounters with felons. Needed to test this explanation are annual statistics that indicate what percentage of law enforcement officers wear body armor. While such statistics apparently do not exist, annual statistics do exist that indicate what percentage of murdered officers are wearing armor at the time of their attack. These statistics should suffice so long as it is assumed that increases in the percentage of murdered officers wearing armor mirror a broader trend toward increasing use of body armor by police. Consistent with this explanation — • Police wearing of body armor has risen (as reflected in the percentage of murdered officers who are wearing armor at the time of their attack) and police deaths have fallen (table 8). Police officers murdered by felons: Rate per 100,000 officers, 1976-98 Rate per 100,000 officers 30 Police officers murdered 20 10 0 1976 1982 1988 Figure 14 20 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 1994 1998 Other factors beyond increased use of body armor probably have contributed to the drop in murders of police officers. These other factors include better training, better communications, and better police practices. Drop in rate of murder of police officers From 1976 to 1998, on average 17 of every 100,000 police officers were murdered annually. Each year this was an average of more than 1 murdered for every 6,500 law enforcement officers. A police officer's risk of being murdered has dropped (figure 14): In 1978, 1 in 4,000 police officers was murdered In 1988 1 in 6,000 police officers was murdered In 1998 1 in 11,000 police officers was murdered. Table 9. Police officers murdered by felons: Percent killed with firearm and percent slain with own weapon, 1976-98 Year Annual average Total number Percent of murdered police of officers officers killed with — murdered a firearm their own firearm 79 92% 12% 1976 1977 1978 1979 111 93 93 106 85% 89 98 94 14% 10 15 16 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 104 91 92 80 72 91% 95 89 93 92 13% 13 5 15 17 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 78 66 74 78 66 90% 94 89 97 86 14% 23 18 15 15 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 66 71 64 70 79 86% 96 86 96 99 5% 11 6 7 8 1995 1996 1997 1998 74 61 70 61 84% 93 96 95 8% 7 7 10 Police officers murdered with their own firearm Firearms claimed the lives of 92% of the 1,820 law enforcement officers murdered from 1976 to 1998 (table 9). Twelve percent of murdered officers were killed with their own firearms during the 23-year period. The vast majority of the officers who were slain with their own weapons were killed with a handgun. Police officers slain with their own firearm Number Percent 1978 14 15.1% 1988 12 15.0 1998 6 9.8 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 21 Circumstances at scene of incident On average, 39% of officers lost their lives during arrest situations. One in six officers (16%) were killed while responding to disturbance calls, 14% were killed while enforcing traffic laws, 14% were slain while investigating suspicious persons or circumstances, and 11% were killed in an ambush situation (table 10). Table 10. Police officers murdered by felons: Circumstances at scene of incident, 1976-98 Year Annual average Total number of officers Disturbance Arrest murdered calls situations Handling, transporting, custody of Civil disorders prisoners Investigating suspicious persons/ Ambush circumstances situation Mentally deranged Traffic pursuits/ stops 79 16% 39% 0% 4% 14% 11% 2% 14% 1976 1977 1978 1979 111 93 93 106 18% 24 11 16 44% 42 42 44 0% 0 0 0 4% 8 8 3 10% 10 9 9 12% 4 13 10 4% 0 3 4 9% 13 15 14 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 104 91 92 80 72 12% 21 20 19 11 46% 41 39 39 49 0% 0 1 0 0 1% 1 3 4 4 16% 11 11 13 14 7% 10 10 11 11 2% 2 2 1 0 16% 14 14 14 11 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 78 66 74 78 66 17% 9 30 9 20 37% 39 37 42 36 0% 0 0 0 0 5% 8 8 3 9 12% 17 7 28 15 9% 8 6 9 6 0% 5 1 1 3 21% 15 11 8 11 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 66 71 64 70 79 15% 24 17 14 10 46% 20 42 40 42 0% 0 0 0 0 3% 9 3 1 1 14% 14 11 21 19 12% 16 11 7 10 2% 0 0 1 5 9% 18 16 14 13 1995 1996 1997 1998 74 61 70 61 11% 7 20 26 28% 41 30 26 0% 0 0 0 5% 0 6 7 23% 21 14 10 19% 12 17 16 1% 2 1 0 12% 18 11 15 Note: Detail may not sum to 100% due to rounding error. Disturbance calls include: bar fights, man with gun, family quarrels. Arrests situations include: burglaries in progress/pursuing burglary suspects, robberies in progress/pursuing robbery suspects, drug-related matters, attempting other arrests. Civil disorders include: mass disobedience, riot. Ambush situations include: entrapment/premeditation, unprovoked attack. Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. 22 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Officer's age Under 25 25 to 30 31 to 40 41 or older Murdered police officers According to FBI national data on felonious killings of police officers from 1976 to 1998 — Officers' gender Officers' age • Police officers slain in the line of duty were almost always males (98%) (table 12). • 65% were over 30 years of age (table 11). Table 12. Gender of police officers murdered by felons, 1976-98 Table 11. Age of police officers murdered by felons, 1976-98 Year 8% 27 36 29 Percent of murdered officers who were — Under 25 25-30 31-40 41 or older Year 8% 27% 36% 29% Annual average 1976 1977 1978 1979 11% 11 14 9 32% 39 30 20 28% 23 30 41 29% 27 26 30 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 12% 13 9 10 6 26% 23 24 30 28 43% 42 44 45 40 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 5% 8 11 15 5 26% 30 26 15 20 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 5% 7 6 6 8 1995 1996 1997 1998 8% 4 2 11 Annual average Percent of murdered officers Male Female 98% 2% 1976 1977 1978 1979 100% 99 100 99 0% 1 0 1 19% 22 23 15 26 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 99% 98 97 100 94 1% 2 3 0 6 35% 29 32 40 38 34% 33 31 30 37 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 96% 98 100 97 97 4% 2 0 3 3 14% 27 21 38 26 41% 36 39 34 38 40% 30 34 22 28 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 98% 96 100 94 96 2% 4 0 6 4 26% 35 26 30 24% 39 35 28 42% 22 37 31 1995 1996 1997 1998 99% 96 100 90 1% 4 0 10 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 23 Officers' race Race of police officers murdered by felons: Percent white and black, 1976-98 • 86% of murdered officers were white and 13% were black (figure 15). Percent of murdered officers 100% Officers' other characteristics 80% • 72% of officers murdered from 1976 to 1996 were wearing their uniform (table 13). White officers 60% • Murdered police officers had an average of 9 years of law enforcement service. 40% Black officers 20% Years of service Less than 1 6% 1 to 4 29 5 to 10 31 Over 10 34 0% 1976 1982 1988 1994 1998 Figure 15 Detailed racial statistics for the 1990's Table 13. Police officers murdered by felons: Percent wearing uniform at time of death, 1976-98 Year Table 14. Age of felons who murdered police officers: Percent under age 18 and age 18-30, 1976-98 Percent wearing uniform Annual average 72% 1976 1977 1978 1979 71% 81 80 71 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 69% 80 52 80 75 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 73% 67 79 68 67 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 63% 73 65 81 63 1995 1996 1997 1998 66% 78 75 79 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Year Percent of murderers of police officers who were — Age Under age 18 18-30 Annual average 10% 54% 1976 1977 1978 1979 10% 11 8 5 45% 58 62 60 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 9% 7 5 8 20 62% 46 57 47 53 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 4% 2 13 5 7 59% 58 41 63 42 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 8% 9 13 20 18 53% 60 54 47 47 1995 1996 1997 1998 18% 7 3 13 46% 66 58 58 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. 24 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 • According to statistics for 1993-98, white police officers made up about 87% of all police officers in the United States and 83% of all police officers murdered by felons. Black officers were 11% of police officers but 15% of those murdered, and officers of other races were 2% of police officers and 2% of those murdered. Felons who murdered police officers According to FBI national data on felonious killings of police officers from 1976 to 1998 — Felons' age • Most persons who murdered police were ages 18 to 30 (54%) (table 14). According to FBI national data on feloni- Felons' race ous killings of police officers from 1976 • Most persons who murdered a police to 1998 — officer were white (54%) (table 16). Felons' gender • Blacks made up about 12% of the • Persons who murdered a police officer U.S. population but were 43% of the were almost always males (97%) felons who murdered a police officer; (table 15). whites were about 83% of the U.S. population but about 54% of murderers of police officers. Table 15. Gender of felons who murdered police officers, 1976-98 Year Percent of murderers of police officers Male Female • Murderers of police officers represent a tiny fraction of the total population. Of the Nation's 89 million white males (age 13 or older), 35 murdered a police officer in 1998. Of the 12 million black males (age 13 or older), 21 murdered an officer that year. White males were 41% of the U.S. population (age 13 or older) and 58% of those who murdered a law enforcement officer. Black males were 6% of the population (age 13 or older) and 35% of the murderers of officers. Table 16. Race of felons who murdered police officers, 1976-98 Year Percent of murderers of police officers White Black Other Annual average 97% 3% Annual average 54% 43% 3% 1976 1977 1978 1979 94% 99 94 97 6% 1 6 3 1976 1977 1978 1979 54% 58 56 51 43% 37 39 47 3% 5 5 2 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 93% 96 95 97 98 7% 4 5 3 2 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 57% 41 61 66 55 43% 57 38 32 38 0% 2 1 2 7 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 99% 97 91 98 96 1% 3 9 2 4 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 47% 60 65 58 56 50% 37 35 42 42 3% 3 0 0 2 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 94% 99 99 99 96 6% 1 1 1 4 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 56% 54 53 43 54 43% 45 46 57 43 1% 1 1 0 3 1995 1996 1997 1998 92% 99 100 99 8% 1 0 1 1995 1996 1997 1998 56% 45 50 58 40% 48 41 35 4% 7 9 7 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 25 According to FBI national data on feloni- Felons' race and officers' race, 1980-98 ous killings of police officers from 1976 A total of 1,417 law enforcement to 1998 — officers were murdered during the Felons' criminal record period 1980 to 1998, and — • Two-thirds of the felons who murdered • In most of the murders of police a police officer had a prior criminal officers between 1980 and 1998 (62%), the officer's race and the felon’s race arrest (figure 16). were the same: • Half were convicted in the past. • A third had a prior arrest for a violent crime. • A fifth were on parole or on probation at the time of the murder. • 4% had a prior arrest for murder charges. • 24% had a prior arrest for narcotic drug law violations. • 11% had a prior arrest for assaulting police or resisting arrest. Intraracial White felon kills white officer Black felon kills black officer Other-race felon kills otherrace officer Percent of murderers of police officers 100% 80% Prior arrest Criminal arrest 60% 40% Violent crime 20% Assaulting police 0% 1988 Figure 16 26 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Victim statistics provide one perspective on the number of police murders that are interracial (for example, of all black officers murdered from 1980 to 1998, 19% were murdered by a white felon). Offender statistics provide another perspective (for example, of all white felons who murdered a police officer from 1980 to 1998, 3% of the murdered officers were black). The extent to which murders of police officers are interracial depends on which statistics — victim or offender — are used: • When a white police officer is murdered, the offender is usually a white (60%); and when a black police officer is murdered, the offender is usually a black (76%). • When a black felon murders a police officer, the officer is usually a white (74%); and when a white felon murders a police officer, the officer is usually a white (95%). Felons who murdered police officers: Percent with criminal history, 1976-98 1982 0.6 Interracial White felon kills black officer 2.4% Black felon kills white officer 28.5 White felon kills other-race officer 0.4 Black felon kills other-race officer 0.0 Other-race felon kills white officer 2.6 Other-race felon kills black officer 0.1 Multiple felons of different races kill — white officer 2.9% black officer 0.6 other-race officer 0.0 • 28% had a prior arrest for weapons violations. 1976 51.9% 10.0 • 38% of murders of police officers are interracial (for example, a white felon killing a black officer, or a black felon killing a white officer). 1994 1998 Felons' age, race, and gender, 1980-98 • Murderers of police officers represent a tiny fraction of the total population. Of the Nation’s 18.3 million young white males (white males ages 13 to 24), 17 murdered a police officer in 1998. Of the 3.4 million young black males, 13 murdered an officer that year. On average from 1980 to 1998 — • Young black males murdered police officers at a rate almost 6 times that of • Young white males made up about 8% young white males (5.7 versus 1 per of the population but 20% of felons who million population) (figure 18). murdered a police officer (figure 17). Young black males made up about 1% Descriptions of actual cases of the population but 21% of felons who of police officers killed in the line murdered a police officer. of duty Descriptions of actual cases of police officers killed in the line of duty can be found in the annual FBI publication, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted, or on the FBI website at http://www.fbi.gov/ucr.htm. Felons who murdered police officers: Percent young white and black males, 1980-98 Percent of murderers of police officers 40% 30% Young white male felons 20% Young black male felons 10% 0% 1980 1986 1992 1998 Figure 17 Felons who murdered police officers: Rate per 1 million population for young white and black males, 1980-98 Rate per 1 million U.S. population ages 13-24 12 10 8 6 4 Young black male felons 2 Young white male felons 0 1980 1986 1992 1998 Figure 18 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 27 Methodology The SHR national database on justifiable homicides by police Ideally, every time police kill a felon in a justifiable homicide, a record of the event is sent to the FBI in Washington. Each record of justifiable homicide received by the FBI is then entered into the Supplemental Homicide Reports (SHR) database. The number of justifiable homicides by police in the year is available in two places: the SHR database and the FBI annual publication Crime in the United States. (The first published count covers 1987.) Evolution of the SHR database Three stages describe the evolution of the SHR database. 1. Early stage: 1963 to 1967 In the early 1960's the FBI started the SHR database. Police departments across the Nation began sending to the FBI a record of each murder (including nonnegligent manslaughter) in their jurisdiction. The first records covered murders occurring in 1963. The FBI decided to expand the database to include justifiable homicides by police and civilians. The Published counts found in Crime in the first records received were for justifiable United States do not agree precisely homicides occurring in 1966 and 1967. with the number of justifiable homicides The records included the age, race, and by police found in the database (see gender of persons justifiably killed. The below). Moreover, in certain years age, gender, and race of the police there are police justifiable homicides in officers involved in the homicides were a State that are unaccounted for either not included because this information in the annual publication or in the SHR was not requested. The FBI did not database. (The FBI publication disseminate statistics on 1966 and 1967 routinely summarizes year-to-year justifiable homicides because the counts of justifiable homicides in a records were based on too few police table. Summary counts in this table are departments. often not national in scope. To avoid confusion, the table should alert readers 2. Middle stage: 1968 to 1975 when States are missing.) The cooperation of the Nation's police Two sources of FBI statistics on the annual departments grew to the point where number of justifiable homicides by police: the FBI began disseminating statistics published versus SHR database on justifiable homicides by police. The earliest statistics covered those justifiYear Published SHR Difference able homicides occurring in 1968. 1998 365 367 2 1997 366 361 5 Statistics from 1968 to 1986 were not 1996 358 355 3 published but were made available 1995 389 382 7 upon request. FBI statistics from 1987 1994 462 459 3 and later were routinely published. 1993 455 453 2 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 418 366 385 363 343 300 414 359 379 362 339 296 4 7 6 1 4 4 28 Policing and Homicide, 1976-96 Justifiable homicides in the SHR database for 1968 through 1975 contained information on the age, race, and gender of persons killed by police, but no information on the officers involved in these incidents. According to the database, the number of justifiable homicides by police from 1968 to 1975 was: Year 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Number of justifiable homicides by police 395 424 412 557 469 492 553 559 3. Current stage: 1976 to present After 1975 the FBI expanded the scope of the SHR database to include information (age, race, gender) on the police officers who commit justifiable homicide. Nonjustifiable homicide by police In addition to justifiable homicides by police, the SHR database also contains records of two other types of homicide: • a record of each justifiable homicide by citizens • a record of each murder. While the database has primarily a statistical purpose, one statistic that is impossible to obtain from it (or from any currently existing database) is the number of murders by police. Murder is a type of nonjustifiable homicide. If a police officer deliberately kills someone and the homicide is not justified, that type of nonjustifiable homicide is supposed to go into the database as a "murder." Undoubtedly some of the "murders" in the SHR database are murders by police officers, but their number is unknown because nothing in the database distinguishes murders by police officers from murders committed by others. Consequently the annual number of nonjustifiable homicides by police in the United States is unknown. Errors in the SHR database If the SHR database had the name of the officer who committed the homicide, the process would be fairly simple: find Justifiable homicides by police for an the officer's name and check to see if entire State are sometimes missing the homicide is classified as "justifiable from the SHR database. One way of determining whether a State is missing homicide by police" or "murder." But the database has no names. So the in a particular year is to examine the check must rely on other recorded number of justifiable homicides that State reported in previous years. If the information about the incident: the month and year of the homicide; the State reports a sizable number year police agency in whose jurisdiction the after year but then reports none, that homicide occurred; the age, race, and probably indicates the State is missing gender of the victim; the age, race, and from the database. For example, in a gender of the offender; the type of large State such a Florida, there is at weapon used; the number of victims in least one justifiable homicide by police the incident; the number of offenders in each year. Yet none are recorded in the incident; and victim-offender the SHR database for Florida for certain relationship. years. To illustrate this type of check, eight The opposite problem — too many news accounts were obtained of police rather than too few records of justifiable officers convicted of murder in the line homicide by police in the database — of duty. In four of the eight the check also exists. To understand how that was inconclusive: happens, imagine an officer deliberately killing a citizen in circumstances that 1. The SHR database has a record of a initially appear to warrant lethal force. homicide occurring in the place and on The police department sends a record the date shown in the news account, to the FBI showing the incident to be a but the database is missing too much justifiable homicide, but some time later data to match the news account. a judge or jury decides that the killing was unlawful and finds the officer guilty 2. The SHR database has a record of a of murder. The FBI urges police homicide occurring in the place and on departments to send in a revised record the date shown in the news account, in such situations so that the SHR but some of the information in the SHR database can be updated. But if the database does not match the homicide police department fails to do that, the in the news account. killing will remain in the database as a "justifiable homicide by police" when it For the remaining four news accounts should instead be coded as a “murder” the homicide characteristics in the SHR on the “circumstance” variable. database did match those in the news account. Nonjustifiable homicides by police in the SHR database 1. In two cases the homicide is classified correctly as "murder." In both The number of nonjustifiable homicides cases there is evidence of an update, by police (or murders) incorrectly possibly to change the classification labeled as "justifiable homicide" in the from "justifiable homicide by police" to SHR database is unknown. One way to "murder" when the officer was spot these errors is to find in the convicted. database a case labeled as "justifiable homicide by police" that actually 2. The other two cases are coded involved a police officer known to have incorrectly: one as "justifiable homicide been convicted of murder for that by police" and one as "undetermined." homicide. The news accounts indicated that the police officers involved in these two cases were convicted of murder or manslaughter. Justifiable homicides by police missing from the SHR database The number of missing justifiable homicides by police is unknown, but one way to spot missing records is by examining reporting by States that, because of their large populations, are almost certain to have had at least one justifiable homicide by police in a year. A year with no recorded justifiable homicide by police suggests missing information. A problem with this method of identifying missing data is that a State can still have a sizable number of justifiable homicides in the database even when a big city police department in that State fails to send in any records. Nevertheless, it is instructive to search the SHR database for years in which a large State has no justifiable homicides. For 1976 to 1998, the results are summarized below: States with justifiable homicides by police but no record of them in the SHR database that year Year 1988 1989 1990 1991 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Florida, Kentucky Florida Florida Florida Kansas Kansas Illinois, Kansas District of Columbia, Kansas Florida, Kansas District of Columbia, Florida, Kansas, and Wisconsin Statistics given in this report were not adjusted to account for missing States. For example, figure 1 "national" counts of justifiable homicides are not adjusted for justifiable homicides thought to be missing for two States (Florida and Kentucky) in 1988. However, were adjustment made by including in the figure only those States that were missing no data throughout the period from 1976 to 1998, figure 1 would not look much different from how it looks now. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 29 Adjusted and unadjusted numbers of justifiable homicides by police have a strong positive correlation (+0.95). Similarly, figure 2 "national" rates of justifiable homicide are not adjusted for States missing for certain years. To illustrate, no justifiable homicides were recorded for Kansas 1995, but the base for the 1995 "national" rate includes the Kansas population. However, excluding populations of missing States would have made little difference since adjusted and unadjusted rates of justifiable homicides by police have a strong positive correlation (+0.99). gender." To police agencies, the only "offenders" in a justifiable homicide are the felons. Consequently, police agencies may occasionally report felon characteristics under both "victim" and "offender" headings. The effect of such occasional errors on the national statistics presented in this report is generally small. Excluding cases in which the age, race, and gender of felon and officer are identical made little difference in this report's main findings. The one instance of a sizable effect was the percentage of all justifiable homicides that were "black officer kills black felon” (figure 11). The percent of justifiable homicide that Misinformation in the SHR database were “black officer kills black felon” was regarding officer characteristics 14% in 1993, 20% in 1994, and 12% in 1995. The large rise from 14% in 1993 to 20% in 1994 was due to a large Of the 8,578 records in the SHR database on justifiable homicides by number of justifiable homicides in 1994 police from 1976 to 1998, about 5,800 that involved felons and officers with records include both the felon’s and the identical characteristics. More specifiofficer's age, race, and gender. In cally, the large increase is attributable to about 4.6% of these 5,800 records (270 the New York City Police Department’s cases), the felon’s and officer's age, reporting an unusually large number of race, and gender are identical. For "black officer kills black felon" justifiable example, the SHR database describes homicides. both the felon and the officer as a 41-year-old white male. Over the 23 years from 1976 to 1998, 270 felons killed in justifiable homicides By chance alone the age, race, and had the same age, race, and gender as gender of the felon and the officer can the officer. Of the 270 felons, 68.9% be the same, but a 4.6% match rate is were white, 30.7% were black, and .4% too high to be explained solely by were of other races. chance. (The likelihood of a chance match is no more than 1% of cases.) Missing characteristics of felons and officers in the SHR database One explanation for identical felon and officer characteristics may be confusion The gender, race, and age of felons about how to fill out the FBI form. The killed by police are rarely missing in the form for reporting justifiable homicide is SHR database (data for figure 8). the same one used to report murders. However, it is not uncommon for the The form designates the person who gender, race, and age of the officers to commits the murder as the "offender" be missing. and the murdered person as the "victim." Police agencies reporting a justifiable homicide by police are instructed to record the felon’s age, race, and gender under "victim's age," "victim's race," and "victim's gender." The officer's age, race, and gender are to be recorded under "offender's age," "offender's race," and "offender's 30 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Cautionary note on this report's statistics on justifiable homicides by police All statistics in this report on justifiable homicides by police are known to be missing homicides by police in Florida from 1988 to 1991, 1997, and 1998; in Kentucky in 1988; in Kansas from 1993 to 1998; in Illinois in 1995; Wisconsin in 1998; and in the District of Columbia in 1996 and 1998. Other justifiable homicides by police are probably missing as well. In addition, some small but unknown number of homicides labeled "justifiable homicides by police" are probably nonjustifiable homicides. Certain statistics (for example, the number and rate of justifiable homicides by police) are probably more affected by these errors than other statistics in the report (for example, the percentage of persons killed who are male, and the percentage of justifiable homicides that involve a firearm). Justifiable homicides by police in cases involving more than one officer In 86% of justifiable homicides by police, there was a single police officer ("1-officer cases"), in 10% there were 2 officers ("2-officer cases"), and in the remaining 4% there were 3 or more. In this report’s tabulations, when more than one officer killed the felon, the officer described first in the database supplied the officer’s characteristics (age, race, and gender). Using just the characteristics of the first officer is sensible if that officer resembles the other officers in the incident. To check the resemblance, first-officer and second-officer characteristics were compared, and results indicated that, in the vast majority of cases, there was a close match. Source of national statistics on police officers murdered by felons Most of the data in this report on murdered police officers were obtained directly from the annual FBI publication Law Enforcement Officers Killed or Assaulted. However, the source of the 1980-98 data on interracial and intraracial murder of police officers was a tabulation prepared by the FBI specifically for this report. Source of size and characteristics of U.S. police force The source for the number of full-time sworn officers in the Nation is the FBI's annual publication Crime in the United States. Regarding the racial make-up of the Nation's police officers in the 1990's, the only existing data are for 1993 and 1997. The BJS publications containing the 1993 data are: • Local Police Departments, 1993, April 1996, NCJ 148822. • Sheriffs' Departments, 1993, June 1996, NCJ 148823. • Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics, 1993: Data for Individual State and Local Agencies with 100 or More Officers, September 1995, NCJ 148825. The titles for the BJS publications containing the 1997 data are the same except for the year designation. • Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics, 1997: Data for Individual State and Local Agencies with 100 or More Officers, April 1999, NCJ 171681. • Local Police Departments, 1997, February 2000, NCJ 173429. According to these publications, the racial make-up of the Nation's police force changed only slightly from 1993 to 1997 (1% drop in "white" and 1% rise in "other races"). In 1993, 88% of all police officers were white, 11% were black, and 1% were other races. In 1997, the comparable figures were 87% white, 11% black, and 2% other races. The percentages given in this report for the racial classification of the police force in 1998 and in the 1990’s are based on the 1997 statistics. Note that officers designated "Hispanic" in the publications were classified as "white." There are no official national statistical data on the number of times police were justified in using lethal force (during violent and mass rioting, for example), but instead used less-thanlethal force. (For example, rather than using bullets, police can use a weapon that fires small beanbags or hard plastic rounds from a shotgun; there are also foams that can be sprayed by police that literally stop offenders in their tracks). Additional information about the police use of force can be found in the following: Police use of non-lethal force To learn more about the use of force requires an understanding of the reasons for and the results of policecitizen encounters. During 1996 (and again in 1999*), the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) carried out a special survey of 6,421 residents age 12 or older entitled the Police-Public Contact Survey. The Police-Public Contact Survey has made possible, for the first time, estimates of the prevalence of all kinds of contacts between the police and members of the public, favorable as well as unfavorable. Results indicate that a small percentage of police-public contacts results in the use of force. In 1996, for example, about 45 million Americans age 12 or older (about 1 in 5 residents of this age) were estimated to have had at least one face-to-face contact with a police officer. Of these, about 500,000 (about 1 in 500 residents age 12 or older) were estimated to have experienced force or threat of force by police during 1996. *Findings from the 1999 Police-Public Contact Survey were published in January 2001. Alpert, Geoffrey. Police Pursuit Driving and the Use of Excessive Force. NIJ Final Report, Grant No. 95-IJ-CX-0066, 1996. Binder, Arnold; Peter Scharf; and Raymond Galvin. Use of Deadly Force by Police Officers. NIJ Final Report, Grant No. 79-NI-AX-0134, 1982. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Police Use of Force: Collection of National Data, NCJ 165040, November 1997. Fridell, Lorie A. and Antony M. Pate. Death on Patrol: Felonious Homicides of American Police Officers. NIJ Draft Final Report, Grant No. 91-IJ-CX-K025, 1995. Garner, Joel; John Buchanan; Tom Schade; and John Hepburn. Understanding the Use of Force By and Against the Police. NIJ Research in Brief, 1996. Geller, William A. and Hans Toch, eds. And Justice for All: A National Agenda for Understanding and Controlling Police Abuse of Force. Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 1995. • Sheriffs' Departments, 1997, February 2000, NCJ 173428. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 31 Matulia, Kenneth J. A Balance of Forces. Gaithersburg, MD: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1982. Pate, Antony M. and Lorie A. Fridell. Police Use of Force: Official Reports, Citizen Complaints, and Legal Consequences, Volumes I and II. Washington, D.C.: The Police Foundation, 1993. Pinizzotto, Anthony J.; Edward F. Davis; and Charles E. Miller III. In the Line of Fire: A Study of Selected Felonious Assaults on Law Enforcement Officers. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1997. Scrivner, Ellen M. The Role of Police Psychology in Controlling Excessive Force. NIJ Research Report, NCJ-146206, 1994. A new source of data on police officers killed and assaulted A growing number of law enforcement agencies are adopting a new type of record keeping system — called National Incident Based Reporting System or NIBRS — for compiling crime statistics. While NIBRS data cannot distinguish nonjustifiable homicides by police from other nonjustifiable homicides, these data do provide a source of various statistics on justifiable homicides by police; for example, the number of justifiable homicides by police occurring as a result of attacking the officer, or fleeing from a crime, or resisting arrest, or committing a crime. NIBRS data also provide a source of statistics on murders of, or assaults on, law enforcement officers. 32 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 NIBRS records also have information about other offenses that were committed as part of the same incident (if any), other arrestees (if any), and additional victims (if any). Bureau of Justice Statistics reports that use NIBRS data include: Effects of NIBRS on Crime Statistics (BJS 7/2000, NCJ 178890) Sexual Assault of Young Children as Reported to Law Enforcement: Victim, Incident, and Offender Characteristics (BJS 7/2000, NCJ 182990) Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention reports that use NIBRS data include: Characteristics of Crimes Against Juveniles (OJJDP 6/2000, NCJ 179034) Kidnaping of Juveniles: Patterns From NIBRS (OJJDP 6/2000, NCJ 181161) To obtain copies of these reports, please contact the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) at 1-800-732-3277 or at http://www.ncjrs.org/. Data for figure 1. Felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Year Annual average Data for figure 2. Felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Rate per 1 million U.S. population age 13 or older, 1976-98 Total number of justifiable homicides Total number of justifiable homicides U.S. resident population age 13 or older on July 1 Rate of justifiable homicides (per million) 373 Year 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 Annual average 373 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 172,563,000 175,420,000 178,188,000 180,793,000 2.40 1.77 1.76 2.44 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 183,258,000 185,255,000 187,588,000 189,782,000 191,992,000 2.49 2.06 2.00 2.14 1.73 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 194,085,000 195,905,000 197,545,000 199,252,000 200,911,000 1.65 1.52 1.50 1.70 1.80 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 201,938,000 203,849,000 206,047,000 208,335,000 210,468,000 1.88 1.76 2.01 2.17 2.18 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 212,588,000 214,769,000 217,391,000 219,801,000 1.80 1.65 1.66 1.67 Note: Data shown in table do not include justifiable homicides by police for the following years and States: 1988, Florida, Kentucky; 1989, Florida; 1990, Florida; 1991, Florida; 1993, Kansas; 1994, Kansas; 1995, Illinois, Kansas; 1996, District of Columbia; Kansas 1997, Florida, Kansas; 1998, District of Columbia, Florida, Kansas, Wisconsin. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. 1.90 Note: Data shown in table do not include justifiable homicides by police for the following years and States: 1988, Florida, Kentucky; 1989, Florida; 1990, Florida; 1991, Florida; 1993, Kansas; 1994, Kansas; 1995, Illinois, Kansas; 1996, District of Columbia, Kansas; 1997, Florida, Kansas; 1998, District of Columbia, Florida, Kansas, Wisconsin. Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 33 Data for figure 3. Gender of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Rate per 10 million population age 13 or older, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides U.S. resident population age 13 or older on July 1 Total Male Female Male felons Rate per Number Percent 10 million Female felons Rate per Number Percent 10 million 364 97.7% 39 9 2.3% 1 89,680,000 91,186,000 92,661,000 94,036,000 410 305 307 430 98.8% 98.1 98.1 97.3 49 36 36 50 5 6 6 12 1.2% 1.9 1.9 2.7 1 1 1 1 87,928,000 88,894,000 90,015,000 91,105,000 92,167,000 95,330,000 96,361,000 97,573,000 98,677,000 99,825,000 447 378 369 402 325 97.8% 99.2 98.1 99.0 97.9 51 43 41 44 35 10 3 7 4 7 2.2% 0.8 1.9 1.0 2.1 1 0 1 0 1 93,302,000 94,235,000 95,053,000 95,902,000 96,730,000 100,783,000 101,670,000 102,492,000 103,350,000 104,181,000 314 294 290 333 347 97.8% 98.7 98.0 98.2 95.9 34 31 31 35 36 7 4 6 6 15 2.2% 1.3 2.0 1.8 4.1 1 0 1 1 1 379 359 414 453 459 201,938,000 97,325,000 104,613,000 203,849,000 98,222,000 105,627,000 206,047,000 99,358,000 106,689,000 208,335,000 100,499,000 107,836,000 210,468,000 101,549,000 108,919,000 366 344 405 439 440 96.6% 95.8 97.8 96.9 95.9 38 35 41 44 43 13 15 9 14 19 3.4% 4.2 2.2 3.1 4.1 1 1 1 1 2 382 355 361 367 212,588,000 214,759,000 217,391,000 219,801,000 377 347 349 358 98.7% 97.7 96.7 97.5 37 33 33 34 5 8 12 9 1.3% 2.3 3.3 2.5 0 1 1 1 Annual average 373 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 172,563,000 175,420,000 178,188,000 180,793,000 82,883,000 84,234,000 85,527,000 86,757,000 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 183,258,000 185,255,000 187,588,000 189,782,000 191,992,000 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 194,085,000 195,905,000 197,545,000 199,252,000 200,911,000 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 102,630,000 103,722,000 104,995,000 106,210,000 109,958,000 111,037,000 112,396,000 113,591,000 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s gender is known in 99.9% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides. Due to rounding error, population detail may not sum to total. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. 34 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Data for figure 4. Race of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Percent white, black, and other, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides Percent of killed felons White Black Other Annual average 373 56% 42% 2% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 46% 47 50 50 52% 51 49 48 2% 2 1 2 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 51% 54 52 54 58 48% 45 46 44 41 1% 1 2 2 1 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 61% 58 64 59 60 35% 40 34 39 38 4% 2 2 2 2 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 62% 54 60 55 57 36% 43 38 42 40 2% 3 2 3 3 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 59% 61 63 62 38% 37 35 35 3% 2 2 3 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s race is known in 99.3% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 35 Data for figure 5. Race of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Rate per 1 million population age 13 or older, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides Felon’s race White Black Other Total U.S. resident population age 13 or older on July 1 White Black Annual average 373 208 155 7 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 193 148 156 221 215 158 155 213 7 5 2 8 172,563,000 175,420,000 178,188,000 180,793,000 151,219,000 153,451,000 155,582,000 157,553,000 18,494,000 18,937,000 19,381,000 19,791,000 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 229 205 192 216 191 217 172 172 177 136 3 3 7 7 4 183,258,000 185,255,000 187,588,000 189,782,000 191,992,000 159,147,000 160,557,000 162,022,000 163,610,000 165,143,000 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 195 170 188 196 217 113 119 100 132 136 12 5 5 6 6 194,085,000 195,905,000 197,545,000 199,252,000 200,911,000 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 232 190 245 246 261 135 154 155 191 185 8 12 9 13 12 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 226 218 226 225 143 130 127 127 10 7 6 12 1.90 1.24 7.02 1.23 2,850,000 3,032,000 3,225,000 3,449,000 2.40 1.77 1.76 2.44 1.28 0.96 1.00 1.40 11.63 8.34 8.00 10.76 2.46 1.65 0.62 2.32 20,148,000 20,498,000 20,961,000 21,325,000 21,728,000 3,963,000 4,200,000 4,605,000 4,847,000 5,121,000 2.49 2.06 2.00 2.14 1.73 1.44 1.28 1.19 1.32 1.16 10.77 8.39 8.21 8.30 6.26 0.76 0.71 1.52 1.44 0.78 166,604,000 167,785,000 168,824,000 169,909,000 170,984,000 22,056,000 22,400,000 22,711,000 23,031,000 23,326,000 5,425,000 5,720,000 6,010,000 6,312,000 6,601,000 1.65 1.52 1.50 1.70 1.80 1.17 1.01 1.11 1.15 1.27 5.12 5.31 4.40 5.73 5.83 2.21 0.87 0.83 0.95 0.91 201,938,000 203,849,000 206,047,000 208,335,000 210,468,000 171,178,000 172,450,000 173,906,000 175,451,000 176,901,000 23,299,000 23,657,000 24,081,000 24,506,000 24,899,000 7,461,000 7,742,000 8,060,000 8,378,000 8,668,000 1.88 1.76 2.01 2.17 2.18 1.36 1.10 1.41 1.40 1.48 5.79 6.51 6.44 7.79 7.43 1.07 1.55 1.12 1.55 1.38 212,588,000 214,759,000 217,391,000 219,801,000 178,363,000 179,835,000 181,480,000 183,098,000 25,292,000 8,933,000 25,679,000 9,245,000 26,159,000 9,752,000 26,605,000 10,098,000 1.80 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.27 1.21 1.25 1.23 5.65 5.06 4.85 4.77 1.12 0.76 0.62 1.19 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s race is known in 99.3% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. 36 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Other Rate of justifiable homicide (per million age 13 or older) Total White Black Other Data for figure 6. Race of felons arrested for violent crime: Rate per 100,000 population age 13 or older, 1976-98 Year U.S. resident population age 13 or older on July 1 White Black Annual average Estimated number of arrests for violent crime White Black Rate (per 100,000) of arrest for violent crime White Black 257,020 220,159 188 1,197 1976 1977 1978 1979 151,219,000 153,451,000 155,582,000 157,553,000 18,494,000 18,937,000 19,381,000 19,791,000 207,648 227,278 300,752 251,094 195,636 199,077 276,525 206,387 137 148 193 159 1,058 1,051 1,427 1,043 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 159,147,000 160,557,000 162,022,000 163,610,000 165,143,000 20,148,000 20,498,000 20,961,000 21,325,000 21,728,000 258,574 259,795 273,035 255,579 262,591 209,707 224,142 245,971 236,967 225,171 162 162 169 156 159 1,041 1,093 1,173 1,111 1,036 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 166,604,000 167,785,000 168,824,000 169,909,000 170,984,000 22,056,000 22,400,000 22,711,000 23,031,000 23,326,000 256,471 289,206 279,711 323,684 348,181 234,195 257,404 258,664 292,691 327,083 154 172 166 191 204 1,062 1,149 1,139 1,271 1,402 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 171,178,000 172,450,000 173,906,000 175,451,000 176,901,000 23,299,000 23,657,000 24,081,000 24,506,000 24,899,000 284,759 385,494 397,809 396,288 415,725 274,860 321,805 332,674 344,841 348,301 166 224 229 226 235 1,180 1,360 1,381 1,407 1,399 1995 1996 1997 1998 178,363,000 179,835,000 181,480,000 183,098,000 25,292,000 25,679,000 26,159,000 26,605,000 432,623 398,612 407,926 390,044 347,664 315,070 295,092 271,823 243 222 225 213 1,375 1,227 1,128 1,022 Source: FBI, Uniform Crime Reports. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 37 Data for figure 7. Age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Rate per 1 million population that age, 1976-98 Total number of justifiable homicides Total rate of justifiable homicides Annual average 373 1.90 1.58 3.96* 3.84 3.07 2.24 1.70 1.19 0.77 0.61 0.29 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 2.40 1.77 1.76 2.44 2.04 1.24 1.53 1.96 5.10 3.74 3.76 5.02 5.50 3.58 2.91 4.87 3.67 2.49 2.40 3.77 2.69 2.44 2.60 2.80 1.61 2.23 2.21 1.48 1.12 1.57 0.79 2.23 0.75 0.34 0.85 0.77 0.92 0.71 0.53 0.86 0.43 0.27 0.32 0.40 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 2.49 2.06 2.00 2.14 1.73 1.79 1.63 1.33 1.17 1.25 5.51 3.64 3.80 3.82 3.61 5.04 4.83 4.70 4.03 3.24 4.45 3.04 3.36 3.89 2.65 3.41 2.71 2.25 2.15 1.96 1.53 1.25 1.51 3.80 1.81 1.00 1.55 1.18 0.36 1.49 0.86 0.78 0.52 1.52 0.91 0.86 0.34 0.43 0.44 0.44 0.25 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.23 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 1.65 1.52 1.50 1.70 1.80 0.85 1.10 0.80 1.29 1.39 3.24 2.45 3.28 2.76 3.58 3.68 2.86 2.46 3.79 3.69 2.37 2.84 2.16 2.94 3.03 1.98 1.60 2.13 1.99 1.89 1.21 1.05 1.61 1.74 1.66 1.03 0.75 1.05 1.07 1.33 0.73 0.92 0.73 0.72 1.32 0.71 0.44 0.99 0.73 0.75 0.43 0.27 0.22 0.17 0.12 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 1.88 1.76 2.01 2.17 2.18 1.35 2.17 2.12 2.53 2.19 3.66 3.65 4.83 4.95 5.23 4.05 3.71 4.26 3.92 4.06 2.97 2.93 2.92 3.28 3.43 2.25 1.61 2.09 2.23 2.69 1.80 1.55 1.70 2.08 1.78 1.59 0.78 1.30 1.07 1.50 0.79 0.52 0.50 0.94 0.68 0.19 0.48 0.29 0.75 0.91 0.24 0.17 0.21 0.42 0.35 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 1.80 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.87 1.75 1.42 1.58 4.59 3.80 3.37 3.62 2.95 3.21 3.40 3.50 3.38 3.04 2.85 2.82 2.02 1.73 2.39 1.86 1.43 1.35 1.22 1.51 1.03 1.14 1.19 1.22 0.59 0.43 0.79 0.83 0.45 0.62 0.85 0.24 0.21 0.27 0.25 0.29 Year Rate of justifiable homicide per 1 million 13-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s age is known in 98.7% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. The 13-19 age category includes one 11-year-old in 1981 and one 12-year-old in 1992. Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides. *Population denominators for rates are available in Appendix table 1. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. 38 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 55-59 60 or older Data for figure 8. Felons killed by police in justifiable homicide: Percent under and over age 25, by race and gender, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides Percent of killed felons under age 25* Male Female Other Other White Black race White Black race Percent of killed felons age 25 or older Male Female Other Other White Black race White Black race Annual average 373 16% 16% 1% 0% 0% 0% 39% 25% 1% 1% 1% 0% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 19% 16 19 18 20% 19 20 18 0% 0 0 1 0% 0 0 0 0% 1 0 0 0% 0 0 0 27% 32 30 32 32% 30 29 28 1% 1 0 1 1% 0 1 1 0% 1 1 1 0% 0 0 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 20% 16 17 12 19 17% 17 14 15 14 0% 0 1 1 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 31% 38 33 41 38 30% 27 32 29 27 0% 1 1 1 1 1% 0 1 0 1 1% 1 1 1 0 0% 0 0 0 0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 15% 17 17 11 15 13% 13 11 12 12 1% 1 0 1 1 0% 0 0 1 1 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 45% 40 47 46 43 22% 27 22 27 23 1% 1 1 1 1 2% 1 1 1 2 1% 0 1 0 2 0% 0 0 0 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 14% 16 17 13 16 13% 15 17 20 15 1% 2 1 1 1 0% 0 1 0 1 0% 1 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 47% 35 41 42 38 21% 26 21 21 24 1% 1 1 1 2 1% 2 1 1 2 2% 1 0 1 1 0% 1 0 0 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 17% 15 12 15 17% 16 14 14 1% 1 1 1 0% 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 42% 46 49 45 20% 20 20 21 2% 1 1 2 1% 1 2 1 0% 0 1 1 0% 0 0 0 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s age, gender, and race are all known in 98.1% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. *Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 39 Data for figure 9. Race, gender, and age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides: Rate per 1 million U.S. population under age 25 and 25 or older, 1980-98 Rate of killed felons under age 25* Male Female Other Other White Black race White Black race Rate of killed felons age 25 or older Male Female Other Other White Black race White Black race Year Total rate Annual average 1.86 2.93 16.50 3.01 0.06 0.11 0.11 2.36 12.29 1.96 0.06 0.33 0.03 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 2.49 2.06 2.00 2.14 1.73 4.10 2.78 2.91 2.27 2.97 22.84 18.49 15.60 18.02 13.58 1.66 0.00 4.27 4.05 1.28 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.45 2.56 2.15 2.80 2.11 22.09 16.85 18.63 17.67 13.26 1.50 2.21 2.71 2.51 1.76 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.02 0.06 0.54 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1.65 1.52 1.50 1.70 1.80 2.28 2.43 2.54 1.96 2.86 12.44 11.04 9.97 12.21 13.58 2.42 2.29 1.10 2.11 2.02 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.17 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.32 1.89 2.13 2.42 2.42 10.10 11.44 8.90 12.28 11.34 5.47 1.54 1.92 1.35 1.70 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.08 0.24 0.12 0.23 0.11 0.77 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1.88 1.76 2.01 2.17 2.18 2.88 3.19 3.76 3.19 4.03 15.39 16.98 21.16 26.72 21.26 1.97 5.78 4.69 5.48 4.47 0.00 0.06 0.18 0.06 0.18 0.00 0.63 0.00 0.31 0.30 1.05 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.00 2.67 1.87 2.53 2.71 2.56 10.11 11.95 10.56 11.46 13.31 1.92 1.47 1.40 2.01 2.26 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.08 0.15 0.75 0.32 0.10 0.51 0.40 0.00 0.66 0.00 0.00 0.00 1995 1996 1997 1998 1.80 1.65 1.66 1.67 3.35 2.79 2.49 2.89 19.54 16.42 14.20 14.00 2.63 4.32 3.39 3.32 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.27 2.30 2.45 2.25 9.02 8.26 8.21 8.05 2.18 0.60 0.58 2.22 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.10 0.38 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Note: “Total rate” column includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s race, gender, and age are all known in 98.1% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1980 and 1998. Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides. *Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24. Population denominators are available in Appendix table 2. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. 40 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Data for figure 10. Race of police officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides: Percent white, black, and other, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides by police Percent of officers White Black Other Annual average 373 84% 15% 1% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 82% 83 85 83 16% 17 15 16 2% 0 0 1 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 86% 87 86 90 86 14% 13 14 9 12 0% 0 0 1 2 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 85% 90 86 86 87 13% 10 12 13 13 2% 0 2 1 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 83% 81 82 82 77 16% 18 16 17 22 1% 1 2 1 1 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 84% 87 81 82 15% 12 17 17 1% 1 2 1 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The officer’s race is known in 77.2% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 41 Data for figure 11. Race of felons and police officers in justifiable homicides: Number and percent interracial and intraracial, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides by police Officer is white, felon is — White Black Officer is black, felon is — White Black Annual average 373 53% 30% 3% 12% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 41% 43 46 46 41% 38 38 35 2% 3 2 3 14% 15 14 13 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 50% 51 46 52 53 35% 34 39 36 32 1% 2 1 1 3 13% 12 13 8 9 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 58% 56 60 57 60 25% 31 25 27 25 5% 2 5 3 2 8% 8 7 10 11 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 56% 55 56 53 54 24% 23 24 26 22 5% 2 4 3 2 12% 16 12 14 20 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 57% 57 58 56 26% 28 22 24 2% 3 4 5 12% 8 13 12 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The officer’s race is known in 76.9% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. The felon’s race is known in 99.3% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Detail does not sum to 100% because table does not show all racial combinations. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. 42 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Data for figure 12. Number of police officers murdered by felons, 1976-98 Year Annual average Data for figure 13. Number of police officers murdered by felons compared to felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Total number of officers murdered 79 Year Annual average 1976 1977 1978 1979 111 93 93 106 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 104 91 92 80 72 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 78 66 74 78 66 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 66 71 64 70 79 1995 1996 1997 1998 74 61 70 61 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Officers murdered Felons killed 79 373 1976 1977 1978 1979 111 93 93 106 415 311 313 442 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 104 91 92 80 72 457 381 376 406 332 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 78 66 74 78 66 321 298 296 339 362 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 66 71 64 70 79 379 359 414 453 459 1995 1996 1997 1998 74 61 70 61 382 355 361 367 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted, and FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 43 Data for figure 14. Police officers murdered by felons: Rate per 100,000 officers, 1976-98 Year Annual average Total number of Total number officers murdered of sworn police 79 Data for figure 15. Race of police officers murdered by felons: Percent white, black, and other, 1976-98 Rate per 100,000 Approximately 1 of every — 17.1 6,503 1976 1977 1978 1979 111 93 93 106 391,895 384,816 391,751 373,605 28.3 24.2 23.7 28.4 3,531 4,138 4,212 3,525 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 104 91 92 80 72 393,363 398,064 403,407 449,370 467,117 26.4 22.9 22.8 17.8 15.4 3,782 4,374 4,385 5,617 6,488 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 78 66 74 78 66 470,678 475,853 480,383 485,566 496,353 16.6 13.9 15.2 16.1 13.3 6,034 7,210 6,492 6,225 7,521 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 66 71 64 70 79 523,262 535,629 544,309 553,773 561,543 12.6 13.3 11.4 12.6 13.5 7,928 7,544 8,505 7,911 7,108 1995 1996 1997 1998 74 61 70 61 586,756 595,170 618,127 641,208 12.6 10.2 11.3 9.5 7,929 9,757 8,830 10,512 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Year Percent of murdered officers White Black Other Annual average 86% 13% 1% 1976 1977 1978 1979 90% 90 91 88 8% 10 9 9 2% 0 0 3 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 87% 85 84 83 85 13% 14 15 13 14 0% 1 1 4 1 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 89% 89 90 91 89 10% 11 10 9 11 1% 0 0 0 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 80% 87 82 86 84 18% 13 16 14 15 2% 0 2 0 1 1995 1996 1997 1998 84% 80 80 87 12% 15 17 11 4% 5 3 2 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. 44 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Data for figure 16. Felons who murdered police officers: Percent with criminal history, 1976-98 Year Any narcotic Any criminal drug law act violation Prior arrest for — Any violent Murder crime charge Weapons violation Assaulting police or resisting arrest Prior conviction On parole or probation at time of killing Annual average 67% 24% 32% 4% 28% 11% 48% 21% 1976 1977 1978 1979 60% 61 62 63 18% 15 9 13 25% 31 24 43 5% 3 5 8 16% 16 21 30 4% 3 9 6 44% 46 50 49 23% 4 23 16 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 73% 73 73 72 83 26% 26 22 14 20 48% 47 29 11 24 6% 7 6 3 6 36% 46 36 22 24 9% 14 11 9 8 49% 54 50 40 70 25% 26 25 24 25 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 75% 69 54 67 67 22% 27 24 20 17 19% 23 26 29 35 2% 5 1 4 7 22% 20 20 15 30 9% 5 5 5 14 51% 30 49 36 49 23% 22 22 24 12 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 78% 60 59 66 58 33% 30 20 31 25 46% 28 38 24 43 6% 1 4 4 4 49% 18 32 33 39 14% 8 8 18 24 68% 46 46 37 39 31% 23 15 14 17 1995 1996 1997 1998 69% 58 76 71 38% 24 44 33 48% 38 32 24 1% 1 1 7 31% 34 37 21 22% 15 18 9 42% 51 72 44 18% 24 24 12 Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 45 Data for figure 17. Felons who murdered police officers: Percent under and over age 25, by race and gender, 1980-98 Year Percent under age 25* Male Female Other Other White Black race White Black race White Percent age 25 or older Male Female Other Other Black race White Black race Annual average 20% 21% 1% 1% 1% 0% 31% 19% 2% 1% 1% 0% 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 26% 12 21 22 20 19% 20 25 13 19 0% 1 0 1 3 3% 0 0 0 2 2% 1 1 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 26% 25 35 42 29 22% 38 14 17 22 0% 1 1 4 3 1% 2 3 0 1 1% 0 0 1 0 0% 0 0 0 0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 18% 26 20 29 7 22% 10 13 19 21 3% 0 4 2 0 1% 0 4 0 1 1% 1 0 1 1 0% 0 0 0 0 25% 35 37 25 46 29% 24 17 21 21 0% 2 1 1 1 1% 1 2 1 0 0% 1 1 1 0 0% 0 0 0 1 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 18% 21 25 21 25 18% 37 23 39 23 0% 0 1 0 0 1% 0 0 0 2 1% 0 0 0 1 0% 0 0 0 0 35% 35 27 20 26 24% 6 23 19 18 1% 1 0 0 3 0% 0 0 1 1 2% 0 1 0 1 0% 0 0 0 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 20% 14 10 26 27% 30 15 17 1% 5 7 3 3% 0 0 1 1% 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 28% 28 42 33 11% 20 15 16 3% 1 7 3 3% 1 0 1 0% 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 Note: Data on the race, gender, and age of felons who murder police officers are not available prior to 1980. The felon’s race, gender, and age are all known for 94.4% of felons who murdered police between 1980 and 1998. *Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24. Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. 46 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Data for figure 18. Race and gender of felons who murdered police officers: Rate per 1 million U.S. population, 1980-98 Year Rate per 1 million under age 25* Male Female Other Other White Black race White Black race Rate per 1 million age 25 or older Male Female Other Other White Black race White Black race Annual average 1.12 6.30 1.53 0.06 0.19 0.00 0.48 2.84 0.68 0.02 0.06 0.02 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 2.03 0.75 1.19 1.11 0.93 9.19 7.63 8.83 4.14 5.31 0.00 1.52 0.00 1.35 3.83 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.86 0.28 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.78 0.57 0.72 0.76 0.46 6.19 8.09 2.57 2.81 3.05 0.00 0.74 0.68 2.51 1.76 0.02 0.05 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 0.99 1.17 0.93 1.91 0.32 7.11 2.69 3.63 7.33 5.25 3.62 0.00 4.40 3.16 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.22 0.00 0.06 0.29 0.29 0.00 0.30 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.45 0.51 0.55 0.49 0.59 4.75 3.04 2.26 3.59 2.29 0.00 1.02 0.48 0.45 0.42 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 0.83 4.71 1.12 11.01 1.18 5.91 0.95 9.52 1.51 7.29 0.00 0.00 0.94 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.45 0.50 0.35 0.24 0.41 2.63 0.77 2.39 1.85 2.30 0.38 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.97 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.21 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1995 1996 1997 1998 1.01 0.56 1.66 1.20 0.88 3.45 4.24 1.66 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.36 0.30 0.43 0.31 1.19 1.74 1.25 1.23 0.93 0.30 1.44 0.56 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7.21 6.57 3.25 3.21 Note: Data on the race, gender, and age of felons who murder police officers are not available prior to 1980. The felon’s race, gender, and age are all known for 94.4% of felons who murdered police between 1980 and 1998. *Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24. Population denominators are available in Appendix table 2. Source: FBI, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 47 Data for table 3. Age of felons killed by police in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides 13-19 20-24 Percent of killed felons who were ages — 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 or older Annual average 373 11% 21% 21% 17% 11% 7% 4% 3% 2% 3% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 15% 12 14 13 25% 23 25 25 25% 21 17 21 13% 13 13 15 8% 10 11 9 4% 8 8 4 3% 6 3 6 2% 1 3 2 2% 3 2 2 3% 3 4 3 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 11% 12 10 8 10 27% 21 22 20 22 22% 26 26 21 21 17% 15 17 19 16 11% 10 9 9 10 4% 4 5 13 8 2% 5 4 1 5 2% 2 2 4 3 2% 1 1 1 2 2% 4 4 4 3 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 7% 10 7 10 9 22% 18 21 16 19 25% 22 19 26 23 15% 21 16 19 19 11% 11 14 11 10 5% 5 9 8 8 4% 3 4 4 5 3% 4 3 2 4 3% 2 4 2 2 5% 4 3 2 1 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 9% 15 13 14 12 19% 20 22 20 21 22% 22 21 17 17 17% 18 16 16 17 12% 9 11 11 13 9% 8 8 9 8 6% 3 5 4 5 2% 2 1 3 2 1% 1 1 2 2 3% 2 2 4 3 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 13% 13 11 12 22% 19 17 18 15% 17 18 18 20% 19 17 16 12% 11 15 12 8% 8 7 9 5% 6 6 6 2% 2 3 4 1% 2 3 1 2% 3 3 4 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The felon’s age is known in 98.7% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. The 13-19 age category includes one 11-year-old in 1981 and one 12-year-old in 1992. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. 48 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Data for table 6. Age of police officers who killed felons in justifiable homicides, 1976-98 Year Total number of justifiable homicides by police Under 20 20-24 Percent of officers who were ages — 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70 or older Annual average 373 1% 9% 28% 28% 17% 10% 4% 2% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1976 1977 1978 1979 415 311 313 442 0% 0 1 0 10% 11 13 9 37% 39 35 30 30% 28 32 29 10% 10 12 16 5% 4 5 9 4% 3 1 4 2% 3 1 2 0% 1 0 0 1% 1 0 1 1% 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 457 381 376 406 332 0% 0 0 0 0 9% 13 7 11 10 31% 26 30 24 22 34% 31 32 28 31 17% 18 19 19 23 5% 8 6 12 10 2% 2 4 3 3 1% 1 1 2 1 1% 1 1 1 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 321 298 296 339 362 0% 0 1 0 0 7% 7 8 4 10 24% 28 29 25 27 31% 28 23 35 24 24% 21 22 18 22 8% 13 13 13 9 5% 2 4 3 6 1% 1 0 2 1 0% 0 0 0 1 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 379 359 414 453 459 1% 0 0 1 2 7% 12 12 8 8 26% 29 25 33 25 23% 25 25 24 28 21% 17 16 12 18 15% 11 11 12 12 5% 4 8 4 5 2% 1 2 4 2 0% 1 1 0 0 0% 0 0 1 0 0% 0 0 1 0 0% 0 0 0 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 382 355 361 367 4% 0 2 2 8% 5 6 7 28% 31 28 27 26% 23 27 27 14% 15 20 22 12% 14 10 8 5% 9 4 4 2% 2 3 2 0% 1 1 1 1% 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 Note: “Total number” includes all instances of justifiable homicide by police whether or not the demographic characteristics are known. The officer’s age is known in 70.1% of the justifiable homicides by police between 1976 and 1998. Due to rounding error, detail may not sum to 100%. Source: FBI database, Supplementary Homicide Reports. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 49 Appendix table 1. Population denominators for rates in figure 7. Year 13-19 20-24 U.S. resident population on July 1 (in thousands) 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60 or older 1976 1977 1978 1979 29,853 29,735 29,483 29,024 19,794 20,312 20,748 21,097 18,177 18,180 18,586 19,077 14,428 15,661 16,218 16,961 11,884 12,309 13,052 13,592 11,147 11,190 11,321 11,523 11,646 11,495 11,352 11,212 11,969 11,868 11,814 11,724 10,884 11,192 11,425 11,582 32,781 33,478 34,189 35,001 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 28,438 27,550 27,085 26,562 26,336 21,402 21,733 21,560 21,713 21,310 19,657 20,067 20,649 21,100 21,309 17,756 18,737 18,754 19,045 19,602 14,082 14,406 15,567 16,255 16,813 11,734 12,043 12,558 13,168 13,837 11,042 10,985 10,992 11,184 11,417 11,686 11,546 11,447 11,152 11,013 11,619 11,600 11,519 11,474 11,448 35,842 36,588 37,457 38,129 38,907 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 25,851 25,422 25,006 24,769 24,399 20,996 20,415 19,790 19,186 18,702 21,754 22,010 21,979 21,876 21,699 20,267 20,774 21,334 21,798 22,135 17,708 18,723 18,737 19,141 19,621 14,055 14,345 15,569 16,124 16,881 11,648 11,927 12,351 13,026 13,521 10,942 10,887 10,927 11,136 11,375 11,337 11,268 11,125 10,897 10,726 39,527 40,134 40,727 41,299 41,852 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 24,385 24,003 24,071 24,547 25,088 19,136 19,175 19,067 18,785 18,351 21,234 20,737 20,191 19,646 19,206 21,906 22,152 22,242 22,240 22,164 19,975 20,514 21,073 21,571 21,938 17,789 18,756 18,796 19,190 19,687 13,819 14,095 15,355 15,927 16,674 11,368 11,648 12,054 12,727 13,191 10,474 10,422 10,485 10,680 10,933 41,852 42,347 42,713 43,022 43,236 1995 1996 1997 1998 25,626 26,231 26,723 27,172 17,882 17,369 17,483 17,674 19,005 19,030 18,812 18,588 21,867 21,363 20,732 20,186 22,248 22,501 22,629 22,626 20,219 20,756 21,376 21,894 17,449 18,416 18,465 18,859 13,629 13,909 15,157 15,725 11,085 11,352 11,755 12,407 43,578 43,832 44,259 44,670 Note: Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides. Population estimates are rounded and are from the U.S. Census Bureau. 50 Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 Appendix table 2. Population denominators for rates in figures 9 and 18. U.S. resident population under age 25 on July 1 (in thousands)* Male Female Other Black race White Black Other race White U.S. resident population age 25 or older on July 1 (in thousands) Male Female Other Other Black race White Black race Year White 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 21,214 21,243 20,972 20,729 20,506 3,372 3,408 3,397 3,385 3,387 602 657 703 741 784 20,594 20,598 20,320 20,038 19,776 3,494 3,523 3,505 3,481 3,467 582 629 668 700 736 55,418 56,164 57,240 58,257 59,266 5,975 6,055 6,227 6,395 6,560 1,337 1,355 1,474 1,593 1,706 61,810 62,642 63,758 64,801 65,820 7,367 7,467 7,675 7,880 8,077 1,493 1,513 1,648 1,782 1,908 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 20,163 19,724 19,260 18,897 18,543 3,375 3,351 3,310 3,275 3,239 828 872 910 948 991 19,407 18,933 18,440 18,036 17,641 3,443 3,404 3,354 3,312 3,268 775 815 851 886 927 60,320 61,355 62,357 63,288 64,175 6,735 6,907 7,079 7,245 7,408 1,828 1,954 2,085 2,218 2,358 66,882 67,916 68,882 69,792 70,663 8,287 8,494 8,693 8,889 9,084 2,041 2,181 2,324 2,466 2,616 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 18,052 17,862 17,809 17,853 17,867 3,184 3,179 3,213 3,254 3,290 1,017 1,037 1,065 1,094 1,118 17,120 16,954 16,874 16,921 16,935 3,200 3,194 3,212 3,247 3,279 953 981 1,016 1,054 1,084 64,824 65,642 66,457 67,188 67,905 7,612 7,783 7,954 8,112 8,261 2,610 2,727 2,853 2,977 3,091 71,163 71,946 72,705 73,410 74,095 9,317 9,518 9,709 9,895 10,071 2,886 3,026 3,178 3,330 3,473 1995 1996 1997 1998 17,881 17,900 18,061 18,317 3,322 3,344 3,380 3,430 1,137 1,156 1,180 1,205 16,929 16,931 17,072 17,309 3,304 3,318 3,349 3,393 1,110 1,135 1,165 1,193 68,630 69,361 70,135 70,723 8,417 8,586 8,772 8,939 3,210 3,336 3,467 3,596 74,774 75,470 76,213 76,750 10,252 10,447 10,658 10,843 3,621 3,774 3,940 4,104 Note: Populations include States that did not report justifiable homicides. Population estimates are rounded and are from the U.S. Census Bureau. *Felons under age 25 refers only to persons ages 13-24. Policing and Homicide, 1976-98 51