brennan
center
for justice

criminal justice debt:
a barrier to reentry
Alicia Bannon
Mitali Nagrecha
Rebekah Diller

Brennan Center for Justice at New York University School of Law

about the brennan center for justice
The Brennan Center for Justice at is a non-partisan public policy and law institute that focuses on
fundamental issues of democracy and justice. Our work ranges from voting rights to campaign finance
reform, from racial justice in criminal law to presidential power in the fight against terrorism. A
singular institution – part think tank, part public interest law firm, part advocacy group – the Brennan
Center combines scholarship, legislative and legal advocacy, and communications to win meaningful,
measureable change in the public sector.

about the brennan center’s access to justice project
The Access to Justice Project at the Brennan Center for Justice is one of the few national initiatives dedicated
to helping ensure that low-income individuals, families and communities are able to secure effective access
to the courts and other public institutions. The Center advances public education, research, counseling,
and litigation initiatives, and partners with a broad range of allies – including civil legal aid lawyers (both
in government-funded and privately-funded programs), criminal defense attorneys (both public defenders
and private attorneys), policymakers, low-income individuals, the media and opinion elites. The Center
works to promote policies that protect those who are vulnerable, whether the problem is eviction; predatory
lending; government bureaucracy (including, in some instances, the courts themselves); employers who
deny wages; abusive spouses in custody disputes or in domestic violence matters; or other problems that
people seek to resolve in reliance on the rule of law.

© 2010. This paper is covered by the Creative Commons “Attribution-No Derivs-NonCommercial” license (see
http://creativecommons.org). It may be reproduced in its entirety as long as the Brennan Center for Justice is
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in part or altered in form, and no fee may be charged, without the Center’s permission. Please let the Brennan
Center for Justice know if you reprint.

about the authors
Alicia Bannon was a Liman Fellow and Counsel in the Brennan Center’s Justice Program at the time
she conducted her work on this report. She is currently a John J. Gibbons Fellow in Public Interest and
Constitutional Law at Gibbons P.C. Previously, Ms. Bannon clerked for the Hon. Sonia Sotomayor in the
U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and the Hon. Kimba M. Wood in the U.S. District Court for
the Southern District of New York. She also previously worked at ICS Africa in Kenya and at the Center for
Global Development in Washington, D.C. Ms. Bannon received her J.D. from Yale Law School and her A.B.,
summa cum laude, from Harvard College.
Mitali Nagrecha is currently at the City of Newark Office of Reentry working on policy and contracting in
an effort to reduce recidivism and increase workplace participation by people with criminal records. At the
time she worked on this report, Ms. Nagrecha was a Simpson Thacher Fellow in the Brennan Center’s Justice
Program, working on access to justice issues. Prior to joining the Brennan Center, Ms. Nagrecha worked as
a litigation associate at Simpson Thacher & Bartlett LLP. Ms. Nagrecha also served as a Fulbright Scholar in
India, where she studied urban development and planning. She earned her B.A. at Cornell University and her
J.D. cum laude from The University of Pennsylvania Law School.
Rebekah Diller is Deputy Director of the Justice Program at the Brennan Center. Ms. Diller coordinates
litigation, policy research and advocacy to improve access to justice for low-income people and leads the
Center’s work on legal financial obligations. Previously, she served as a staff attorney and then director of the
New York Civil Liberties Union’s Reproductive Rights Project and as an attorney representing low-income
clients in civil cases at Legal Services for the Elderly in Queens and Housing Works, Inc. She received her
J.D., with high honors, from New York University School of Law, and her B.A., cum laude, from Rutgers
College.

acknowledgements
We are grateful to the many individuals who helped prepare this report. Reed Keefe, Evan Parzych, Nick
Pyati, and Natalie Shapero, all Brennan Center summer interns, provided invaluable research and editing
assistance, as did Research Associate Neeta Pal and former Research Associate Emily Savner. We also received
substantial research assistance from Arpit Garg, Ester Murdukhayeva, and Jenny Zhao, all participants in
Yale Law School’s Liman Project, former Brennan Center intern Mary Hendrix, and Samantha Braunstein
and Brandon Martin, attorneys at Simpson Thacher & Bartlett LLP who provided pro bono assistance with
the report. We also thank Alexis S. Coll-Very and Harlene Katzman for supervising and facilitating Simpson
Thacher’s pro bono assistance. We received extremely helpful feedback on earlier drafts from Laura Abel.
David Udell helped shepherd the report to completion and provided useful comments and edits throughout
the process. Michael Waldman and Jeanine Plant-Chirlin also provided valuable feedback.
We also thank the court personnel, public defenders, reentry advocates, and individuals impacted by criminal
justice debt who took the time to share their expertise and experiences with us. In particular, Rebecca Bers was
of tremendous assistance in helping us obtain criminal justice data for Louisiana.
This report was supported by the Public Welfare Foundation, with additional support from the Florida Bar
Foundation. The Arthur Liman Public Interest Program at Yale Law School provided additional support for
Alicia Bannon’s work.
The statements made and views expressed in this report are the sole responsibility of the Brennan Center. Any
errors are the responsibility of the authors.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 	

1

INTRODUCTION	
	
I.	
CRIMINAL JUSTICE DEBT IS GROWING AT AN ALARMING RATE ACROSS THE COUNTRY	
A.	 Debt Adds Up Quickly	
B.	 States Fail to Track the Real Costs	

4
7
7
10

II.	

CRIMINAL JUSTICE FEES FREQUENTLY LEAD TO AN INSURMOUNTABLE CYCLE OF DEBT	
A.	 Lack of Fee Waivers	
B.	 Unworkable Payment Plans	
C.	 No Meaningful Community Service Alternatives	
D.	 Poverty Penalties Compound Debt and Enrich Private Companies	

13
13
14
15
17

III.

HARSH COLLECTION PRACTICES FORGE FOUR PATHS TO DEBTORS’ PRISON	
A.	 History and Constitutional Limitations	
B.	 Four Paths to Debtors’ Prison	
1. Probation or Parole Revoked or Not Granted	
2. Incarceration Through Civil or Criminal Enforcement Proceedings	
3. “Choosing” Jail	
4. Arrest and Pre-Hearing Incarceration	
C.	 Aggressive Collection Tactics Also Push Debtors Toward New Offenses	
1. Suspension of Driver’s Licenses	
2. Extending Probation Terms	
D.	 Debtors’ Prison Wastes Public Funds	

19
19
20
21
22
22
23
24
24
25
25

IV.	

Criminal Justice debt impedes reentry AND REHABILITATION	
A.	 Hurdles to Finding Housing and Employment	
B.	 Public Benefits at Risk	
C.	 Barriers to Paying Child Support	
D.	 Debt Functions as a Poll Tax	

27
27
28
28
29

V.	
	

OVERRELIANCE ON CRIMINAL JUSTICE FEES UNDERMINES THE PROPER ROLES OF 	
COURTS AND CORRECTIONAL AGENCIES	
A.	 Courts Face Conflicts of Interest and Financial Uncertainty	
B.	 Probation and Parole Officers are Diverted from Their Public 	
	
Safety and Rehabilitation Functions	

30

VI.	

RECOMMENDATIONS	

ENDNOTES	

30
31

32
34

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Many states are imposing new and often onerous “user fees” on individuals with criminal convictions. Yet far from being easy money, these fees impose severe – and often hidden – costs on communities, taxpayers, and indigent people convicted of crimes. They create new paths to prison for
those unable to pay their debts and make it harder to find employment and housing as well to meet
child support obligations.
This report examines practices in the fifteen states with the highest prison populations, which together account for more than 60 percent of all state criminal filings. We focused primarily on the
proliferation of “user fees,” financial obligations imposed not for any traditional criminal justice
purpose such as punishment, deterrence, or rehabilitation but rather to fund tight state budgets.
Across the board, we found that states are introducing new user fees, raising the dollar amounts of existing fees, and intensifying the collection of
fees and other forms of criminal justice debt such as fines and restitution.
But in the rush to collect, made all the more intense by the fiscal crises in
many states, no one is considering the ways in which the resulting debt
can undermine reentry prospects, pave the way back to prison or jail, and
result in yet more costs to the public.

States Covered

(in order of number of persons in prison)
• California
• Texas
• Florida
• New York
• Georgia

Key Findings

• Ohio
• Pennsylvania

• F
 ees, while often small in isolation, regularly total hundreds and
even thousands of dollars of debt. All fifteen of the examined states
charge a broad array of fees, which are often imposed without taking
into account ability to pay. One person in Pennsylvania faced $2,464 in
fees alone, approximately three times the amount imposed for fines and
restitution. In some states, local government fees, on top of state-wide
fees, add to fee burdens. Thirteen of the fifteen states also charge poor
people public defender fees simply for exercising their constitutional
right to counsel. This practice can push defendants to waive counsel,
raising constitutional questions and leading to wrongful convictions,
over-incarceration, and significant burdens on the operation of the
courts.

• Michigan
• Illinois
• Arizona
• North Carolina
• Louisiana
• Virginia
• Alabama
• Missouri
Source: National Prisoner Statistics,
Bureau of Justice Statistics

• I nability to pay leads to more fees and an endless cycle of debt. Fourteen of the fifteen states also
utilize “poverty penalties” – piling on additional late fees, payment plan fees, and interest when
individuals are unable to pay their debts all at once, often enriching private debt collectors in the
process. Some of the collection fees are exorbitant and exceed ordinary standards of fairness. For
example, Alabama charges a 30 percent collection fee, while Florida permits private debt collectors
to tack on a 40 percent surcharge to underlying debt.

Brennan Center for Justice | 1

• A
 lthough “debtors’ prison” is illegal in all states, reincarcerating individuals for failure to pay
debt is, in fact, common in some – and in all states new paths back to prison are emerging for
those who owe criminal justice debt. All fifteen of the states examined in this report have jurisdictions that arrest people for failing to pay debt or appear at debt-related hearings. Many states also
use the threat of probation or parole revocation or incarceration for contempt as a debt-collection
tool, and in some jurisdictions, individuals may also “choose” to go to jail as a way to reduce their
debt burdens. Some of these practices violate the Constitution or state law. All of them undercut
former offenders’ efforts to reintegrate into their communities. Yet even though over-incarceration
harms individuals and communities and pushes state budgets to the brink, states continue to send
people back to prison or jail for debt-related reasons.
• A
 s states increasingly structure their budgets around fee revenue, they only look at one side
of the ledger. Strikingly, there is scant information about what aggressive collection efforts cost the
state. Debt collection involves myriad untabulated expenses, including salaried time from court
staff, correctional authorities, and state and local government employees. Arresting and incarcerating people for debt-related reasons are particularly costly, especially for sheriffs’ offices, local jails,
and for the courts themselves. For example, Brennan Center analysis of one North Carolina county’s collection efforts found that in 2009 the government arrested 564 individuals and jailed 246
of them for failing to pay debt and update address information, but that the amount it ultimately
collected from this group was less than what it spent on their incarceration.
• C
 riminal justice debt significantly hobbles a person’s chances to
reenter society successfully after a conviction. In all fifteen of the
examined states, criminal justice debt and related collection practices create a significant barrier for individuals seeking to rebuild
their lives after a criminal conviction. For example, eight of the fifteen states suspend driving privileges for missed debt payments, a
practice that can make it impossible for people to work and that
can lead to new convictions for driving with a suspended license.
Seven states require individuals to pay off criminal justice debt before they can regain their eligibility to vote. And in all fifteen states,
criminal justice debt and associated collection practices can damage
credit and interfere with other commitments, such as child support
obligations.

Top Penny-Wise, Pound-Foolish Practices
• Incarcerating those who have failed to
pay
• Extending probation and other supervision in order to collect fees
• Suspending driver’s licenses for failure
to pay

• O
 verdependence on fee revenue compromises the traditional functions of courts and correctional agencies. When courts are pressured to act, in essence, as collection arms of the state,
their traditional independence suffers. When probation and parole officers must devote time to fee
collection instead of public safety and rehabilitation, they too compromise their roles.
All of these policies are at odds with America’s growing commitment to reduce recidivism and overincarceration, and to promote reentry for those who have been convicted of crimes. As states look
to ways to shave their prison and jail budgets without compromising public safety, eliminating the
debt-based routes back to jail – both direct and indirect – is an obvious choice for reform.

2 | Brennan Center for Justice

Core Recommendations
In light of these findings, this report makes the following recommendations for reforming the use of
user fees and the collection of criminal justice debt in state and local policy environments:
•	

Lawmakers should evaluate the total debt burden of existing fees before adding new fees or increasing fee amounts.

•	

Indigent defendants should be exempt from user fees, and payment plans and other debt collection efforts should be tailored to an individual’s ability to pay.

•	

States should immediately cease arresting and incarcerating individuals for failure to pay criminal
justice debt, particularly before a court has made an ability-to-pay determination.

•	

 ublic defender fees should be eliminated, to reduce pressures that can lead to conviction of the
P
innocent, over-incarceration, and violations of the Constitution.

•	

States should eliminate “poverty penalties” that impose additional costs on individuals who are
unable to pay criminal justice debt all at once, such as payment plan fees, late fees, collection fees,
and interest.

•	

Policymakers should evaluate the costs of popular debt collection methods such as arrests, incarceration, and driver’s license suspensions – including the salary and time spent by employees
involved in collection and the effect of these methods on reentry and recidivism.

•	

Agencies involved in debt collection should extend probation terms or suspend driver’s licenses only
in those cases where an individual can afford to repay criminal justice debt but refuses to do so.

•	

Legislatures should eliminate poll taxes that deny individuals the right to vote when they are unable to pay criminal justice debt.

•	

Courts should offer community service programs that build job skills for individuals unable to
afford criminal justice debt.

Brennan Center for Justice | 3

INTRODUCTION
Cash-strapped states have increasingly turned to user fees to fund their criminal justice systems, as well
as to provide general budgetary support. States now charge defendants for everything from probation
supervision, to jail stays, to the use of a constitutionally-required public defender. Every stage of the
criminal justice process, it seems, has become ripe for a surcharge.
These “user fees” differ from other kinds of court-imposed financial obligations. Unlike fines, whose
purpose is to punish, and restitution, whose purpose is to compensate victims, user fees are explicitly
intended to raise revenue. Sometimes deployed as an eleventh hour maneuver to close a state budget gap,
the decision to raise or create new user fees is rarely made with much deliberation or thought about the
consequences.
As this report documents, however, the consequences of imposing and collecting user fees, and other
forms of criminal justice debt such as fines and restitution, are significant.
This report discusses the national landscape of criminal justice debt and collection practices by
surveying the fifteen states with the largest prison populations. Individuals incarcerated in these fifteen
states represent 69 percent of all state prisoners nationally, and these states together have more than
60 percent of all state criminal filings.1 Over the course of a year, we researched relevant laws and
court rules and spoke with more than 100 court officials, public defenders, and others involved in the
criminal justice system, to understand how these laws and rules operate in practice. We focused on how
and when criminal justice debt is imposed on individuals, and which collection mechanisms are used
in each of the states studied.
What emerges is a disturbing uptick in both the dollar amount and the number of criminal justice fees
imposed on offenders, as well as increased pressure on officials to collect fees, fines, and other forms
of criminal justice debt. The result is a broad array of collateral consequences that policy makers have
seldom considered in the rush to raise revenue.
Fees and other criminal justice debt are typically levied on a population uniquely unable to make payments.
Criminal defendants are overwhelmingly poor. It is estimated that 80-90 percent of those charged with
criminal offenses qualify for indigent defense.2 Nearly 65 percent of those incarcerated in the U.S. did
not receive a high school diploma;3 70 percent of prisoners function at the lowest literacy levels.4 AfricanAmericans face a particularly severe burden: Nationally, African-Americans comprise 13 percent of the
population but 28 percent of those arrested and 40 percent of those incarcerated,5 and African-Americans
are almost five times more likely than white defendants to rely on indigent defense counsel.6
Individuals emerging from prison often face significant challenges meeting basic needs. Many are
unable to find stable housing – it is estimated that 15 to 27 percent of prisoners expect to go to
homeless shelters upon their release.7 Many used drugs or alcohol regularly before going to prison and
may need treatment upon release.8
Employment rates for those coming out of prison are also notoriously low – up to 60 percent of former
inmates are unemployed one year after release.9 Obstacles to finding a job are even greater now, as the
unemployment rate in the general population hovers at just under 10 percent, and is as high as 16 percent
for industries such as construction that have traditionally been sources of jobs for persons with criminal
convictions.10
4 | Brennan Center for Justice

Against this backdrop, criminal justice debt adds yet one more barrier to getting on one’s feet. What at
first glance appears to be easy money for the state can carry significant hidden costs – both human and
financial – for individuals, for the government, and for the community at large. When persons with
convictions are unable to pay their debts, they face a cascade of consequences. Late fees, interest, and other
“poverty penalties” accrue. In many states, driver’s licenses are suspended for missed payments, thereby
stripping individuals of a legal means of traveling to work. Damaged credit can make it difficult to find
employment or housing.
Worse yet, in many ways, when states impose debt that cannot be paid they are charting a path back to
prison. Debt-related mandatory court appearances and probation and parole conditions leave debtors
vulnerable for violations that result in a new form of debtors’ prison. Suspended driver’s licenses lead to
criminal sanctions if debtors continue to drive. Aggressive collection tactics can disrupt employment,
make it difficult to meet other obligations such as child support, and lead to financial insecurity – all of
which can lead to recidivism.
In recent years, there has been a growing consensus that we need to be smarter, not necessarily tougher,
in fighting crime. It is in everyone’s interest to ensure that formerly incarcerated persons successfully
reenter society – and scholars, advocates, religious leaders, and those who have spent time in prison have
forcefully argued for more sensible policies that foster reintegration, rather than recidivism. More than
two-thirds of nonviolent offenders released from state prison are rearrested within three years.11 Bipartisan
federal legislation enacted in 2008, the Second Chance Act, seeks to better meet the needs of the formerly
incarcerated and thereby break this vicious cycle.12 And the same budgetary forces that have prompted
new user fees have also prompted a reexamination of expensive mass incarceration as a crime-fighting
technique.
It is time to reconsider the wisdom of turning persons with criminal convictions into debtors. As this
report demonstrates, the hidden costs of imposing and collecting user fees and other forms of criminal
justice debt are profound.

Brennan Center for Justice | 5

Criminal Justice Debt Across the Country

Illinois: Some judges use
an unreasonable standard for
determining ability to pay.
Missouri: Allows individuals to
"volunteer" to sit in jail to pay off
debt.

Ohio: Many courts do not
routinely waive fines and costs
for indigence.
Michigan: Many jurisdictions revoke probation or
hold contempt proceedings
for failure to pay debt.

Pennsylvania: Denies parole to
individuals who cannot afford to pay
a $60 fee.
New York: Has consistently
increased the size and number
of fees since the 1990s.

Virginia: Many jurisdictions
suspend driver's licenses for
missed payments.

North Carolina: Imposes
mandatory charges for the
cost of public defenders.

California: Charges extra $300
for failure to pay fines.
Texas: Some jurisdictions
arrest individuals who fall
behind on payments.

Arizona: Has no community
service option for paying off debt.

6 | Brennan Center for Justice

Alabama: Requires all criminal
justice debt to be paid before
right to vote is restored after
certain felony convictions.

Louisiana: Orleans district
charges $100 simply to enter into
a payment plan.

Florida: Private collection
agencies add up to a 40%
surcharge on amounts collected.

Georgia: Some jurisdictions
arrest individuals for failing to
appear at debt-related
proceedings.

I.	CRIMINAL JUSTICE DEBT IS GROWING AT AN ALARMING
RATE ACROSS THE COUNTRY
Across the country, individuals face an increasing number of “user fees” as part of their criminal cases.
These fees are often imposed on top of other forms of criminal justice debt, such as fines and restitution,
and can add up to staggering totals.
In only the past few years, most of the fifteen states studied by the Brennan Center have increased both
the number and dollar value of criminal justice fees, sometimes significantly. For example:
•	

Florida has added more than 20 new categories of financial obligations to the criminal justice process
since 1996 and has increased existing fees in both of the last two years. It recently increased court
costs for felonies by $25, required costs of prosecution to be imposed on convicted persons regardless
of their ability to pay (minimum $50 for misdemeanors and $100 for felonies), and set minimum
mandatory recoupment fees for persons who use public defenders at $50 for misdemeanors and $100
for felonies.13

•	 New York has been increasing the size and number of fees since the 1990s.14 In 2008, the
legislature introduced new surcharges for various driving offenses, ranging from $20 to $170
dollars.15 It also increased existing surcharges, some by as much as $50.16
•	 North Carolina in 2009 instituted a $25 late fee for failure to pay a fine or other court cost
on time and a $20 surcharge to set up an installment payment plan. It also doubled the fee
for a failure to appear in court (to $200), and the fee imposing lab costs on defendants (to
$600).17
While fees grow year after year, policymakers
seemingly have failed to evaluate, or even
consider, what these new assessments mean
for individuals’ total debt burdens.

A.	

Debt Adds Up Quickly

By the Numbers
15 of 15 states impose fees that attach upon conviction18
15 of 15 states impose parole, probation or other supervision fees19
15 of 15 states have laws authorizing the imposition of jail or prison fees20

In the fifteen states examined in this report,
fees span the criminal process and often begin to accrue before a defendant even reaches the courthouse.
For instance, many states charge indigent defendants a fee simply to apply for a public defender. Once
a person secures a defender, he or she may be charged a reimbursement fee for the costs of defense
services.
A conviction can also bring financial penalties. Many crimes carry a fine, and most states impose fine
“surcharges” that go either to state coffers or to criminal justice or crime victim funds. A person may
also be forced to pay a range of court administrative fees just for being convicted or pleading guilty.
If a person is then placed in prison or jail, he or she often faces fees to defray costs associated with incarceration.
If placed on probation, or released from incarceration on parole, in most cases individuals are charged
monthly supervision fees as well.
In the fifteen surveyed states, individual fees, small and large, add up quickly, leaving many poor individuals
with heavy debt burdens that they often cannot hope to pay.
Brennan Center for Justice | 7

Criminal Justice Debt Accrues
at Every Stage of a Criminal Proceeding

21

Pre-conviction
Application fee to
obtain public defender
Jail fee for pretrial
incarceration

Sentencing
Fines, with accompanying surcharges
Restitution
Fees for court administrative costs
Fees for designated funds
(e.g. libraries, prison construction, etc.)
Public defender reimbursement fees
Prosecution reimbursement fees

Incarceration
Prison fees
Jail fees

Probation, Parole,
or Other Supervision
Probation and parole supervision fees
Drug testing fees
Vehicle interlock device fees (DUIs)
Mandatory treatment, therapy, and class fees

Poverty Penalties
Interest
Late fees
Payment plan fees
Collection fees

8 | Brennan Center for Justice

According to one recent docket sheet shown below, for example, a Pennsylvania woman convicted of
a drug crime incurred 26 different fees, ranging from $2 to $345. When her financial obligations are
added together, she faces $2,464 in fees alone, an amount that is approximately three times larger than
both her fine ($500) and restitution ($325) combined.
Docket Sheet Snapshot, Pennsylvania
COURT OF COMMON PLEAS OF CAMBRIA COUNTY
DOCKET
Docket Number:

CRIMINAL DOCKET
Court Case
Commonwea lth of Pennsylvania
Commonwealth
v.
v.

Page 7 of 8

INFORMATION
CASE FINANCIAL
I'INANCIAL INI'ORMATION
Last Payment Date:

Tota l of Last Payment: $0.00
$0 .00
Total
Assessment

Payments

Adjustments
Ad
justments

Non Monetary
Payments
Pa yments

Defendant
Defen
da nt

Total

Costs/Fees
Automation Fee (Cambria)
Sheriff Costs (Cambria)

$5.00

$0.00
$0
.00

$0.00
$0 .00

$0.00
$0 .00

$5.00

$50.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$50.00

$8.00

$0.00
$0
.00

$0.00
$0 .00

$0.00

$8.00

Police Transport
Tra nsport (Cambria)
(Cambri a)

$100.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$100.00

CO/Drug Fee (Cambria)

$200.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$200.00

$94.71
$94.71

$0.00
$0 .00

$0.00
$0 .00

$0.00
$0 .00

$94.71
$94
.71

CO/Drug Fee (Cambria)

$200.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$200.00

(Cambria)
a)
Postage Fee (Cambri

(Cambria)
Plea (Cambri
a)
Special Adm. (Cambria)

$200.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$200.00

OSP (Cambria/State) (Act 35 of 1991)

$345.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$345.00

OSP (Cambria/State) (Act 35 of 1991)
1991 )

$345.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00
$0 .00

$345.00

Service Charge (Cambria)

$230.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$230.00

Judgment
ment Fee (Cambria)
Judg

$24.50

$0.00
$0
.00

$0.00
$0 .00

$0.00
$0 .00

$24.50

State Court
Cou rt Costs (Act 204 of 1976)

$12.30

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$12.30

Commonwealth Cost - HB627 (Act 167
of 1992)

$18.40

$0.00
$0
.00

$0.00
$0 .00

$0.00
$0 .00

$18.40

County Court Cost (Act 204 of 1976
1976))

$26.80

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$26.80

Crime Victims Compensation (Act 96
of 1984)

$35.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$35.00

Domestic Violence Compensation (Act
44 of 1988)

$10.00

$0.00
$0
.00

$0.00
$0
.00

$0.00
$0 .00

$10.00

Victim
V
ictim Witness Service (Act 111
11 1 of
1998)

$25.00

$0.00

$0.00
$0
.00

$0.00
$0 .00

$25.00

$5.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$5.00

Substance
Substa nce Abuse Education (Cam)
(Act 198 of 2002)

$50.00

$0.00
$0
.00

$0.00

$0.00

$50.00

Substance
Substa nce Abuse Education (Cam)
(Act 198 of 2002)

$50.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00
$0 .00

$50.00

Judicial
Judicial Computer Project

$8.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$8.00

ATJ

$2 .00
$2.00

$0
.00
$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$2.00
$2 .00

Police Drug Fee (Cambria)

$150.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0 .00
$0.00

$150.00

DNA Detection Fund (Act 185-2004)

$250.00

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$250.00

$20.20

$0.00

$0.00

$0.00

$20.20

Trai ning Fund
Firearm Education
Educati on and Training
(158 of 1994
1994))

Certification (Cambria)
AOPC 2220 - Rev 11/28/2009
11128/2009

Printed:
11/2812009
Printed: 11/28/2009

This is an excerpt of a docket sheet from the Court of Common Pleas of Cambria County. This defendant was convicted under 35 Pa. Cons.
Stat Ann. § 780-113(30) (the manufacture, delivery, or possession with intent to manufacture or deliver a controlled substance). She was
sentenced to a minimum of three months and a maximum of 23 months imprisonment, a fine of $500, and restitution totaling $325. Her
total fees are $2,464.91.

Brennan Center for Justice | 9

This is not an unusual case. In Texas, a preliminary study by the Texas Office of Court Administration
showed that people released to parole owe anywhere from $500 to $2,000 in offense-related debt (not
including restitution).21 A chart used by court clerks in Texas inventories at least 39 different categories
of court costs in misdemeanor cases and 35 types of costs in felony cases.22 In Arizona, individuals
face a series of surcharges that add 84 percent to their underlying fines and penalties.23 Individuals are
also liable for additional “set amount” surcharges, including a $20 probation surcharge24 and a $20
surcharge for using a payment plan to pay off debts.25
Adding to the burden are fees that apply only in certain local jurisdictions, authorized either by state
statute or imposed directly by local governments.26 In Louisiana, for example, defendants in Jefferson
Parish face an additional “special court cost” of $75 for a felony conviction and $25 for a misdemeanor
conviction.27 And in New York, some counties have reportedly collected additional probation-related
fees even though such fees are not permitted under state law.28
In addition to user fees that apply to all offenses, individuals convicted of certain types of crimes
frequently face substantial additional debt. For instance, in many states, individuals convicted of drug
crimes, driving under the influence (“DUI”), or sex offenses face mandatory fees that dramatically
increase their overall debt. In Arizona, for example, a person convicted of DUI must pay special fees
totaling $1,000, on top of all other fees and a fine of $250.29
Individuals can also face high fees for the cost of monitoring systems. In North Carolina, a person
convicted of a DUI can be assessed up to $1,000 for the use of a continuous alcohol monitoring system
as a condition of probation,30 and many states also require individuals convicted of DUIs to pay for a
vehicle interlock device.31 Texas and Illinois also impose fees for sex offender monitoring, with Illinois
law instructing courts to charge offenders for “all costs.”32
Together, these fees can add up to a debt burden that is impossibly high for many poor people convicted
of crimes.

B.	

States Fail to Track the Real Costs

Despite the dramatic increase in the number of criminal justice fees, none of the fifteen states studied
had any kind of process for measuring the impact of criminal justice debt and related collection
practices on former offenders, their families, or their communities. And even though fees are imposed
as a revenue-generating measure, none of the fifteen had a statewide process for tracking the costs of
collection.
In many states, it is difficult to even calculate how much debt individuals with different criminal
convictions typically face. Fees are often not located in a single place in the statutory code and are not
collected at a single point in an individual’s criminal proceeding, making it difficult to calculate exactly
how much debt a criminal conviction might engender. Louisiana, for example, has dozens, if not
hundreds, of assessments sprawled throughout its code.33
The amounts imposed in different jurisdictions within a state also often vary dramatically. In Michigan,
Detroit felony courts regularly provide indigence waivers for non-mandatory fees such as court costs
and defender costs,34 while in Kent County, judges typically impose $700 in court debt (which helps
cover the cost of a court-appointed attorney) and will rarely waive this debt for indigence unless the
individual is sentenced to prison.35

10 | Brennan Center for Justice

Without clear information about the debt burdens that result from different kinds of criminal convictions,
it is impossible for states to make informed judgments about what fee amounts are appropriate and
how a new or increased fee will impact total debt burdens. Improved tracking and record-keeping is
urgently required.
States are similarly derelict in evaluating the impact of collection practices. To the extent that states
evaluate fee collection processes at all, they seem to look only at one side of the ledger – the money
brought in – without taking into account the costs of collection incurred by various governmental
entities, much less the longer term impacts on recidivism and reentry.
Unlogged direct costs of collection include salary and time for the clerks, probation officers, attorneys,
and judges who often participate in collection, as well as the costs associated with penalties for nonpayment, which can include sheriff time to execute arrest warrants and nights in local jails.
In this respect, Massachusetts provides a useful example of a thoughtful approach to fees. After facing
opposition from criminal justice advocates to a proposed local jail fee, in 2010 the legislature instead
established a commission to investigate the revenue that could be generated from jail fees, the cost of
administering collection, the impact on the affected population, and other factors.36 Similar studies of
the real costs and benefits of debt collection in other states could lead to a more considered criminal
justice debt policy.
Common Collection Practices . . .

And Some Hidden Costs . . .

Probation or parole officers monitor payments.

Salary and overtime. Officers distracted from role in
supporting reentry and rehabilitation.

Debtor must attend regular meetings before

Salary and overtime. Burdened court dockets.

a judge, clerk, or other collection official.
Incarceration for failure to pay.

Salary

and

overtime

for

judges,

prosecutors,

and public defenders. Cost of incarceration. Jail
overcrowding.

Lost jobs and housing. Difficulty

paying child support.
Refer debt to private collection agencies.

Onerous collection fees, leading to spiraling debt.
Damaged credit, which hurts housing and employment
prospects.

Probation terms extended for failure to pay.

Probation officer salary and overtime. Increased risk of
reincarceration for violating probation requirements.

Driver’s license suspended for failure to pay.

Challenges in finding and maintaining employment.
Increased risk of reincarceration for driving with a
suspended license.

Debt converted to a civil judgment.

Damaged credit, which hurts housing and employment
propsects.

Wage garnishment and tax rebate interception.

Individuals discouraged from seeking legitimate
employment. Financial hardship and inability to meet
child support commitments.

Brennan Center for Justice | 11

Fees in Focus: You Have the Right to an Attorney, If You Can Afford It
Broad reliance on defender fees in the examined states
One common – and particularly troubling – fee category involves fees tied to the use of a public defender.
Thirteen of the fifteen states studied in this report either authorize or mandate charging indigent individuals
“defender fees” – sometimes in the thousands of dollars – for exercising their right to counsel.37
Defender fees can include charges to “apply” for representation before an attorney is appointed, charges
during the course of a criminal proceeding to offset the costs of representation, and charges at the termination
of a criminal proceeding to reimburse the state for all or a portion of the costs of representation. In Florida
and Ohio, individuals are required to pay defender fees even if they are acquitted or have charges dropped.38
Of the fifteen states, only Pennsylvania and New York do not utilize some form of defender fee.
Mandatory fees
Strikingly, Florida, North Carolina, and Virginia all utilize mandatory defender fees, providing no opportunity for
the court to waive the fee if the defendant lacks the financial resources to afford payment.39 In North Carolina,
the court must order convicted defendants to pay a $50 fee and must direct a judgment to be entered for the
full value of the defense services provided,40 currently valued at $75/hour for non-capital cases, plus additional
fees and expenses.41 In Virginia, poor defendants may be charged as much as $1,235 per count for certain
felonies.42
Even when defender fee statutes include hardship waivers, some states fail to offer waivers in practice. In Arizona,
where state law mandates that courts take into account and make factual findings regarding a defendant’s
financial resources,43 interviews indicate that courts order defendants to reimburse public defense costs in the
vast majority of cases,44 and that many courts have uniform fee schedules that fail to take into account ability to
pay.45
Discouraging the right to counsel
In practice, defender fees often discourage individuals from exercising their constitutional right to an attorney
– leading to wrongful convictions, over-incarceration, and significant burdens on the operation of courts. In
Michigan, for example, the National Legal Aid and Defender Association found that the threat of paying
the full cost of assigned counsel resulted in misdemeanor defendants systematically waiving their right to
counsel – at a rate of 95 percent in one county, according to a judge’s estimate.46
The result is that in many states, defender fees effectively circumvent states’ obligation to provide counsel
to those who cannot afford it, raising serious constitutional questions. The Supreme Court has indicated
that defender fees should have safeguards to ensure that they do not create a “manifest hardship” for poor
defendants,47 and numerous state and federal courts have concluded that to be constitutional, defender
fees must to take into account defendants’ ability to pay and provide for a waiver if payment would impose
a hardship.48 Similarly, the ABA recommends that “[a]n accused person should not be ordered to pay a
contribution fee that the person is financially unable to afford,” and that states abolish reimbursement fees
(imposed at the termination of a proceeding) altogether.49
In increasingly relying on public defender fees, states ignore their costs – including the harm to individuals and
to public safety from the conviction of the innocent, the financial burden on taxpayers from over-incarceration,
and the harm to the integrity of the justice system as a whole when individuals are denied their right to
counsel.

12 | Brennan Center for Justice

II.	CRIMINAL JUSTICE FEES FREQUENTLY LEAD TO
AN INSURMOUNTABLE CYCLE OF DEBT
Despite the fact that most criminal defendants are indigent, none of the fifteen examined states pay
adequate attention to whether individuals have the resources to pay criminal justice debt, either when
courts determine how much debt to impose or during the debt collection process.
In many states, courts are either unwilling or unable to waive fees based on indigence, to tailor payment
obligations to a person’s ability to pay, or to offer meaningful alternatives to payment such as community
service. And fourteen of the fifteen examined states utilize at least one form of “poverty penalty,” where
individuals face additional debt because they are unable to pay off criminal justice debt immediately. The
result is a system effectively designed to turn individuals with criminal convictions into permanent debtors.

The result is a system effectively
designed to turn individuals
with criminal convictions into
permanent debtors.

The impact of this debt is significant. As discussed in the next two sections,
unpaid criminal justice debt puts individuals at risk of imprisonment and
can impact everything from their employment and housing opportunities,
to their financial stability, to their right to vote.

Imposing impossibly high debt burdens on low-income people is
financially self-defeating for states as well. When debts are imposed
without taking into account ability to pay, states end up chasing debt
that is simply uncollectable. According to statewide performance standards for court clerks in Florida,
for example, only 9 percent of fees assessed in felony cases are expected to be collected.50 Expending
personnel and resources to collect debt from people who lack the ability to pay is a waste of scarce
criminal justice funds. And as experts on child support compliance have argued, low-income debtors
are far more likely to make payments when the payment amount is manageable.51

A.	

Lack of Fee Waivers

Even though imposing criminal justice debt on the indigent is costly for states and individuals alike,
none of the states studied by the Brennan Center have adequate mechanisms to reduce criminal justice
debt based on a defendant’s ability to pay.
At least fourteen of the fifteen states – every state but Ohio52 – has at least one mandatory fee that
courts are required to impose upon certain convicted defendants, regardless of their financial resources.53
Moreover, even when sentencing courts have the discretion to waive or modify debt levels, in practice,
many courts routinely fail to consider a defendant’s ability to pay. In Ohio, for example, despite courts’
broad authority to waive debt, interviews with clerks and public defenders suggest that courts do not
routinely waive debts for indigence in practice.54
It is more common for courts to have the authority to waive or modify criminal justice debt postsentencing – at least twelve states allow for post-sentencing waivers or modification of criminal justice
debt in at least some circumstances.55 But while these post-sentencing options are vital to address
changed circumstances such as job loss, disability, or changing family commitments, they cannot
substitute for ability to pay determinations at sentencing. Such determinations are necessary because
once individuals are sentenced to pay criminal justice debt, they are immediately at risk of sanctions
for non-payment such as probation revocation and the loss of driving privileges, as well as other harms
such as damaged credit and a loss of public benefits.

Brennan Center for Justice | 13

Post-sentencing evaluations can also pose logistical challenges. For example, in North Carolina, one
public defender observed that while individuals have the right to seek a post-sentencing reduction in
their payment obligations by petitioning the court, they rarely do so because they do not have a right to
counsel to aid with the petition. Instead, individuals often fall behind on payments and face probation
revocation before a court has the opportunity to consider whether their fees should be reduced or
waived.56 This wastes resources and can potentially lead to unwarranted arrests and jail stays as part of
the probation revocation process.
Finally, in many states, courts do not take advantage of their authority to waive or modify debt postsentencing. For example, in Virginia, a court may reduce a defendant’s financial obligations (including
fines, costs, and restitution) if a defendant establishes, at a show cause proceeding for failure to pay, that
the failure to pay was not the defendant’s fault.57 However, according to court clerks interviewed for
this report, courts very rarely reduce the amount of a fee or fine and almost never reduce the amount
of restitution owed.58

B. 	

Unworkable Payment Plans

Most states also fail to provide adequate payment plan
options. While payment plans cannot undo the harm
from unreasonably high debt burdens, a well-designed
plan can make it easier for low-income people to pay
down medium-size debts that might otherwise push
them toward default. Yet despite their obvious utility,
payment plan options in most states are burdensome
and inflexible.
All fifteen of the states studied in this report permit
payment plans in at least some contexts.60 But in
many states, payment plan systems need to be made
more effective and fair.

The Need for Clear Standards
Most states do not have clearly defined standards for
determining how much criminal justice debt an individual
has the ability to pay. As result, even when states provide
for hardship waivers, they are often ignored or inconsistently
applied. Best practices developed by the Brennan Center
for indigent defense appointments provide guidance for
establishing criminal justice debt standards:59
• S
 tate should have uniform, written requirements for what
debt levels are appropriate given individuals’ resources.
• S
 creening should evaluate genuine financial ability, taking
into account other obligations should as child support
commitments. In determining ability to pay, screeners
should not include income needed for living expenses,

In many states, payment plans are not geared to
non-liquid assets, and family and friends’ assets.
individuals’ actual ability to pay. For example, the
• Individuals who receive public benefits, reside in
Michigan State Court Administrative Office has a
correctional or mental health facilities, or have incomes
collection policy that requires individuals to make
below a fixed multiple of the federal poverty guidelines
an initial payment of $45 if they are approved for a
should be presumed ineligible to pay and should receive
payment plan, regardless of their income.61 Similarly,
automatic waivers.
in Louisa Circuit Court in Virginia, individuals must
pay a minimum of $50 per month and an initial
payment of $100. Another Virginia jurisdiction,
Roanoke Circuit Court, usually requires payments to be large enough to pay off the entire debt within
one year, regardless of its size.62
Rather than setting a fixed plan, a better practice would be for courts to impose payment plans based on
the individual needs of defendants. For example, Florida law presumes that an individual is able to pay
a monthly payment equaling one-twelfth of two percent of his or her annual net income, and provides
that the court may review the reasonableness of a payment plan employing this presumption.63 Yet even
in Florida, this presumption is often ignored and payment levels are set at fixed amounts.64
14 | Brennan Center for Justice

In another disturbing practice, jurisdictions in at least nine states charge individuals extra fees for
entering into a payment plan.65 This can discourage people from entering payment plans in the first
place, and turn payment plans into a vehicle for increasing, rather than diminishing, debt burdens. For
instance, Orleans district in Louisiana imposes a $100 payment plan fee, and Franklin County in Ohio
imposes a $25 fee.66 These fees target individuals with the least capacity to take on additional financial
obligations, and contribute to and perpetuate cycles of debt.

C. 	

No Meaningful Community Service Alternatives

Another potential path out of criminal justice debt is meaningful community service options for the
indigent. Well-designed community service programs can help individuals with criminal convictions
develop job skills and avoid long-term debts that keep them entangled with the justice system.
In twelve of the fifteen states the Brennan Center studied, interviewees reported that their state
offered at least limited community service options in lieu of criminal justice debt. But practices varied
significantly, both within individual states and across the country, such that many individuals lack
meaningful community service options in practice.
In some states, community service options are rarely applied at all. For example, in Florida, judges are
permitted to convert statutory financial obligations into court-imposed community service for those
who cannot pay, but it appears that courts seldom take advantage of this option. According to court
clerks, only 16 of 67 Florida counties converted any mandatory criminal debt imposed in felony cases
to community service. Of those 16 that did report using community service, ten converted less than
$3,000 of debt to community service in one year.67
In other states, community service is only offered for certain categories of financial obligations, which can
leave individuals still liable for significant dollar amounts. For example, in Georgia, community service
is generally only an option to offset certain financial obligations, such as fines.68 And some states offer no
community service options at all. For instance, North Carolina law does not offer individuals the option
of performing community service in lieu of paying criminal justice debt.69 In fact, when individuals are
ordered to undertake community service as a term of their sentence, they must pay a $200 fee to offset the
cost of the program.70
The design of community service programs also matters. For example, defenders in Illinois observed
that when community service is imposed on individuals who are otherwise employed, it can be difficult
for them to complete the necessary hours.71 For this reason, community service should only be imposed
at the defendant’s request, or when an unemployed defendant has been unable to make payments.
Similarly, judges should have discretion as to how many hours of community service should be required
to pay off criminal justice debt, rather than mandating by statute a fixed dollar value per hour. If a person
faces thousands of dollars of debt, a fixed dollar equivalent of service hours may not be realistic.

Brennan Center for Justice | 15

California Woman Faces Spiraling Debt72
In the middle of 2006, Michelle was sentenced, on fraud and drug charges, to six months in jail
and three years on probation. She was also required to pay approximately $40,000 in restitution,
an obligation she embraces as necessary to compensate her victims for her wrongdoing. But while
Michelle works to pay off her obligations, her debt grows by the month.
After serving her six months in jail Michelle began a three-year probation term. Back in her community,
Michelle was fortunate to get a steady job, and she started making payments on the restitution she
owed. The court put her on a payment plan under which she owed $230 per month. But, as she paid
off her restitution, she also accrued probation fees of $136.78 per month, which continued to add
to her total debt. Michelle was later downgraded to “administrative” probation, but continued to be
charged a (lower) monthly fee.
Michelle worked hard to pay each month, at times paying down more than required. Even when
she got laid off and was unemployed for over a year, Michelle paid what she could while supporting
a daughter, but she feared punishment for her accumulating debt. “When I got laid off, there was
one month – it was Christmas and my daughter’s sixteenth birthday – when I couldn’t make any
payment,” says Michelle. “But the financial officer told me that if I didn’t make next month’s payment
they’d give me a probation violation and send me back to jail. That’s the part that scared me most –
I’d get my electric turned off before I missed a payment and had to maybe go back to jail.”
She worries, “for the unpaid probation fees, they can put me in jail if I don’t make payments . . . .
Anytime that you owe probation and you don’t pay, they give you thirty days and then they issue a
bench warrant for your arrest.”
When her three years of sentenced probation time came to an end, Michelle learned that because
she had not yet repaid her restitution in full, she would remain on administrative probation until April
of 2011, the maximum time allowed under the law. As a result, she continues to be charged $33 per
month in new fees.
As of June 2010, Michelle had paid $6,212 toward her total debt, but she still has a long way to go.
With her current job, Michelle earns about $1,400 a month, with no government benefits. Her debt
from monthly fees alone now totals over $2,000, with months still to go on her probation term.
Of these other fees that have accumulated while she pays off her restitution, she says, “I’ve
only ever been arrested that one time. I made a mistake. I messed up. And now all of this is still
happening. I can’t imagine what it would be like for people who can’t get a job or don’t have the
support I have.”

16 | Brennan Center for Justice

States With At Least Limited
Community Service Options Available
Yes

No



Alabama73



Arizona74
California



Florida76



Georgia77



Illinois



75

78

Louisiana79



Michigan



Missouri



80

81



New York82



North Carolina

83

Ohio84



Pennsylvania85



Texas



Virginia87



86

In contrast, when community service programs are welldesigned, the benefits can be significant. Cambria County,
Pennsylvania, for example, offers individuals who owe fines
and court costs the opportunity to participate in a work
detail if they are unable to make their monthly payments. A
person may work at a preauthorized site such as the Salvation
Army or YMCA, or may seek approval from the work crew
supervisor to volunteer at another site, such as a local church
or daycare center. A similar program is available for individuals
incarcerated in the County Prison, where selected inmates are
typically given the opportunity to work on county property,
such as at the courthouse. By participating in this program
until they are released from prison or gainfully employed,
participants can avoid financial hardship arising from debt.
According to one public defender, “the work program offers
the person a chance to prove to themselves, family and the
court that they are serious about reintegrating themselves as a
productive, responsible member of the community, building
self-esteem and dignity along the way . . . and of course the
ultimate goal, reducing recidivism.”88

D. 	Poverty Penalties Compound Debt and Enrich
Private Companies

In addition to failing to offer adequate waivers for the
indigent and meaningful payment plan and community
service options, the Brennan Center found that many states
also charge additional fees when individuals fail to pay off
their debts immediately – without looking at whether the
debtor has the resources to pay. These charges effectively penalize people solely for being poor.

NB: This list includes those states for which the Brennan
Center identified an authorizing statute and/or practice of
providing community service as an option to pay off at least
some forms of criminal justice debt.

Fourteen of the fifteen states studied have statutes authorizing some form of poverty penalty or have
at least one jurisdiction that utilizes such a penalty – including late fees, interest charges, payment plan
fees, and collection fees.
•	

I n thirteen states, individuals can be charged interest or late fees if they fall behind on payments89
– even if they lack any resources to make the payments or have conflicting obligations such as
child support. The added debt can be significant – such as a flat charge of $300 in California,90
late charges of $1091 or $2092 every time a defendant makes a late payment in some Florida
counties, and a 20 percent late fee after 56 days in Michigan.93

•	

N
 ine of the states studied authorize exorbitant “collection fees,” frequently payable to private debt
collection firms.94 For example, in Alabama, individuals must pay a collection fee of 30 percent of
the amount due if their payments are 90 days overdue.95 Similarly, Florida law authorizes private
collection agencies to charge individuals up to a 40 percent surcharge on amounts collected,96
and Illinois law authorizes charging individuals who fall behind on payments with a fee of 30
percent of the delinquent amount.97 Only one of the states studied, Texas, exempts defendants
who are unable to pay their underlying debt from an added collection fee.98
Brennan Center for Justice | 17

•	

N
 ine states charge defendants a fee for entering into a payment plan – also without any
exemption for poverty.99 Fee amounts vary, from $10 in Virginia,100 to $100 in New Orleans.101
Florida debtors can be charged $25 to enroll in a payment plan, or an additional $5 charge per
month.102

By pushing poor people further into debt, poverty penalties make it harder for them to meet their daily
needs and to fulfill important commitments such as child support. For example, California’s $300
civil assessment for defendants who fall behind in paying a fine or related surcharge103 is close to the
average monthly food budget for a household making less than $70,000 per year.104 Collection fees
in Florida – which can reach 40 percent of the amount collected – likewise regularly add hundreds
of dollars to individuals’ debt burdens and can bring their total debt into four figures.105 Often these
charges far exceed ordinary standards of fairness. For example, Alabama’s 30 percent “collection fee”106
is in striking contrast to its general usury law, which limits interest rates on private loans to a maximum
of 8 percent.107
Certainly, states have a legitimate interest in creating incentives so that defendants that can pay their
debts do pay them. But states need to ensure that they do not end up penalizing the truly poor and
enriching private debt collectors at their expense.

18 | Brennan Center for Justice

III.	HARSH COLLECTION PRACTICES FORGE FOUR PATHS TO DEBTORS’ PRISON
Criminal justice debt puts many individuals on the fast track to re-arrest and re-incarceration. At their
worst, criminal justice debt collection efforts result in a new form of debtors’ prison for the poor.
In a startling number of jurisdictions, we found that individuals can face arrest and incarceration not
for any criminal activity, but rather for simply falling behind on debt payments. Our research also
uncovered a variety of ways in which criminal justice debt
can be the first step toward new offenses and more jail time
The Supreme Court Rejects Debtors’ Prison
– all originating from the failure to pay off debt.
“[I]f the probationer has made all reasonable efforts
to pay the fine or restitution, and yet cannot do
so through no fault of his own, it is fundamentally
unfair to revoke probation automatically without
considering whether adequate alternative methods
of punishing the defendant are available.”
Bearden v. Georgia108

Some of these practices violate the Constitution or state law.
All of them undercut former offenders’ efforts to reintegrate
into their communities. Even a short stint in jail can lead to
harmful consequences such as job loss, family disruptions,
and interruptions in treatment for addiction, all of which
create a situation ripe for new and more serious offenses.
And the costs of arrest and incarceration – passed on to the
taxpayer – are often more than the state can ever hope to
collect from debtors.

Yet despite these legal objections and hidden costs, versions of debtors’ prison persist in all of the states
examined by the Brennan Center.

A.	

History and Constitutional Limitations

Historically, being in debt was often tantamount to hopelessness. In ancient Rome, a debtor who could
not repay an outstanding loan was bound in chains in a public plaza for three days, after which he was
sold as a slave or executed.109 In England, debtors’ prisons were widely used into the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries.110
Early America also relied on debtors’ prisons. In the 1830s, some U.S. states imprisoned three to five
times as many individuals for debt as for actual crimes.111 By this time popular opposition to debtors’
prison had begun to grow, however, and in 1833, the United States eliminated the imprisonment of
debtors under federal law, with many states following suit as well.112
But these provisions did not stop the use of debtors’ prison to collect criminal justice debt imposed by
courts. In fact, beginning soon after the Civil War and continuing through the 1930s, many Southern
states used criminal justice debt collection as a means of effectively re-enslaving African-Americans,
allowing landowners and companies to “lease” black convicts by paying off criminal justice debt that
they were too poor to pay on their own.113
More recently, the Supreme Court has made clear that debtors’ prison can be used to collect criminal
justice debt only when a person has the ability to make payments but refuses to do so. In 1970, the
Court ruled in Williams v. Illinois that extending a maximum prison term because a person is too poor
to pay fines or court costs violates the right to equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment.114
And in 1983, it ruled in Bearden v. Georgia that the Fourteenth Amendment bars courts from revoking
probation for a failure to pay a fine without first inquiring into a person’s ability to pay and considering
whether there are adequate alternatives to imprisonment.115
Brennan Center for Justice | 19

Yet despite these constitutional protections, Brennan Center interviews with defenders and court
personnel revealed that some jurisdictions ignore the requirement that courts inquire into ability to
pay before utilizing debtors’ prison, while many others skirt the edges of the law by failing to evaluate
a defendant’s ability to pay until after he or she has been arrested, or even jailed, for criminal justice
debt, or by allowing defendants to “volunteer” to be incarcerated. Only recently, an appellate court in
Louisiana found that a trial court in Monroe Parish violated the Constitution in sentencing an indigent
person to an automatic jail term that was triggered if he failed to pay fines and costs.116
Even more jurisdictions arrest and incarcerate individuals who miss court dates or other appointments
related to criminal justice debt – even when they lack the resources to make payments – making
criminal justice debt a path to new offenses. And other common collection practices, such as extending
probation or suspending driver’s licenses, also lead to new offenses rooted in debt.

B.	

Four Paths to Debtors’ Prison

Individuals with heavy debt burdens risk incarceration in all fifteen of the states examined in this report
– in many cases without regard for their ability to pay. The Brennan Center identified four main paths
to this disturbing new form of debtors’ prison.
•	
	

Path 1: Probation or parole revoked or not granted
All fifteen states make criminal justice debt a condition of probation, parole, or other correctional supervision. In some states, when individuals fail to pay, they may face re-arrest and may
ultimately be sent to prison. In Pennsylvania, persons in prison are ineligible for parole unless
they pay a $60 fee that makes no exception for the indigent.

•	 Path 2: Incarceration through civil or criminal enforcement proceedings
	At least eleven states have statutes or practices that authorize incarceration as a penalty for a
willful failure to pay criminal justice debt, often under the guise of civil contempt.
•	 Path 3: “Choosing” jail
	Interviewees in two states reported programs where defendents can request to spend time in
jail as a way of paying down court-imposed debt. These programs are often voluntary in name
only and reflect the untenable choices that poor defendants must make.
•	 Path 4: Arrest and pre-hearing incarceration
	All fifteen states have jurisdictions that arrest people for failing to pay criminal justice debt or
appear at debt-related hearings, leading in many cases to multi-day jail terms pending an ability to pay hearing.

20 | Brennan Center for Justice

Key Terms117
•	

Probation typically refers to a court-imposed sentence that releases a person into the
community, usually subject to the person meeting stated conditions, rather than sending the
person to jail or prison.

•	

Parole typically refers to the release of a person from prison before he or she has completed a
full sentence, and is usually granted for good behavior and subject to the parolee meeting certain
conditions during the parole period. This report refers to probation and parole together
as supervision.

•	

Conditions of supervision are requirements that a probationer or parolee must abide by under
order of the court or parole board. Examples of conditions of supervision include attending drug
treatment programs, abiding by curfews, meeting with probation or parole officers, and paying
criminal justice debt.

•	If a person under supervision fails to meet required conditions, they have violated that condition.
Allegations of violations are typically brought before a judge or the parole board. If the judge or
parole board finds that a condition has been violated, they have the option to revoke probation
or parole, sending the person back to prison.

1.	

Probation or Parole Revoked or Not Granted

All fifteen states studied in this report make at least some forms of criminal justice debt a condition of
probation or parole, including for the indigent, putting individuals at risk of incarceration if a court
finds that missed payments were willful.118
In several states, supervision authorities regularly seek revocation based on missed payments, requiring
individuals to appear at hearings to explain failures to pay.119 While in many states these hearings do not
lead to a decision to send the person back to prison, incarceration is a common result in jurisdictions in
at least two states, Alabama and Missouri.120 Many other states have jurisdictions that sometimes revoke
probation or parole for failures to pay.121 Failure to pay can also lead to revocation if an individual cannot
pay for mandatory treatments, classes, or polygraph tests that are often conditions of supervision.122
Under the Constitution, while a court can make debt payment a condition of probation or parole
regardless of ability to pay, probation and parole can only be revoked after a court makes an ability to
pay inquiry. Troublingly, defenders in at least five of the surveyed states reported instances where they
believed courts had either failed to consider ability to pay altogether or used an unreasonable standard
for determining ability to pay in the process of revoking probation or parole.123
For example, a public defender in Illinois observed that rather than evaluating a person’s assets and
obligations, one judge simply asked everyone if they smoked. If they smoked and had paid nothing
since the last court date, he found willful nonpayment and put them in jail without doing any further
inquiry.124 Similarly, in Michigan, a public defender said that while incarceration for failure to pay is not

Brennan Center for Justice | 21

common, she has observed judges make only cursory ability to pay inquiries, such as finding a person’s
failure to pay willful because he had cable television.125 In some jurisdictions missed payments are also
regularly listed in supervision reports as one of many reasons for revocation,126 placing the defendant in
a negative light even if the court formally revokes supervision on another ground.

“I do, generally, believe that very few of
our judges have ever experienced the kind
of poverty a majority of my clients live
with, so they are often unrealistic about
what is possible.”
— Public defender in
Jackson County, Illinois128

A similar path to debtors’ prison occurs when states condition
eligibility for probation and parole on the payment of criminal
justice debt, denying probation or parole and holding
individuals in prison until they pay their debts. Pennsylvania
utilizes such a practice, making eligibility for probation,
parole, and accelerated rehabilitative disposition contingent
on paying a $60 court costs fee. Strikingly, this law has no
waiver for indigence, in blatant violation of the Fourteenth
Amendment.127

According to the Pennsylvania Institutional Law Project, many
inmates who were otherwise eligible for release on parole have
been kept in prison – sometimes for a period of months –
because they lacked the resources to pay $60.129 Ironically, it costs almost $100 to hold a person in
prison for a single day in Pennsylvania.130
2.	

Incarceration Through Civil or Criminal Enforcement Proceedings

Another common path to debtors’ prison takes place when civil or criminal enforcement proceedings
are used to incarcerate individuals who fail to make debt payments. At least eleven of the fifteen states
examined in this report have statutes or practices that authorize incarceration for willful failures to pay
criminal justice debt, often under the guise of civil contempt.131
These proceedings raise particular concern in states where individuals have no right to counsel in civil
proceedings even when they face incarceration. For example, many Florida counties use “collections
courts,” where individuals are at risk of being jailed for civil contempt but have no right to a public
defender.132 This lack of counsel is particularly disturbing when, as in Florida, defendants are hauled
into court for debt that no judge has ever determined they have the ability to pay. While most states
recognize a right to counsel in civil proceedings that could result in incarceration, high courts in
Florida,133 Georgia,134 and Ohio,135 have rejected this notion (although lower courts in Ohio are divided
as to whether the high court’s ruling continues to be good law).136
Denying individuals counsel at proceedings where their liberty is at stake raises serious constitutional
questions137 – and creates a significant risk that individuals will end up incarcerated simply for being
poor. Attorneys play a crucial role in ability to pay proceedings: they can collect and present evidence
regarding ability to pay criminal justice debt, navigate often-confusing rules for altering payment
commitments or debt loads, and ensure that individuals’ rights are protected and that they understand
the implications of any payment commitments that they make. Putting individuals’ liberty at risk
without access to an attorney draws the fairness and accuracy of civil contempt proceedings into serious
question.

22 | Brennan Center for Justice

3.	

“Choosing” Jail

Some states also create a third path to debtors’ prison by offering individuals the “choice” of spending
time in jail as a way of paying off criminal justice debt, highlighting just how severe a burden criminal
debt imposes on the poor.
In California138 and Missouri,139 for example, some jurisdictions allow people to “volunteer” to sit in jail
as a way of fulfilling debt obligations. In many cases, volunteering for jail is a choice in name only.
According to a public defender in Missouri, for example, one judge treats nonpayment as an implicit
request to commute fines to jail time, eliminating any pretext that jail time was the defendant’s
voluntary choice. The defender successfully fought this policy, but the judge reportedly still applies it
to individuals not represented by a public defender.140 The Supreme Court rejected exactly this kind of
practice in Tate v. Short, holding that courts could not automatically convert an indigent defendant’s
unpaid fines into a jail sentence.141 In Marin County, California, one public defender observed that
judges only very rarely waive criminal justice debt for indigence, and that clients who are poor and
unable to work are more likely to convert debt to jail terms, to avoid facing future probation violations
for failures to pay.142
Individuals who “choose” jail terms to pay down debts may also accumulate new debts in the process.
For example, in at least one Missouri jurisdiction, debtors who choose to sit in jail to pay down one set
of fines and costs reportedly accrue new jail board bills for their stay in jail.143
In other states, although there is no explicit statutory provision for choosing to “sit out” fees and fines,
defendants can still effectively choose incarceration by accepting plea agreements that provide for jail
time in lieu of certain forms of debt. For example, in one North Carolina county, individuals who are
unable to immediately pay criminal justice debt are placed on supervised probation and are typically
sentenced to the full length of their suspended sentence if they are found to have willfully violated
probation. With such high-stake debt burdens at issue, one public defender said that if she expects a
client will have trouble making payments she will often encourage the client to accept a plea agreement
that provides for jail time in lieu of certain financial obligations.144 Ironically, states not only forego debt
revenue in these cases but also typically face additional costs from unnecessary incarceration.
4.	

Arrest and Pre-Hearing Incarceration

Finally, in all fifteen states, at least one jurisdiction has a practice of arresting individuals if they miss
debt payments or fail to appear at a debt-related proceeding, typically as the first step in a probation or
parole revocation hearing or a civil contempt proceeding.145 In some jurisdictions, a missed payment
automatically triggers an arrest warrant,146 while in others, clerks or probations officers regularly seek
arrest warrants when individuals fall behind on payments.147 And in still others, arrests occur for
“failure to appear” at a debt-related hearing, meeting, or court date.148 Arrests lead not only to an
initial loss of freedom but in many cases to days in jail prior to a court appearance and an ability to pay
determination.
The use of arrests as a collection mechanism raises serious concerns because in many jurisdictions, arrests
and pre-hearing incarceration take place before a court has ever assessed whether the individual has the
resources to make payments. In Florida, for example, some counties use “pay or appear” hearings,
where an individual is required to either make a payment by a fixed deadline or appear in court for

Brennan Center for Justice | 23

a hearing. If a person fails to pay and does not appear in court, the person is arrested and held in jail
pending a court hearing unless he or she can pay a “purge.” In most cases, no court has ever determined
that person had the ability to make payments in the first place.149
And as in Florida, even when jurisdictions do provide options for individuals to make a payment in
order to be released from jail prior to an ability-to-pay hearing, the amounts themselves are not typically
tied to ability to pay.150 As a result, poor people must frequently stay in jail pending an ability-to-pay
hearing, sometimes for several days.
Troublingly, even when an arrest is based on a failure to appear, rather than a failure to pay, in many
instances indigence is the underlying cause of the failure to appear. In Texas and Michigan, for example,
defenders complain that in some jurisdictions, aggressive collection tactics by probation officers deter
poor people from showing up to probation meetings if they lack the resources to make a required
payment – leading these same probation officers to issue a probation violation for the failure to
appear.151
The result – sending debtors to overcrowded prisons and jails for failing to follow a court order – is costly
to states, harmful to public safety, and unfairly burdensome to debtors whose failure to appear is often
rooted in poverty. In New Orleans, for example, a review of a week of felony docket sheets revealed that
a full 6.15 percent of cases before the court related to debt collection issues, a questionable allocation of
resources in a crime-plagued city. Of these, approximately 21.6 percent were cases where an arrest warrant
had issued because of a missed payment or failure to appear.152
While the Supreme Court has never specifically addressed the constitutionality of using arrests for
failures to pay debt or appear at debt-related hearings, at core these practices punish debtors without
first determining whether they have the ability to pay. This
is inconsistent with basic fairness and runs directly against the
States That Suspend Driver’s Licenses
equal protection and due process principles reflected in the cases
To Punish Missed Payments
prohibiting debtors’ prison.
California153

C.	Aggressive Collection Tactics Push Debtors Toward
New Offenses

Florida154
Louisiana155
Michigan156
North Carolina

157

Pennsylvania158
Texas159
Virginia160
NB: This list includes those states for which the
Brennan Center identified an authorizing statute
and/or practice of altering driving privileges for a
failure to pay at least some forms of criminal debt.

In addition to creating new paths to debtors’ prison, many states’
collection practices push debtors toward the old path to prison:
reoffending. Harsh collection practices can lead to probation and
parole violations and new offenses that are rooted in debt, often
leading to new prison terms and undermining efforts at reentry.
1.	

Suspension of Driver’s Licenses

One common collection practice that leads to a cycle of
reincarceration is the suspension of driver’s licenses. At least eight
states suspend driver’s licenses based on missed payments, in many
cases without considering whether a person had the resources to
make payments in the first place. In still other states, individuals can have their licenses revoked for a
failure to appear at a hearing or for an arrest warrant, the underlying cause of which is often criminal
justice debt.161 If these individuals continue driving – as they often must to work – they face new and
often severe criminal penalties for driving with a suspended license.
24 | Brennan Center for Justice

In California, for example, driving with a suspended or revoked license carries a penalty of up to six
months imprisonment and/or a fine of between $300 and $1000 for a first offense.162 If a person is
convicted more than once in a twelve month period, he or she is considered a habitual traffic offender
and faces mandatory incarceration.163 As a result, even if the debtor’s original crime was quite minor,
driver’s license suspension can push debtors toward more serious offenses and future incarceration.
2.	

Extending Probation Terms

In addition to ordering criminal justice debt as a condition of probation, at least thirteen states also
have a statute or practice allowing courts to extend probation terms for failure to pay debt in at least
some cases. In many of these states, jurisdictions extend probation even if the person has satisfied all
other probation conditions, and even if it is undisputed that the person lacks the resources to pay.
As a result, individuals stay enmeshed in the criminal justice system
for longer and face a risk of incarceration for longer – not for new
crimes, but for technical violations of probation conditions, including
payment conditions.
In San Francisco, for example, individuals with extended probation
terms must continue reporting regularly to probation officers, attend
counseling sessions, and fulfill other probation conditions. These
requirements are often time-consuming and can interfere, among
other things, with efforts to find and maintain steady employment.
Missing a meeting or other condition of probation can lead to a
probation violation charge – and possibly arrest, a jail stay pending
a judicial hearing, and ultimately the revocation of probation and a
new prison term.164
In this way, extending probation for a failure to pay off criminal justice
debt makes future interaction with the criminal justice system more
likely, and creates a host of burdens unrelated to the debt payments
themselves.

D.	

Debtors’ Prison Wastes Public Funds

States That Extend Probation For Debt
Alabama165
Arizona166
California167
Florida168
Georgia169
Louisiana170
Michigan171
Missouri172
North Carolina173
Ohio174
Pennsylvania175
Texas176
Virginia177
NB: This list includes those states for which
the Brennan Center identified an authorizing
statute and/or practice of extending probation
for failure to pay criminal debt in at least some
circumstances.

The underlying motivation for using debtors’ prison and other
aggressive collection practices is generally fiscal: states look to criminal
justice debt as a way to boost revenue. But strikingly, debtors’ prison and other collection practices
that lead individuals on a path to reincarceration simply do not add up – they are expensive and place
additional pressure on already-overcrowded prisons and jails. As policies for increasing revenue, they
are penny-wise and pound-foolish.
Any time an individual is arrested or imprisoned, taxpayers face a hefty bill. California, for example,
spends more than $130 per day to incarcerate a single prisoner.178 And over-incarceration requires states
to divert resources from other critical areas, including everything from education to law enforcement.
Indeed, with the recent economic crisis putting unprecedented strain on state budgets, many states
have been rethinking their high rates of incarceration. Most notably, California recently announced a
plan to reduce the number of inmates in the state’s 33 prisons next year by 6,500.179

Brennan Center for Justice | 25

Yet in the quest for criminal justice fee revenue, states are sending more people into prisons and jails.
While states focus on the income such collection practices bring in, they generally fail to look at the
other side of the balance sheet, including costs imposed on sheriffs’ offices, local jails and prisons,
prosecutors and defense attorneys, and the courts themselves.
North Carolina County’s Collection Practices Do Not Add Up
Mecklenburg County, North Carolina faced an $85 million budget gap this year, with austerity measures
including everything from closing 12 library branches to a potential $9 million dollar cut to the Sheriff’s
Office.180 Yet records from the Mecklenburg County Fine Collection Department indicate that some of
the county’s debt collection efforts cost more money than they bring in.
According to an official in the Fine Collection Department, when individuals on a payment plan fail to
make scheduled payments, they receive a series of postcards and calls and ultimately a probation
violation report, requiring them to appear in court. If these posrcards and reports go unserved because
a person’s address has changed, a warrant is then issued for the person’s arrest.181
Department records indicate that in 2009, 564 individuals were arrested because they fell behind on
debt and failed to provide the Fine Collection Department with updated address information.182 In order
to be eligible for release from jail prior to a hearing before the court, they were required to pay the full
amount of their debt. Of the 564 individuals arrested, 246 people did not pay and were held in jail for
an average of about 4 days pending a compliance hearing – at which point their debts were often
cancelled.183 This jail term alone cost more than $40,000184 – while the county collected only $33,476
from the individuals who had been arrested.185 Additional arrests also took place when individuals did
not appear at debt-related hearings, costing the county even more money.186

26 | Brennan Center for Justice

IV.	CRIMINAL JUSTICE DEBT IMPEDES REENTRY AND REHABILITATION
The harm from criminal justice debt does not stop at debtors’ prison and new debt-related offenses. In
all of the fifteen states studied, criminal justice debt and related collection tactics pose severe hurdles in
virtually every area of life.
From seeking and maintaining employment and housing, to obtaining public benefits, to meeting
financial obligations such as child support, to exercising the right to vote, criminal justice debt is a
barrier to individuals seeking to rebuild their lives after a criminal conviction. In the rush to raise
revenue, states have not considered whether turning defendants into debtors is consistent with the need
to reduce recidivism, reduce over-incarceration, and promote reentry.

A.	

Hurdles to Finding Housing and Employment

One significant result of the heavy debt burdens and aggressive collection tactics documented in the
fifteen states is that debtors face major hurdles to finding and maintaining housing and employment,
both key steps in promoting former offenders’ reentry into their communities.
For instance, in many states, criminal justice debt wreaks havoc on individuals’ credit scores, and with it,
their housing and employment prospects. At least eleven states allow at least some forms of criminal justice
debt to be converted into civil judgments or collected in the same manner as civil judgments,187 meaning that
the debt is filed with the county clerk just like any other judgment and becomes public information available
for credit reporting agencies.188 And at least four states affirmatively report delinquent defendants to credit
agencies in some contexts, typically via private vendors contracted to help collect delinquent debt.189
The resulting damaged credit scores hurt individuals applying for a loan or mortgage,190 as well as those
seeking public or rental housing where credit scores are often a screening mechanism. For example, in
New Haven, Connecticut, the city’s Housing Authority recently approved a program that would allow
preferential placement for up to 12 ex-offenders on lists for public housing. However, the new program
does not make exceptions for individuals with a poor credit history.191
Reporting criminal justice debt to credit agencies also impacts employment prospects. Background
checks by employers increasingly include credit reports,192 which can be used as a form of “character
screening” for job applicants.193 By damaging credit, criminal justice debt functions as yet another
application hurdle for jobseekers.
Even more troubling, credit reports can also serve as a back-door way for employers to identify individuals
with criminal records. In order to promote reentry, some states limit how and when employers can use
a defendant’s criminal history in hiring decisions.194 Criminal justice debt appearing on a credit report
can potentially inform employers that an individual has a criminal history even when the legislature has
decided that this information should not be made available to employers.
In addition to damaging credit, criminal justice debt and related collection practices harm employment
and housing prospects in other ways as well. Wage and tax garnishment, for example, discourages
individuals from participating in legitimate employment and pushes them toward the underground
economy.195 All fifteen states studied permit the use of at least certain civil collection methods for
criminal justice debt collection, such as liens or the garnishment of bank accounts or wages,196 and nine
of the fifteen states utilize tax rebate interceptions for at least limited purposes.197

Brennan Center for Justice | 27

Likewise, states’ use of arrests and incarceration as collection tactics can disrupt work schedules and create
an erroneous impression that the person has committed a new crime, making it harder to hold down
housing or a job. Longer-term periods of incarceration for failing to pay criminal justice debt cause even
greater disruptions. Similarly, suspending driver’s licenses for a failure to pay criminal justice debt can
make it difficult for many people to search for and hold down jobs.198 Strikingly, both Florida and Virginia
routinely revoke driver’s licenses for missed debt payments without first considering a person’s ability to
pay.199 This practice is in marked contrast to the child support context, where driving penalties for nonpayment are typically viewed as a last resort, leaving officials with substantial discretion.200
By aggressively using the probation
and parole supervision process for debt
collection, states increase economic
insecurity for a population that is
already overwhelmingly poor . . .

B.	

Public Benefits at Risk

In a harsh irony, aggressive collection practices can also render
individuals with criminal justice debt ineligible for public benefits,
simply for being too poor to make debt payments.

As discussed in the context of debtors’ prison, all fifteen of the
examined states make criminal justice debt a condition or probation
or parole.201 But treating a failure to pay criminal justice debt as a violation of a probation or parole term can
impact debtors in other ways as well – under federal law, individuals who violate a term of their probation
or parole are ineligible for federal Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) funds,202 as well as Food
Stamps,203 low-income housing and housing assistance,204 and Supplemental Security Income for the elderly
and disabled.205 By aggressively using the probation and parole supervision process for debt collection, states
increase economic insecurity for a population that is already overwhelmingly poor – a practice directly at
odds with the goal of promoting reentry.
The risk of losing public benefits is particularly serious because in practice, agencies sometimes terminate
benefits solely on the basis of a warrant alleging that a person has violated probation or parole by failing
to make payments – even when a court has not made a finding that the person had the ability to pay,
and even when there may have been a mistake about the person’s parole or probation status.
A recent Second Circuit Court of Appeals case, Clark v. Astrue,206 addressed this issue in the context
of Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and Old-Age, Survivor and Disability Insurance (OASDI). As
documented in an amicus brief by the Empire Justice Center and other non-profits, individuals around the
country have lost SSI and OASDI benefits based on warrants arising from criminal justice debt that they
cannot afford to pay.207 The Second Circuit agreed with the plaintiffs that the government had no right to
terminate these benefits unless it was “more likely than not” that the person actually violated a condition
of probation or parole.208 However, because the Social Security Administration has not yet acquiesced to
this decision, it is likely that criminal justice debt warrants will still be used to terminate benefits, even
when a court has never determined whether the person has the ability to make payments.209

C.	

Barriers to Paying Child Support

The heavy debt burdens documented in the fifteen states also harm family relationships. In Texas, for
example, 10 to 20 percent of felony probationers and 15 to 25 percent of parolees owe child support.210
Rather than encouraging former offenders to meet these obligations, however, many states impose
criminal justice debt obligations directly in tension with child support commitments.

28 | Brennan Center for Justice

Although federal law prioritizes child support obligations over all other debts owed to the state,
including criminal justice debt,211 obligations to make monthly criminal justice debt payment can
often be in direct conflict with child support commitments – particularly when judges lack discretion
to take into account ability to pay in setting debt levels or creating payment plans. Moreover, when
aggressive collection tactics result in the loss of jobs, housing, or public benefits, it is often impossible
for individuals to meet their child care and child support obligations.
In Texas, one fee statute explicitly takes into account child support commitments, requiring the court to
consider “the defendant’s employment status, earning ability, and financial resources” and “any other special
circumstances that may affect the defendant’s ability to pay, including child support obligations and including any
financial responsibilities owed by the defendant to dependents or restitution payments owed by the defendant
to a victim.”212 This provision should be a model for other Texas fee statutes – and other states should follow its
lead

D.	

Debt Functions as a Poll Tax

In addition to impacting financial security, criminal justice debt also harms individuals’ most
fundamental rights. All fifteen of the states examined in this report disenfranchise people with criminal
convictions for some period of time.213 In at least seven of these fifteen states, individuals must pay
off criminal justice debt before they can regain their eligibility to vote after a conviction. This modernday poll tax is particularly harmful to the African-American community – nationwide, 13 percent of
African American men have lost the right to vote, seven times the national average.214
Among the fifteen states examined in this report, Alabama, Arizona, Florida, and Virginia all explicitly
condition the restoration of voting rights on the repayment of at least some forms of criminal justice debt.215
In fact, Alabama and Virginia require individuals to pay all fines, restitution, and court costs before they can
be considered for reinstatement – a dollar amount that can easily reach thousands of dollars.
Other states, including Georgia and Texas, have ambiguous provisions that require individuals to complete
their “sentences,” which may potentially include the payment of fines, restitution, or other forms of
criminal justice debt.216
Finally, some states – including Louisiana, North Carolina, and Texas – disenfranchise people on
probation, while also allowing the court to extend probation if a defendant has not paid off his or
her debt by the expiration of the probation term.217 By extending individuals’ probation terms due to
unpaid debt, courts also effectively continue to deny the right to vote.
These requirements raise serious constitutional concerns and contravene a core principle of our
democracy – that rich and poor alike have a right to participate in our political system. And by denying
access to political rights based solely on poverty, states counter efforts to encourage former offenders to
accept the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.
It is in everyone’s interest for people coming out of prison to reintegrate into their communities – to hold
down stable jobs and housing, to meet obligations to their children and families, to enjoy financial security,
and to take on the obligations of citizenship. Unfortunately, while states have increasingly recognized that
fostering successful reentry is a necessary part of criminal justice policy, every state that we examined
imposes and collects criminal justice debt in a manner that runs directly counter to these goals.

Brennan Center for Justice | 29

V.	OVERRELIANCE ON CRIMINAL JUSTICE FEES UNDERMINES THE PROPER ROLES OF
COURTS AND CORRECTIONAL AGENCIES
An overreliance on criminal just debt coupled with aggressive collection practices also undermines the
traditional functions of the courts and criminal justice agencies enlisted to collect debt.
All fifteen of the examined states require courts and probation and parole officers to be involved in
debt collection in some capacity.218 This practice blurs traditional roles, requiring judges and supervision
officers to act as collection agents, rather than impartial adjudicators or supervision officers concerned
with public safety and rehabilitation. In fact, at least eleven states use some criminal fees, fines, or
penalties to support general revenue funds, treasuries, or funds unrelated to the administration of
criminal law – effectively turning courts, clerks, and probation officers into general tax collectors.219

A.	

Courts Face Conflicts of Interest and Financial Uncertainty

States’ increasing reliance on fees to fund court operations raises significant concerns, particularly for
the judiciary, and goes against the best practices recommended by the American Bar Association and
other justice experts.220 All of the states studied in this report use criminal justice debt to provide
budgetary support to courts.
Chief among these concerns is that when courts are over-dependent on fees, such reliance can interfere
with the judiciary’s independent constitutional role, divert courts’ attention away from their essential
functions, and, in its most extreme form, threaten the impartiality of judges and other court personnel
with institutional, pecuniary incentives.221
Concerns arise, too, when courts are used to collect fees that go to other state functions or general
revenue. This concern has prompted the Louisiana Supreme Court to strike down fees that are not
directly connected to the administration of justice on separation of powers grounds, stating that “our
clerks of court should not be made tax collectors . . . nor should the threshold to our justice system
be used as a toll booth to collect money for random programs created by the legislature.”222 More
recently, the court has adhered to this precedent, and focused on the issue of whether a fee relates to
“administration of justice” in deciding whether it violates separation of powers.223
Fee revenue can also be unstable. When the operation of the criminal justice process depends too
heavily on fee revenue, courts risk major disruption when fee revenue goes down.
New Orleans, for example, faced an extreme version of this phenomenon in the wake of Hurricane
Katrina when the traffic court fines that it had relied upon to fund the public defender system dried
up.224 Already underfunded before Katrina, the city’s public defender office faced devastating cuts after
the depopulation of New Orleans depleted traffic fine revenue. By October of 2005, the office’s staff
shrunk to 10 attorneys from 35.225
News reports documented accounts of defendants being kept in jail even after charges against them
were dropped, or just as troubling, waiting months before their cases were presented.226 In a highly
publicized decision, one judge, Judge Arthur Hunter, decided to suspend prosecutions and release
defendants because they were not being provided counsel in a timely fashion.227

30 | Brennan Center for Justice

Far from being easy money, then, criminal justice debt puts court officials in the awkward role of becoming
debt collectors, while creating the potential for financial instability when fee revenue goes down.

B.	

 robation and Parole Officers are Diverted from Their Public Safety and
P
Rehabilitation Purposes

	
The concern about compromising roles is also salient for probation and parole officers. Because some
form of criminal justice debt is a condition of supervision in all fifteen states, supervision officers are
involved in collections in each state to varying degrees. Collection-related tasks include monitoring
payments, setting up payment plans, dunning persons under supervision, and taking punitive actions
such as reporting failures to pay.228 Even when jurisdictions do not typically seek probation revocation
solely on the basis of nonpayment, many interviewees reported that supervision officers will threaten
revocation in an effort to encourage payments.229
These enforcement responsibilities can be a distraction from the more important duties that probation
and parole officers have. In particular, given their often crushing caseloads, their highest priority is to
promote public safety and monitor individuals at risk of re-offending. Supervision officers are aware
of these consequences and some find debt collection to be at odds with their main purpose: to serve
society by ensuring that individuals do not commit new offenses.
These concerns led Virginia to abolish one of its supervision fees in 1994 (though other supervision
fees remain). Virginia abolished its parole supervision fee, which had been $30 per month, in part
because it had been “a huge hassle to collect,” according to a Virginia corrections official.230 In addition
to the problems inherent in requiring parole officers to be fee collectors, the associated administrative
and accounting tasks made collection by the Department of Corrections too burdensome relative to
the small amount of revenue generated by the fee.231 Some within the Department, including parole
officers, objected to the fee and to the parole officers’ role in the collections process, not only because of
the administrative challenges, but also because collection undermined their other duties. As one official
stated, “parole officers are not loan sharks.”232

Brennan Center for Justice | 31

VI.	RECOMMENDATIONS
Criminal justice debt and collection practices are different in each state, but in our analysis of fifteen
states’ practices, several themes emerged. Many of the problems described in this report arise from states’
failure to provide indigence waivers for criminal justice debt. States also consistently failed to consider
the costs – both human and financial – of aggressive collection practices, including arrests, incarceration,
the extension of probation terms, and the suspension of driver’s licenses. Several collections practices
also raised serious constitutional concerns. We outline below a number of recommendations to address
these hidden costs.
1.	Lawmakers should evaluate the total debt burden of existing fees before adding new fees
or increasing fee amounts. Massachusetts provides a good model: on the verge of instituting
a local jail fee in 2010, the legislature instead established a commission to perform an initial
investigation of the revenue that could be generated from the fee, the cost of administering and
collecting the fee, and the impact of the fee on affected populations.
2.	Indigent defendants should be exempt from user fees, and payment plans and other
debt collection efforts should be tailored to an individual’s ability to pay. States should
have clear written standards for determining a person’s ability to pay, and screening should
evaluate genuine financial ability, taking into account other obligations should as child support
commitments. Individuals who receive public benefits, reside in correctional or mental health
facilities, or have incomes below a fixed multiple of the federal poverty guidelines should be
presumed eligible for criminal justice debt waivers.
3.	States should immediately cease incarcerating and jailing individuals for failure to pay
criminal justice debt, particularly before a court has made an ability-to-pay determination.
Many people land in jail for debt-related reasons pending a court hearing, even though no one
has ever determined that they have the ability to pay in the first place. This blatantly unfair
practice punishes people for being poor and raises significant constitutional questions.
4.	Public defender fees should be eliminated, to reduce pressures that can lead to conviction
of the innocent, over-incarceration, and violations of the Constitution. At the very least,
states should follow the ABA recommendation that individuals should not be ordered to pay
defender fees they are unable to afford and that states should abolish reimbursement fees that
require defendants to reimburse the state for all or part of the defender’s services at the end of
a proceeding.
5.	States should eliminate “poverty penalties” that impose additional costs on individuals
who are unable to pay criminal justice debt all at once, such as payment plan fees, late
fees, collection fees, and interest. These fees unfairly burden the poor and contribute to
spiraling debt for many individuals. Collection fees that benefit private collection agencies are
particularly troubling, because these agencies generally lack oversight and charge high fees.

32 | Brennan Center for Justice

6.	Policymakers should evaluate the costs of popular debt collection methods such as arrests,
incarceration, and driver’s license suspensions – including the salary and time spent by
employees involved in collection and the effect of the methods on reentry and recidivism.
States are in the best position to evaluate the costs of collection, because they have better access to
information about the salaries of court officials, supervision officers, and other collection officials
and data on the operating costs of courts, jails, and prisons.
7.	Agencies involved in debt collection should extend probation terms or suspend driver’s
licenses only in those cases where an individual can afford to repay criminal justice debt
but refuses to do so. These practices undermine individuals’ reentry into their communities
by increasing the likelihood of new offenses and undermining employment and housing
opportunities.
8.	Legislatures should eliminate poll taxes that deny individuals the right to vote when
they are unable to pay criminal justice debt. Denying individuals the right to vote based
on a failure to pay criminal justice debt raises serious constitutional concerns and counters
efforts to encourage former offenders to accept the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. It
also contravenes a core principle of our democracy – that rich and poor alike have a right to
participate in our political system.
9.	Courts should offer community service programs that build job skills for individuals
unable to afford criminal justice debt. Well-designed community service programs promote
reentry and help individuals avoid long-term debts that keep them entangled with the justice
system. Community service options for debt should be widely available, but should only be
imposed at the defendant’s request, or when an unemployed defendant has been unable to
make payments.

Brennan Center for Justice | 33

ENDNOTES
1	For data on the number of state prisoners, see Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Prisoner Statistics, Prisoners at
Yearend 2009 - Advance Counts, available at http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=2272. For data
on state criminal filings, see National Center for State Courts, Court Statistics Project, Interactive Statistics Query,
http://www.ncsconline.org/d_research/csp/CSP_Main_Page.html.
2	Access and Fairness InfoCenter, National Center for State Courts, Indigent Defense FAQs 1 (2009),
available at http://www.ncsconline.org/wc/CourTopics/FAQs.asp?topic=IndDef.
3	Caroline Wolf Harlow, Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Dep’t of Justice, Education and Correctional
Populations 1 (2003), available at http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/ecp.pdf.
4	42 U.S.C. § 17501(b)(14) (Congressional Findings supporting the Second Chance Act, the most comprehensive
federal legislative response to date to the needs of those re-entering society after incarceration).
5	Christopher Hartney & Linh Vuong, National Council on Crime and Delinquency, Created Equal:
Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System 2 (2009), available at http://www.nccdcrc.org/nccd/pdf/CreatedEqualReport2009.pdf.
6	

Id. at 14.

7	42 U.S.C. § 17501(b)(9) (Second Chance Act findings).
8	42 U.S.C. § 17501(b)(10) (Second Chance Act findings).
9	42 U.S.C. § 17501(b)(18) (Second Chance Act findings).
10	Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Dep’t of Labor, The Employment Situation – August 2010 at 1, 24 (2010),
available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/empsit.pdf (last visited Sept. 17, 2010).
11	Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Dep’t of Justice, Profile of Nonviolent Offenders Exiting State
Prisons 2 (2004), available at http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/pnoesp.pdf (last visited Aug. 19, 2010).
12	42 U.S.C. § 17501(b)(3) (Second Chance Act Findings).
13	

 ebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s
R
Criminal Justice Fees 5-6 (2010).

14	Alan Rosenthal & Marsha Weissman, Center for Community Alternatives, Sentencing for Dollars: The
Financial Consequences of a Criminal Conviction 13-16 (Feb. 2007), available at http://www.brennancenter.
org/content/resource/sentencing_for_dollars_the_financial_consequences_of_a_criminal_conviction/.
15	Ctr. for Cmty. Alternatives, Increased Mandatory Surcharges and Crime Victims Assistance Fees
(2008), available at http://www.communityalternatives.org/pdf/fees%20chart.pdf; see also N.Y. Veh. & Traf. Law
§ 1809-e.
16	Ctr. for Cmty. Alternatives, Increased Mandatory Surcharges and Crime Victims Assistance
Fees (2008), available at http://www.communityalternatives.org/pdf/fees%20chart.pdf; see also
N.Y. Veh. & Traf. Law § 1809(1)(b)(i) (surcharge for felony conviction increased from $250 to
$300); § 1809(1)(b)(ii) (surcharge for misdemeanor conviction increased from $140 to $175);
N.Y. Penal Law § 60.35(1)(a)(iii) (surcharge for conviction of a violation increased from $75 to $95).
17	See N.C. Admin. Office of the Courts, Court Costs and Fees Chart (2009), available at http://www.nccourts.org/
Courts/Trial/Documents/court_costs_chart-2009-criminal.pdf.

34 | Brennan Center for Justice

18	See, e.g., Ala. Code § 36-21-67 (imposing $1 costs for a traffic infraction, $5 for a misdemeanor or violation of
a municipal ordinance, and $10 for a felony to be allocated to the Peace Officers’ Annuity and Benefit Fund),
§ 12-19-181 (assessing additional fees for drug-related convictions); Ariz. Rev. Stat. §§ 12-116.01(A) – (C)
(imposing additional surcharges on every fine penalty and forfeiture imposed); § 16-954(C) (assessing an additional
10 percent surcharge on criminal fines to be deposited into a clean elections fund); Cal. Penal Code § 1202.4(b)
(imposing restitution fine upon conviction ); Fla. Stat. § 938.03(1), (4) ($50 fee for all criminal convictions, $49
of which is deposited in the Crimes Compensation Trust Fund); § 142.01(1); Ga. Code Ann. § 15-21-73(a)-(b)
(imposing additional surcharges on top of original fines to be paid into the Peace Officers’ Annuity and Benefit
Fund); § 17-11-1 (the costs of a prosecution may be entered against a defendant after conviction); 625 Ill. Comp.
Stat. 5/16-104d (imposing an additional $20 fee for those convicted of serious traffic violations, to be dispersed
into various funds); 725 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/124A-5 (convicted defendants must pay for costs of prosecution
and other reasonable costs, such as those incurred by the Sheriff for serving arrest warrants); La. Code Crim.
Proc. Ann. art. 887(A) (cost of prosecution);; Mich. Comp. Laws § 780.905 (outlining mandatory surcharges);
§ 769.1f(1) (authorizing courts to order convicted defendants to reimburse the costs of prosecution); Mo. Rev.
Stat. § 595.045(8) (assessing fees, the amount of which determined by the severity of the crime, to be paid to the
crime victims’ compensation fund); N.Y. Penal Law § 60.35(1)(a) (imposing ,mandatory surcharges ranging from
$95 to $300, depending on severity of offense); N.C. Gen. Stat. § 7A-304 (listing costs upon conviction); Ohio
Rev. Code Ann. § 2949.091(A) (imposing fees of up to $30 for felonies to go toward the indigent defense support
fund); § 2947.23(A)(1)-(2) (imposing costs of prosecution and juror fees in criminal cases); 18 Pa. Cons. Stat.
Ann. § 11.1101(b)(1)-(2) (imposing costs of at least $60 upon conviction); 16 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 1403 (“In
any case where a defendant is convicted and sentenced to pay the costs of prosecution and trial, the expenses of the
district attorney in connection with such prosecution shall be considered a part of the costs of the case and be paid
by the defendant.”); Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 102.004(a) (requiring defendants convicted by a jury to pay
a jury fee of up to $20); 102.005(a) ($ 40 court clerk fee at conviction.”); Va. Code Ann. § 17.1-275.1 to -275.4
(depositing portions of various conviction fees into funds such as the Criminal Injuries Compensation Fund and
the Virginia Crime Victim-Witness Fund); § 17.1-275.5(A)(2), (7), (13) (authorizing the court clerk to assess fees
for trial transcripts, jury costs, and courthouse security to convicted defendants).
19	See, e.g., Ala. Code § 15-22-2(a) ($30 fee for probation or parole); Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 31-466(A) (assessing
supervision fees $65 - $75); Cal. Penal Code §§ 1203.1b(a), 1203.1e(a)-(b) (defendant must pay all or a portion
of probation costs or parole supervision costs, based on ability to pay); Fla. Stat. § 948.09(requiring persons on
probation, parole and other supervision to pay costs of supervision); Ga. Code Ann. § 42-8-34(d)(1) ($23 a month
probation fee); 730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/5-6-3(i) ($50 monthly probation fee); La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art.
895(A) (imposing probation supervision fee); Mich. Comp. Laws § 771.3c(1) (probation supervision fee based on
projected monthly income, up to $135 per month); Mo. Rev. Stat. § 217.690(3) (authorizing fee of up to $60
per month for supervision); N.Y. Exec. Law § 259-a(9)(a) (monthly $30 supervision fee for those on presumptive
release, parole, conditional release or post-release supervision); N.C. Gen. Stat. § 15A-1343(c1)$30 monthly fee
for supervised probation); § 15A-1374(c) ($30 monthly supervision fee for persons on parole); Ohio Rev. Code
Ann. § 2951.021(A)(1) ($50 monthly probation fee can be required ); 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 11.1102(c)
(minimum $25 monthly supervision fee for parole and probation); Tex. Gov’t Code Ann. § 508.182(a)(1)-(2),
508.182(f ) (imposing a monthly parole supervision fee of $10 and administrative fee of $8); Va. Code Ann. §
19.2-303.3(D) (imposing costs of supervision for community-based probation).
20	See, e.g., Ala. Code § 14-6-22(a)(1)-(3) (imposing jail fee of up to $20 per day in misdemeanor cases, which may
be remitted upon a showing of hardship); Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-804.01 (imposing a fee, based on the costs
of incarceration and the person’s ability to pay, for those convicted of a misdemeanor); § 31-239(A) (assessing
a monthly utility fee of up to $2 for a prisoner’s consumption of electricity); Cal. Penal Code § 1203.1c(a)
(authorizing courts to assess a fee local jail stays as a condition of probation or conditional sentence after determining
defendant’s ability to pay); § 1203.1m(a) (authorizing courts to impose a fee on those in state prison after making
a determination of ability to pay); Fla. Stat. § 951.033(2)-(3) (authorizing detention facilities to determine the
financial status of prisoners and require prisoners to pay all or a portion of daily subsistence costs); Ga. Code Ann.
§ 42-1-4(d) (deducting “an amount determined to be the cost of the inmate’s keep and confinement” from the
earnings of inmates participating in a work-release program); 730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 125/20(a) (allowing county
boards to require prisoners in their jails to reimburse the county for incarceration costs based on ability to pay); 5/37-6(a) (“Committed persons shall be responsible to reimburse the Department [of Corrections] for the expenses
incurred by their incarceration at a rate to be determined by the Department . . . .”); La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann.

Brennan Center for Justice | 35

art 890.2(A)-(B) (the court may impose on persons convicted of a felony the expected costs of imprisonment
after a determination of ability to pay); Mich. Comp. Laws § 801.83(1)(a), (3) (authorizing counties to seek
reimbursement of up to $60 per day of imprisonment after determining individual’s financial status); Mo. Rev.
Stat. § 221.070 (persons committed to county jails shall bear the expense of being carried to the jail and being
supported while in jail); N.Y. Correct. Law § 189(2) (authorizing incarceration fee of up to $1 per week to be
collected from compensation paid to a prisoner for work performed; expires Sept. 1, 2011); N.C. Gen. Stat. §
7A-313 (imposing a fee of $5 for every twenty-four hours of confinement in jail while awaiting trial; the fee is
not collected if the defendant is not convicted); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §§ 2929.18(A)(5)(a)(ii), 2929.28(A)(3)
(a)(ii) (imposing the costs of confinement on prisoners staying in both local jails and state prisons); 61 Pa. Cons.
Stat. Ann. § 3303(a) (requiring inmates to pay a fee to cover a portion of costs of medical services provided
while imprisoned); Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art 42.038(a), (c) (authorizing courts that sentence a defendant
convicted of a misdemeanor to serve time in a county jail to assess a fee of $25 per day, which can be waived if the
defendant is found to be indigent); art 104.002(d) (requiring prisoners to pay for medical, dental, or health-related
services received while in a county jail); VA. CODE ANN. § 53.1-131.3 (authorizing inmate fee, not to exceed $3
per day, to defray the costs associated with confinement).
21	

 arl Reynolds et al., Tex. Office of Court Admin., A Framework to Improve How Fines, Fees, Restitution,
C
and Child Support are Assessed and Collected from People Convicted of Crimes, Interim Report 8
(2009), available at http://www.courts.state.tx.us/oca/debts/pdf/TexasFinancialObligationsInterimReport.pdf.

22	County Clerk’s Misdemeanor Court Cost Chart – 1/01/2010, available at http://www.courts.state.tx.us/oca/pdf/
CC-CRFeeChartOriginalJurisdiction2010.pdf; District Clerk’s Felony Court Cost Chart – 1/01/2010, available at
http://www.courts.state.tx.us/oca/pdf/DC-CRFeeChart2010.pdf.
23	Arizona state law specifies three surcharges to be imposed on all fines, penalties, and forfeitures imposed for criminal
offenses. These surcharges are 47 percent, 7 percent, and 7 percent. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 12-116.01(A)-(C). The
surcharges may be waived by the court to avoid working a hardship on the defendant or the defendant’s family and
they must be waived to the extent that underlying fine or penalty is waived. § 12-116.01(F). However, surcharges
imposed on fines and certain assessments for driving under the influence may not be waived. § 28-1389. Also,
section 12-116.02(A) imposes an additional 13 percent surcharge under the same conditions and pursuant to the
same waiver rules as section 12-116.01. An additional surcharge of 10 percent is imposed on all civil and criminal
fines and penalties collected under section 12-116.01 and deposited into the clean elections fund. § 16-954(C).
24	

Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 12-114.01(A).

25	

Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 12-116(A).

26	At least 7 states have fees that vary by locality. Alabama: While Alabama law provides that court fees for criminal
cases in the circuit and district courts should generally be uniform, Ala. Code § 12-19-20, courts do charge
additional local costs. For example, Macon County has a $30 jail fee and a $2 juvenile fee. Telephone Interview
with Veronica Harris, Macon County Circuit Court (Nov. 2, 2009). Pike County has a $21 district attorney fee, a
$1 law library fee, a $2 fee for the juvenile fund. Telephone Interview with Peggy McVay, Court Clerk, Pike County
Dist. Court (Nov. 5, 2009). Also, municipal governing bodies may assess additional costs and fees in municipal
court, up to the amount assessed in the district court of the county. Ala. Code § 11-47-7.1(a). California: Some
state statutes permit counties to authorize additional charges. See, e.g., Cal. Penal Code § 1465.5 (authorizing
counties to adopt a resolution imposing an additional 20 percent assessment on fines levied against certain vehicular
violations). Georgia: Some state laws allow counties to impose additional fees if they meet the statute’s criteria. See,
e.g., Ga. Code Ann. §§ 15-21-92 to -93 (authorizing counties to charge an additional fee constituting 10 percent
of the fine imposed as long as the county meets certain criteria ); Ga. Code Ann. § 36-15-9(a) (authorizing a local
fee of not more than $5 for establishing and maintaining a county law library if a need for one exists). Illinois:
Under state law, many court costs differ based upon county population size. See 705 Ill. Comp. Stat. 105/27.1a(w)
(1), 105/27.2(w)(1), 105/27.2a(w)(1). When state law provides for a fee range, counties can choose the amount to
impose. See 705 Ill. Comp. Stat. 105/27.1a, 105/27.2, 105/27.2a. In Louisiana: State law provides for many fees
that vary by district. See, e.g., La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13:965 (authorizing a fee of up to $10 towards an indigent
transcript fund in the Nineteenth Judicial District). Ohio: Court costs are generally uniform, but some statutes
allow counties to impose additional costs for specific purposes. See, e.g., Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2949.093(C)

36 | Brennan Center for Justice

(allowing counties that elect to participate in a “criminal justice regional information system” to collect additional
court costs of up to $5); see also Telephone Interview with Dan Horrigan, Summit County Clerk of Courts (Nov.
3, 2009) (noting that most court costs are standard across counties). Texas: Fees are generally uniform and must be
authorized by state statute, but some statutes provide that counties may collect additional local fees under certain
circumstances. See, e.g., Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 102.009 (authorizing counties with a population of 3.3
million or more to collect court costs of up to $7 for each conviction of a Class C misdemeanor).
27	

La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 887(F)(2).

28	Alan Rosenthal & Marsha Weissman, Center for Community Alternatives, Sentencing for Dollars: The
Financial Consequences of a Criminal Conviction 16 (Feb. 2007), available at http://www.brennancenter.
org/content/resource/sentencing_for_dollars_the_financial_consequences_of_a_criminal_conviction/.
29	

 riz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 28-1381(I)(4)-(5) (requiring defendants to pay $500 to a prison construction and operation
A
fund and $500 to a public safety equipment fund, in addition to all other fees).

30	

N.C. Gen. Stat. § 20-179(h1).

31	California: those that are convicted under or violate California’s driving under the influence statute may apply
for a restricted driver’s license after a certain period of time. One condition of a restricted driver’s license is the
maintenance of an ignition interlock device. Cal. Veh. Code § 13352(3)-(9). Illinois: those convicted of driving
under the influence of alcohol or other drugs may be granted a monitoring device driving permit, or MDDP.
Anyone with an MDDP must, at his or her own expense, drive only vehicles equipped with an ignition interlock
device. 625 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/6-206.1(a)-(a-1). New York: Persons convicted under New York’s driving under
the influence statutes must, as a condition of probation or a conditional license, install and maintain an ignition
interlock device. Those subject to this condition must bear the costs, but as of August 2010, the cost may be waived
or imposed pursuant to a payment plan if the person is unable to afford the device. N.Y. Veh. & Traf. Law §§
1198(2)(a), (3)(a), (4)(a). Virginia: as a condition of a restricted license or license restoration, a court may order for
the first offense and must order for the second or any subsequent offense or when the offender’s blood alcohol level
is above 0.15 percent, a functioning, certified ignition interlock system to be installed for at least six months. Va.
Code Ann. § 18.2-270.1(B). In addition, the court clerk shall assess any court costs related to an ignition interlock
device. § 17.1-275.5(A)(10).
32	

Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 42.12 § 19(i); 730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/5-6-3(19)(i-5).

33	Memorandum from Rebecca Bers, Orleans Pub. Defender, Chart of Fines and Fees Authorized (on file with the
Brennan Center).
34	Telephone Interview with Donald Johnson, Chief State Defender, Legal Aid and Defender Ass’n, Inc., Detroit,
Michigan (Dec. 10, 2009).
35	Telephone Interview with Paula Taylor, Fin. Dir., 17th Circuit Court, Michigan (Dec. 10, 2009).
36	See Massachusetts FY 2011 Budget Summary, Outside Section 177, Inmate Fee Schedule, http://www.mass.gov/bb/
gaa/fy2011/os_11/h177.htm.
37	Of the surveyed states, every state but Pennsylvania and New York utilizes defender fees. Alabama: See Ala. Code §
15-12-25(a) (“A court may require a convicted defendant to pay the fees of court appointed counsel.”). Arizona: See
Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 11-584(C)-(E) (court may order a $25 administrative assessment or require the defendant to pay
a reasonable amount to reimburse the county for the cost of the person’s legal services). California: See Cal. Penal
Code § 987.5 ($50 registration fee); Cal. Gov’t Code § 27712 (court may require defendant to pay all or part of
the costs of legal assistance). Florida: Fla. Stat. § 938.29(1)(a) (attorney’s fees and costs shall be set in all cases at no
less than $50 per case for misdemeanors or criminal traffic offenses and no less than $100 per case for felonies); Fla.
Stat. § 27.52(1)(b)-(c) ($50 application fee). Georgia: Ga. Code Ann. § 15-21A-6(c) ($50 application fee), Ga.
Code Ann. § 17-12-51 (court may impose as a condition of probation repayment of all or a portion of the cost for
providing legal representation and other defense expenses). Illinois : 725 Ill. Comp. Stat. § 5/113-3.1 (may order

Brennan Center for Justice | 37

defendant to pay a reasonable sum to reimburse state or county, not to exceed $500 for misdemeanors and $5,000
for felonies). Louisiana: La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 15:175(A)(1)(f ) ($40 application fee); La. Rev. Stat. Ann. §15:176
(“To the extent that a person is financially able to provide for an attorney, other necessary services, and facilities of
representation and court costs, the court shall order him to pay for these items.”). Michigan: Mich. Comp. Laws
§ 769.1k (the court may impose the expenses of providing legal assistance to the defendant). Missouri: Mo. Rev.
Stat. § 600.090(1) (if defendant is able to provide a limited cash contribution toward the cost of his representation,
or if later he or she becomes able, that contribution shall be required). North Carolina: N.C. Gen. Stat. Ann.
§ 7A-455 (if financially able, required to pay portion of legal services); N.C. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 7A-455.1 ($60
appointment fee). Ohio: Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2941.51(D) (defendant shall pay the county an amount that
the person reasonably can be expected to pay); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 120.36(A)(1) ($25 application fee). Texas:
Tex. Code Crim. Proc. art. 26.05 (if financially able, required to pay all or part of legal services). Virginia: Va.
Code Ann. § 19.2-163.4:1 (defendant charged the sum that would have been allowed a court-appointed attorney
as compensation and as reasonable expenses). Another recent survey indicates that nationally, twenty five states and
two counties charge defendants an application fee for exercising the right to counsel. Ronald F. Wright & Wayne A.
Logan, The Political Economy of Application Fees for Indigent Criminal Defense, 47 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 2045, 2052
(2006).
38	See Fla. Stat. Ann § 27.52(1)(b); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 120.36(A)(1).
39	See Fla. Stat. §§ 938.29(1)(a), 27.52(1)(b)-(c); N.C. Gen. Stat. Ann. §§ 7A-455, -455.1; Va. Code Ann. § 19.2163.4:1.
40	See N.C. Gen. Stat. Ann. §§ 7A-455, -455.1. Moreover, if the court determines that an indigent defendant is
currently capable of paying a portion of the value of the legal services provided, the court must order that payment.
N.C. Gen. Stat. Ann.. § 7A-455(a). These fees are mandatory. See N.C. Gen. Stat. Ann. §§ 7A-455, -455.1.
Despite the mandatory provisions, however, some judges nonetheless waive or remit the reimbursement provision,
citing constitutional concerns. Telephone Interview with Danielle Carman, Assistant Dir., N.C. Office of Indigent
Def. Servs. (Nov. 20, 2009). Repayment may also be made a condition of probation. See N.C. Gen. Stat. Ann. §
15A-1343(10).
41	Telephone Interview with Margaret Gressens, Dir. of Research, N.C. Office of Indigent Def. Servs. (Nov. 10,
2009).
42	See Telephone Interview with Terry Rohr, Clerk, Bristol Circuit Court (Dec. 28, 2009) (defendants are charged
$1,235 per count for Class 1 and 2 felonies, and $445 per count for Class 3-6 felonies). Other Virginia jurisdictions
have different collection regimes. For example, in Norfolk Circuit Court, appointed counsel are contracted for
felony defense at a variable rate per hour, while defendants are charged $112 per count for misdemeanor defense.
Telephone Interview with Tara Relendia, Deputy Pub. Defender, Norfolk Circuit Court (Jan. 5, 2010).
43	

Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 11-584(D); State v. Taylor, 166 P.3d 118, 125 (Ariz. Ct. App. 2007).

44	See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Tim Armbruster, Chief Deputy Legal Defender, Pima County (Nov. 16, 2009);
Telephone Interview with Dolores Corral, Fin. Specialist, Clerk of the Superior Court, Yuma County (Nov. 17,
2009).
45	For example, Yuma and Coconino counties have set rates that judges use when requiring reimbursement. Telephone
Interview with Dolores Corral, Fin. Specialist, Clerk of the Superior Court, Yuma County (Nov. 17, 2009);
Telephone Interview with Sue McLean, Office Manager, Coconino County Public Defender (Nov. 16, 2009). Not
all jurisdictions use set rates, however. Navajo, Pima, and Mohave counties appear to modify and adjust the amount
of reimbursement for the services of a public defender on a case-by-case basis. Telephone Interview with Juanita
Mann, Clerk of the Superior Court, Navajo County,(Nov. 19, 2009); Telephone Interview with Tim Armbruster,
Chief Deputy Legal Defender, Pima County. (Nov. 16, 2009); Telephone Interview with Virlynn Tinnel, Clerk
of the Superior Court, Mohave County (Nov. 17, 2009) (according to Ms. Tinnel, there has been discussion of
moving towards a more uniform fee structure for reimbursement).
46	National Legal Aid & Defender Association, A Race to the Bottom 32-33 (2009), available at http://www.
mynlada.org/michigan/michigan_report.pdf.

38 | Brennan Center for Justice

47	

Fuller v. Oregon, 417 U.S. 40, 45-46 (1974).

48	See State v. Dudley, 766 N.W.2d 606, 614-15 (Iowa 2009) (finding Iowa’s mandatory reimbursement statute
violated the right to counsel under the U.S. and Iowa constitutions because it lacked the safeguards in Fuller);
State v. Tennin, 674 N.W.2d 403, 410-11 (Minn. 2004) (same conclusion with respect to Minnesota’s mandatory
contribution statute); State v. Morgan, 789 A.2d 928, 931 (Vt. 2001) (holding “that, under the Sixth Amendment
to the United States Constitution, before imposing an obligation to reimburse the state, the court must make a
finding that the defendant is or will be able to pay the reimbursement amount...”); Hanson v. Passer, 13 F.3d 275,
279 (8th Cir. 1994) (finding that “it is constitutionally permissible to require the defendant to repay the expense
incurred by the state in providing the representation …so long as “[t]hose who remain indigent or for whom
repayment would work ‘manifest hardship’ are forever exempt from any obligation to repay.”) (quoting Fuller, 417
U.S. at 53); Alexander v. Johnson, 742 F.2d 117, 124 (4th Cir. 1984) (“[T]he entity deciding whether to require
repayment must take cognizance of the individual’s resources…and the hardships he or his family will endure if
repayment is required” in order to ensure that indigent defendants are not required to pay); Olson v. James, 603
F.2d 150, 155 (10th Cir. 1979) (finding a mandatory reimbursement statute unconstitutional because it did not
distinguish between indigent and non-indigent defendants). But see State v. Blank, 930 P.2d 1213, 1219-20 (Wash.
1997) (en banc) (holding that the Constitution does not require a prior determination of defendant’s ability to
pay, but that before enforced collection or any sanction is imposed for nonpayment, there must be an inquiry into
ability to pay); State v. Albert, 899 P.2d 103, 111 (Alaska 1995) (same); State v. Kottenbroch, 319 N.W.2d 465, 473
(N.D.1982) (same).
49	ABA, Guidelines on Contribution Fees for Costs of Counsel in Criminal Cases, Guideline 2, 2 (Aug. 2004),
available at http://www.abanet.org/legalservices/downloads/sclaid/indigentdefense/rec110.pdf.
50	Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s
Criminal Justice Fees 9 (Mar. 2010), available at http://www.brennancenter.org/page/-/Justice/FloridaF%26F.
pdf?nocdn=1.
51	See Cynthia Miller & Virginia Knox, Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation, The Challenge
of Helping Low-Income Fathers Support Their Children 23-24 (2001).
52	Although it is possible that mandatory fees exist in Ohio, Brennan Center research did not uncover any mandatory
fees.
53	See Alabama: Ala. Code § 32-6-18(a) ($50 penalty assessment for unlicensed driving, used to support the Traffic
Safety Trust Fund and the Peace Officers Standards and Training Commission Fund); Arizona: Ariz. Rev. Stat.
Ann. § 13-3821(Q) ($250 sex offender registration fee); California: Cal. Pen Code § 1464 ($10 penalty assessment
per every $10, or part of $10, of fines, penalties, and forfeitures imposed for criminal offenses); Florida: Fla. Stat.
§ 938.03(1) ($50 fee for all criminal offenses); Georgia: Ga. Code Ann. § 15-21-73(a)(1) (additional penalty
assessment in every case where the court imposes a fine, including costs, summing to 10 percent of the original
fine plus the lesser of $50 or 10 percent of the original fine); Illinois: 705 Ill. Comp. Stat. 105/27-6(b) ($100
fee for cases involving driving under the influence); Louisiana: La. Rev. Stat. Ann.§ 16.16 ($10 fee imposed in
all criminal cases over which the district attorney’s office has jurisdiction, except in parish of Orleans); Michigan:
Mich. Comp.Laws § 780.905(1)(a)-(b) ($60 fee for felonies; $50 fee for certain misdemeanors); Missouri: Mo.
Rev. Stat. § 595.045(8) ($68 fee for class A or B felonies; $46 fee for class C or D felonies; $10 fee for certain
misdemeanors); New York: N.Y. Pen Law § 60.35(a)(i)-(ii) ($300 felony fee; $175 misdemeanor fee, subject to
exemption where offenders make restitution or reparation); North Carolina: N.C. Gen. Stat. § 7A-455.1(a)-(b)
($50 appointed counsel fee in criminal cases resulting in conviction); Pennsylvania: 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. §
11.1101(a)(1) ($60 minimum court costs fee in criminal cases resulting in plea or conviction); Texas: Tex. Local
Gov’t Code Ann. § 133.102(a) (court cost fee of $133 for felonies, $83 for misdemeanors; $40 for nonjailable
misdemeanors); Virginia: Va. Code Ann. § 17.1-275.1 ($350 fixed felony fee).
54	See, e.g., E-mail from Miguel Santiago, Defender, Office of the Ohio Public Defender (Oct. 16, 2009, 10:10:00
EST); Telephone Interview with Dan Horrigan, Summit County Clerk of Courts, Ohio (Nov. 3, 2009).

Brennan Center for Justice | 39

55	Alabama: If the defendant fails to pay a fine and/or restitution, the court may reduce or waive the fees after they are
imposed. Specifically the court may “[r]educe the fine to an amount the defendant is able to pay,” “[c]ontinue or
modify the schedule of payments of the fine and/or restitution,” or “[r]elease the defendant from obligation to pay the
fine.” Ala. R. Crim. P. 26.11(h)(1), (2), (5). However, the same statute authorizes courts to incarcerate defendants
until unpaid penalties are paid (after examining the reasons for nonpayment) and order employers to withhold
amounts from wages. 26.11(h)(3), (4). Arizona: Courts have the power to modify the way in which restitution,
fines, fees or incarceration costs are to be paid, but rarely do so in practice. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-810(E)(1);
Telephone Interview with Gordon Mulleneaux, Assoc. Clerk of Cash & Fins., Maricopa County Superior Court
(Nov. 18, 2009). California: See Cal. Penal Code § 1464(d) (“In any case where a person convicted of any offense,
to which this section applies, is in prison until the fine is satisfied, the judge may waive all or any part of the state
penalty, the payment of which would work a hardship on the person convicted or his or her immediate family.”).
Georgia: Interviews indicate that some judges will change the terms of probation for defendants that become
unable to pay off debt. See Telephone Interview with Robert Persse, Defender, Ogeechee Circuit Public Defender’s
Office (Nov. 6, 2009); Telephone Interview with Claudia Saari, Interim Circuit Public Defender, DeKalb County
(Oct. 23, 2009). Illinois: Courts have the statutory authority, upon showing of good cause, to revoke unpaid fines
or modify the method of payment. 730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/5-9-2. Louisiana: Judges have the authority to suspend
court costs. La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 887(A) (“[A]ny judge of a district court, parish court, city court,
traffic court, juvenile court, family court, or magistrate of a mayor’s court within the state shall be authorized to
suspend court costs.”). Michigan: A probationer who is required to pay certain costs can petitition the sentencing
judge for remission of such costs. Mich. Comp. Laws § 771.3(6)(b). Similarly, defendants who owe restitution can
petition the sentencing judge to modify the method of payment. § 769.1a(12). Missouri: A defendant can petition
the sentencing court to revoke a fine or modify a payment method if “it appears to the satisfaction of the court that
the circumstances which warranted the imposition of the fine no longer exist or that it would otherwise be unjust
to require payment of the fine.” Mo. Rev. Stat. § 560.036. If a defendant defaults on the payment of a fine and
the default is “excusable,” the court can offer the defendant additional time to pay, reduce the amount of the fine,
or revoke the fine. § 560.031(3). New York: Sentencing courts have the authority to remit certain fines, restitution
or reparation. N.Y. Crim. Proc. Law § 420.30. North Carolina: Statutes authorize the sentencing court to remit
or revoke debt after sentencing, either based on a petition by the defendant or prosecutor or default on the part of
the defendant. See N.C. Gen. Stat. §§ 15A-1363, -1364(c). Pennsylvania: Judges in some counties will reduce or
waive criminal debt for good behavior or if defendant is making a good-faith effort to repay the debt. Telephone
Interview with Art Ettinger, Assistant Public Defender, Office of the Public Defender, Alleghany County (Oct. 29,
2009). Texas: Courts may waive fines imposed on a defendant who defaults if the defendant is indigent. Tex. Code
Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 43.091(1). However, fines can only be waived if alternative methods, such as confinement or
working “in the county jail industries program, in the workhouse, or on the county farm,” would impose an undue
hardship on the defendant. Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 43.09(a), 43.091(2).
56	Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing interviews with
public defenders and collection officials).
57	

Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-358(C).

58	See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Gary Williams, Clerk, Sussex Circuit Court, Virginia (Jan. 5, 2010); Telephone
interview, Diane Blackburn, Deputy Clerk, Buckingham Circuit Court, Virginia (Dec. 28, 2009).
59	Access to Justice Program, Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, Eligible for Justice:
Guidelines for Appointing Defense Counsel 5 (2008), available at http://www.brennancenter.org/page/-/
publications/Eligibility.Report.es.pdf.
60	Alabama: Ala. R. Crim. P. 26.11(d); Telephone Interview with Cindy, Clerk, Circuit Criminal Court of Jefferson
County (Nov. 2, 2009); Telephone Interview with Veronica Harris, Clerk, Circuit Court of Macon County (Nov.
2, 2009). Arizona: Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 12-116. California: Cal. Penal Code § 1205(a) (allowing a court to impose
a payment plan for misdemeanor convictions). Florida: Fla. Stat. Ann. § 28.246(4). Georgia: Ga. Code Ann.
§ 42-8-34.1(f ). Illinois: Judges set payment plans for restitution payments to victims. 730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/55-6(f ). Judges can also extend payment schedules at compliance review hearings. Otherwise, clerks or probation
and parole officers work out a payment plan with defendants. Telephone Interview with Lester Finkle, Assistant
Pub. Defender, Cook County Public Defender (Oct. 29, 2009). Louisiana: In Orleans district, defendants are set

40 | Brennan Center for Justice

up on a monthly payment plan for the fees and fines assessed at sentencing. Telephone Interview with Rebecca
Bers, Defender, Orleans Pub. Defender (Aug. 5, 2009); Telephone Interview with Collections Dep’t, New Orleans
Criminal Court (Aug. 11, 2009). Michigan: Mich. Ct. R. 1.110; Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 769.1a(10); 769.1f(4);
771.3(7). Missouri: Mo. Rev. Stat. § 543.270(2). New York: N.Y. Crim. Proc. § 420.10 (governing collection
of fines, restitution, or reparation). North Carolina: The court may order a payment plan or delegate a probation
officer with the responsibility to set up a payment plan. See N.C. Gen. Stat. §§ 7A-304(f ); 15A-1340.36(b);
15A-1343(c1)-(c2); 15A-1362(b). Ohio: Payment plans are set up for both misdemeanors and felonies. See, e.g.,
Telephone Interview with Dan Horrigan, Summit County Clerk of Courts (Nov. 3, 2009); Telephone Interview
with Barbara Cannon, Deputy Clerk, Greene County Clerk of Courts (Nov. 2, 2009). Dayton Municipal Court
permits defendants to pay half the balance and get a 30-day extension for the second half. Telephone Interview
with Rita Orlowski, Central Payments Office Supervisor, Dayton Municipal Clerk of Court (Oct. 30, 2009).
Franklin County Municipal Court allows defendants to break up the balance owed into 12 monthly payments.
Telephone Interview with Matt Davenport, Accounting/Fin. Supervisor, Franklin Municipal Clerk of Court (Nov.
25, 2009). Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania law provides for installment plans to be imposed at sentencing, as well as
following default. See 42 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 9758(b); § 9730(b)(3); 18 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 1106(c)(2)
(ii); Pa. R. Crim. P. 414(C)(5); 706. Texas: There are payment plans in many jurisdictions under Texas’s Collection
Improvement Program. Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 103.0033; 1 Tex. Admin. Code § 175.1 (establishing
collection mechanisms in counties and municipalities meeting certain population thresholds). Judges also have
authority under Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 42.15 to require the defendant to pay when the fees and fines are
imposed, to pay at a later date, or can require payment in installments. Virginia: Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-354(A).
61	Memorandum from the Mich. State Court Admin. Office on Collection Policy for Fines, Costs, and Other
Assessments Due to the Court, available at http://courts.michigan.gov/scao/services/collections/Policies/
SampleCourtPolicies/DistrictCourtCollectionPolicy.pdf.
62	Telephone Interview with Susan Hopkins, Clerk, Louisa Circuit Court (Jan. 4, 2010); Telephone Interview with
Brandy Duncan, Supervisor, Clerk’s Office, Roanoke Circuit Court (Dec. 21, 2009).
63	

Fla. Stat. Ann. § 28.246(4).

64	

 ebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s
R
Criminal Justice Fees 14 (Mar. 2010), available at http://www.brennancenter.org/page/-/Justice/FloridaF%26F.
pdf?nocdn=1.

65	Nine states have either a practice of charging for payment plans or a statute authorizing charges. Arizona: $20 fee for
each payment plan imposed. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 12-116(a). California: Counties can charge for setting up a
payment plan. For example, in San Francisco the charge is $35 to set up a payment plan. Telephone Interview with
Sangeeta Sinha, Deputy Pub. Defender, S.F. Pub. Defender’s Office (Dec. 17, 2009). Florida: Clerks can charge
debtors $25 to enroll in a payment plan, or an additional $5 charge per month. Fla. Stat. §§ 28.24(26)(b)-26(c).
At least one county exceeds this amount, charging $135 to apply for the payment program. Telephone Interview
with Bob Young, Gen. Counsel, 10th Judicial Circuit Office of the Pub. Defender (July 23, 2007). Louisiania:
There is a $100 payment plan fee in New Orleans. Telephone Interview with Rebecca Bers, Orleans Pub. Defender
(Dec. 2, 2009). North Carolina: $20 fee to set up a payment plan setup. N.C. Gen. Stat. § 7A-304(F). Ohio:
Practices vary. The county courts in Franklin, Summit, and Green do not charge for payment plans. See Telephone
Interview with Sherry Bova, Budget Office Manager, Franklin County Clerk of Courts (Nov. 2, 2009); Telephone
Interview with Dan Horrigan, Summit County Clerk of Courts (Nov. 3, 2009); Telephone Interview with Barbara
Cannon, Deputy Clerk, Greene County Clerk of Courts (November 2, 2009). In Franklin County Municipal
Court, a defendant utilizing a payment plan must pay $50 up front – a $25 fee for establishing a payment plan,
and $25 toward the balance. Telephone Interview with Matt Davenport, Supervisor, Accounting/Fin. Div., Franklin
Municipal Clerk of Court (Nov. 25, 2009). Pennsylvania: Practices vary. At least one jurisdiction (Centre County)
charges $32 for installment plans. Telephone Interview with David Crowley, Defender, Centre County, Penn. (Oct.
23, 2009). In Philadelphia, there is no charge. Telephone Interview with Daniel Bartoli, Defender, Defender Ass’n
of Phila. County (Oct. 27, 2009). Texas: Defendants may be required to pay a one-time $12 fee if restitution is
collected in installments. Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 42.037(g)(1). Defendants also can be required to pay a
$2 transaction fee for each payment transaction. Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 102.072. Virginia: Defendants
may be assessed a fee of up to $10 if they are placed in a payment plan. Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-354(A).

Brennan Center for Justice | 41

66	Telephone Interview with Rebecca Bers, Defender, Orleans Pub. Defender (Dec. 2, 2009); Phone Interview, Matt
Davenport, Accounting/Fin. Supervisor, Franklin Municipal Clerk of Court (Nov. 25, 2009).
67	

 ebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s
R
Criminal Justice Fees 23 (Mar. 2010), available at http://www.brennancenter.org/page/-/Justice/FloridaF%26F.
pdf?nocdn=1.

68	See Ga. Code Ann., § 17-10-1(d). Interviewees in Georgia indicated that community service did not apply to all
financial obligations in their jurisdictions. For example, the Ogeechee Public Defender has never seen community
service imposed in lieu of a court fee. Telephone Interview with Robert Persse, Pub. Defender, Ogeechee Circuit
Pub. Defender’s Office (Oct. 29, 2009). A Gwinnett County probation officer stated that he had seen community
service ordered in lieu of a fine, and in lieu of an overdue probation supervision fee, but in no other context.
Telephone Interview with Henry Goodman, Probation Officer (Oct. 29, 2009).
69	Brennan Center research did not identify any statute authorizing a community service option in North Carolina,
and interviewees indicated that no option is available in practice. See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Matt Osborne,
Assoc. Counsel, N.C. Admin. Office of the Courts (Nov. 20, 2009); Telephone Interview with Emily Harrell,
Assistant Pub. Defender, Buncombe County (Nov. 20, 2009).
70	N.C. Gen. Stat. § 15A-1371(i); § 143B-262.4(b). See also Telephone Interview with Matt Osborne, Assoc.
Counsel, N.C. Admin. Office of the Courts (Nov. 20, 2009).
71	Telephone Interview with Margaret Degen, Assistant Pub. Defender, Jackson County (Oct. 28, 2009).
72	

Telephone Interview with Michelle (last name withheld on request), Los Alamitos, California (June 16, 2010).

73	Practices vary. For example, in Macon County, the judge can allow the defendant to perform community services
in lieu of fees or fines, but only does so in traffic cases. Telephone Interview with Veronica Harris, Macon County
Circuit Clerk (Nov. 2, 2009). In Pike County, community service is not utilized in practice. Telephone Interview
with Peggy McVay, Pike County Dist. Court Clerk (Nov. 5, 2009). In Tuscaloosa, judges will sometimes allow
defendants to do community service in lieu of fines. Telephone Interview with Gerry Hudson, Pub. Defenders of
Tuscaloosa (Oct. 29, 2009). Some statutes explicitly give judges the discretion to order community service in lieu
of fees. See, e.g. Ala. Code § 12-23-18.
74	There is no statutory mechanism for the performance of community service in lieu of fees and fines. Moreover, all
interviewees who were asked agreed that there is no option for performing community service in lieu of fees or fines.
See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Virlynn Tinnel, Clerk of the Mohave County Superior Court (Nov. 17, 2009);
Telephone interview with Tricia Caincimino, Fin. Manager, Clerk of Graham County Superior Court (Nov. 13,
2009).
75	See Marcus Nieto, Cal. Research Bureau, Cal. State Library, Who Pays for Penalty Assessment Programs
in California? 19-26 (Feb. 2006), available at http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/06/03/06-003.pdf (stating that judges
can impose community service in place of fines and fees). Practices in California vary. In Los Angeles Criminal
Court, clerk and public defender said community service is available as an alternative at sentencing and upon failure
to pay fines, but not fees. Telephone Interview with Jessica, Court Manager; Los Angeles Criminal Court (Oct. 29,
2009) (last name withheld on request); Telephone Interview with Phil Dube, Assistant Pub. Defender; Los Angeles
County Pub. Defender (November 17, 2009). In Marin County, community service is a commonly used alternative
used by judges in place of fees and fines. Defendants can work off debt at $10/hour. Telephone Interview with Jose
Varela, Assistant Pub. Defender; Law Offices of the Pub. Defender Marin County (Nov. 12, 2009). San Francisco
offers community service only under limited circumstances. Telephone Interview with Sangeeta Sinha, Deputy
Pub. Defender, San Francisco Pub. Defender’s Office (Dec. 17, 2009).
76	Fla. Stat. Ann. § 938.30(2) (stating that a “judge may convert the statutory financial obligation into a courtordered obligation to perform community service after examining a person under oath and determining a person’s
inability to pay”).

42 | Brennan Center for Justice

77	See Ga. Code Ann., § 17-10-1(d) (stating that “in any case involving a misdemeanor or a felony in which the
defendant has been punished in whole or in part by a fine, the sentencing judge shall be authorized to allow the
defendant to satisfy such fine through community service” and proving that one hour of community service shall
offset debt at the minimum wage rate unless otherwise specified by the sentencing judge). The text of this statute
applies only to fines, and interviewees in Georgia indicated that community service did not apply to all financial
obligations in their jurisdictions. See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Robert Persse, Pub. Defender, Ogeechee
Circuit Pub. Defender’s Office (Oct. 29, 2009) (stating he had never seen community service imposed in lieu of
fees); Telephone Interview with Henry Goodman, Probation Officer (Oct. 29, 2009) (stating he had only seen
community service imposed in lieu of fines and overdue probation supervision fees).
78	Generally Illinois law does not provide for community service in lieu of fees and fines, but community service is
sometimes part of the sentence or is offered in lieu of non-mandatory drug assessment fines. Telephone Interview
with Margaret Degen, Assistant Pub. Defender, Jackson County (Oct. 28, 2009).
79	Louisiana’s probation supervision fee statute provides that the court may require “the defendant to perform a specified
amount of community service work each month if the court finds the defendant is unable to pay the supervision fee.” La.
Code Crim. Proc. art. 895(D); see also art, 895.1(D). Although Louisiana law does not have a general provision explicitly
providing for a community service alternative, judges do sometimes impose community service in practice. According to the
Orleans Criminal Court Collections Department, judges may authorize community service in lieu of collecting fees and fines
from indigent defendant, but do not do so regularly. Telephone Interview with Collections Dep’t, Orleans Criminal Court.
(Aug. 11, 2009); Email from Rebecca Bers, Defender, Orleans Public Defender (Aug. 30, 2009, 19:59 EST) (on file with
the Brennan Center). In Monroe County, defendants are assigned community service if they are unable to pay fees and fines.
Telephone Interview with Bob Noel, Defender, Monroe County (Dec. 11, 2009).
80	Community service was used in the jurisdictions reviewed, although practices varied. For example, in Kent County,
community service can be imposed for any financial obligation except mandatory fees and restitution. Community
service is valued at $8/hour. Telephone Interview with Paula Taylor, Fin. Director, 17th Circuit Court (Kent County,
Mich.) (Dec. 21, 2009). For felonies in Washtenaw county, a defendant can work off attorneys fees with community
service, but not regular fines and costs. Telephone Interview with Sheila Blakney, Senior Assistant Pub. Defender,
Washtenaw County Public Defender’s Office (Dec. 15, 2009).
81	Several of the interviewees said that community service was not commonly used. See, e.g., Telephone Interview
with Jaime Baker, Court Program Specialist, Scott County Circuit Clerk’s Office, in Benton, Mo. (Nov. 23, 2009).
In one jurisdiction, judges will ordinarily waive fees and fines rather than impose community service. Telephone
Interview with Dewayne Perry, Dist. Defender, Dist. 30 (Nov. 23, 2009). Some jurisdictions use community
service for limited purposes, however. See, e.g., Email from Cathy Kelly, Deputy Dir., Director’s Office, Mo. Public
Defender (Jan. 8, 2010, 13:46 CST) (on file with the Brennan Center) (stating that she has seen judges impose
community service in lieu of fines when the defendant claims he or she does not have the money to pay a fine);
Email from Donna Holden, Dist. Defender, Mo. Dist. 25 (Jan. 15, 2010, 08:30 CST) (on file with the Brennan
Center) (stating that some Crawford County judges allow defendants to do community service toward jail board
bills at a rate of $7-10/hr).
82	

None of our interviewees indicated that community service was an available option in New York.

83	There is no provision for performing community service in lieu of paying fees or fines, and it does not appear that
it occurs in practice. See, e.g.,Telephone Interview with Matt Osborne, Assoc. Counsel, N.C. Admin. Office of the
Courts (Nov. 20, 2009); Telephone Interview with Cynthia Buchanan, Head Cashier, Durham Clerk of Court
(Nov. 19, 2009).
84	See Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2951.02 (providing for payment of misdemeanor and felony fines through community
service “if the offender requests an opportunity to satisfy the payment by this means and if the court determines that
the offender is financially unable to pay the fine”); § 2929.28(B) (discussing community service to offset “financial
sanction[s] and court costs”); § 2947.23(B) (discussing community services in cases where the defendant has failed
to pay a judgment or to make timely payments under a payment plan). Community service is more common for
misdemeanors than for felonies, and courts are generally more likely to give community service if the defendant has
a reason for being unable to work, such as health problems. Telephone Interview with Miguel Santiago, Assistant
State Pub. Defender (Nov. 23, 2009). Practices also vary across the state. For example, Greene County allows the

Brennan Center for Justice | 43

majority of people who ask to perform community service to do so, and is trying to expand the program. Telephone
Interview with Barbara Cannon, Deputy Clerk, Greene County Clerk of Courts (Nov. 2, 2009). The community
service option is less common in Summit County. Telephone Interview with Dan Horrigan, Summit County Clerk
of Courts (Nov. 3, 2009).
85	In most jurisdictions, community service is uncommon as an alternative to fees/fines. See, e.g., Telephone Interview
with Flo Messier, Pub. Defender of Phila. (Oct. 19, 2009); Telephone Interview, David Crowley, Chief Pub. Defender,
Centre County (Oct. 23, 2009). However, Lycoming County allows community service to pay off fees (excluding
restitution), if there is a court order to that effect. Defendants are paid at minimum wage. Telephone Interview
with Nicole Spring, First Assistant Pub. Defendant, Lycoming County. (Oct. 26, 2009); Telephone Interview with
Holly Raymin, Clerk, Lycoming County (Nov. 4, 2009). Similarly, Cambria county allows community service to
pay off fees. It has created a “work force” for Cambria at 3-4 work locations run by a county supervisor. They work
5 days a week, from 8am-3pm, for minimum wage. Telephone Interview with Lisa Lazzari, Pub. Defender, Cambria
County. (Oct. 29, 2009).
86	See Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 43.09(f )-(g) (stating that “[a] court may require a defendant who is unable
to pay a fine or costs to discharge all or part of the fine or costs by performing community service,” and must
provide the number of hours the defendant must work and who will oversee related administrative tasks). In some
jurisdictions, this option is offered at the time of sentencing, while in others, community service is offered only
when the defendant falls behind in payment. See Telephone Interview with Amanda Marzulo and Andrea Marsh,
Tex. Fair Defense Project (Oct. 14, 2009); Telephone Interview with Ted Wood, Assistant Gen. Counsel, Office of
Court Admin.(Oct. 15, 2009).
87	See Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-354(C) (providing that courts may allow a defendant on whom “a fine and costs have
been imposed to discharge all or part of the fine or costs by earning credits for the performance of community
service work before or after imprisonment”). The community service alternative is not used very regularly. When
used, defendants’ obligations are credited at the minimum wage rate. See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Gary
Williams, Clerk, Sussex Circuit Court (Jan. 5, 2010); Telephone Interview with Diane Blackburn, Deputy Clerk,
Buckingham Circuit Court (Dec. 28, 2009).
88	Email from Lisa Lazzari,Adm’r, Office of the Pub. Defender, Cambria County (Feb. 23, 2010, 12:41 EST) (on file
with the Brennan Center).
89	Arizona: Criminal restitution orders accrue 10 percent interest per year. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§ 13-805(C), 441201(A). Delinquencies collected through Arizona’s Fines, Fees and Restitution Enforcement (FARE) Program are
subject to a flat fee of $35 and 19 percent surcharge. Telephone Interview with Tricia Ciancimono, Fin. Manager,
Graham County Clerk of the Superior Court’s Office (Nov. 13, 2009). California: Civil assessment of up to $300
for late payment of fine or related assessments. Cal. Penal Code § 1214.1(a); see also Telephone Interview with
Jessica, Court Manager, L.A. Criminal Court (Oct. 29, 2009) (last name withheld on request). The Brennan
Center confirmed that at least Los Angeles, Santa Clara, and San Francisco counties use this mechanism. See http://
www.lasuperiorcourt.org/criminal/; http://www.scselfservice.org/crim/payment.htm#fine; Telephone Interview
with Sangeeta Sinha, Deputy Pub. Defender, S.F. Pub. Defender’s Office (Dec. 17, 2009). Florida: Highlands
County charges a $20 late fee for every delinquent payment. Order Establishing a Collections Court Program in
Highlands County (2003), http://www.jud10.org/AdministrativeOrders/orders/Section7/7-13.0.htm. Leon and
Orange Counties charge a $10 surcharge for every delinquent payment. Leon County Court of Clerks Frequently
Asked Questions, http://www.clerk.leon.fl.us/index.php?section=204&server=&page=clerk_services/faqs/index.
php&division=collections (last visited Dec. 15, 2009) [hereinafter Payment FAQ]; Amended Administrative
Order Governing a Collections Court Program in Orange County (2007), http://www.ninja9.org/adminorders/
orders/07-99-26-4%20-%20amended%20order%20governing%20collections%20court.pdf. Georgia: The court
can, in its discretion, require defendants to pay interest on restitution. Ga. Code Ann. § 17-14-14(d). However,
it appears that in practice defendants are not charged late fees or interest for an outstanding balance. Telephine
Interview with Claudia Saari, Defender, DeKalb County, Ga. (Oct. 23, 2009); Telephone Interview with Robert
Persse, Defender, Ogeechee Circuit Pub. Defender’s Office (Oct.29, 2009); Telephone Interview with Peter Wilson,
Fiscal Technician, Cobb County Clerk of Superior Court Office (Oct. 28, 2009); Telephone Interview with Henry
Goodman, Prob. Officer, Gwinnett County (October 29, 2009). Illinois: A default in payment of a fine, fee, cost,
restitution, or judgment of bond forfeiture draws interest at the rate of 9 percent per annum. 730 Ill. Comp. Stat.
5/5-9-3(e). Unless defendant is on a payment plan, the clerk may add to any judgment a “delinquency amount”

44 | Brennan Center for Justice

of 5 percent of the amount unpaid after thirty days, 10 percent of the amount unpaid after sixty days, and 15
percent of the amount unpaid after ninety days. 725 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/124A-10. Louisiana: Interest is charged
on unpaid fines, costs, and restitution beginning sixty days after the sentence is imposed. La. Code Crim. Proc.
Ann. art. 886(A). Michigan: There is a 20 percent late fee after fifty-six days of delinquency. Mich. Comp.Laws §
600.4803(1). Some jurisdictions charge this fee, while others do not. For example, the 17th Circuit Court in Kent
County does not charge a late fee. Telephone Interview with Paula Taylor, Fin. Dir., 17th Circuit Court (Dec. 21,
2009). Oakland and Washtenaw counties both charge the fee. Telephone Interview with Judy Lockhart, Chief of
Fiscal Servs., Oakland County Executive Office (Dec. 21, 2009); Telephone Interview with Sheila Blakney, Senior
Assistant Pub. Defender, Washtenaw County Office of Pub. Defender (Dec. 15, 2009). Missouri: There is a $25
one-time late fee. Telephone Interview with Jaime Baker, Court Program Specialist, Scott County Circuit Court
Clerk’s Office (Nov. 23, 2009). Restitution can accrue 9 percent interest if entered as judgment on behalf of victims.
Mo. Rev. Stat. § 408.040(1); Telephone Interview with Paul Fox, Dir. of Judicial Admin., St. Louis County Circuit
Clerk’s Office (Nov. 30, 2009). North Carolina: $25 fee if fail to pay a fine, penalty, or costs within 20 days of date
specified in judgment. N.C. Gen. Stat. § 7A-304(a)(6). Interest is generally not charged on outstanding balances,
but if a civil judgment is entered against the defendant, a statutory interest rate of 8 percent applies. Telephone
Interview with Angie Colvard, Assistant Clerk, Ashe County Clerk’s Office (Nov. 19, 2009); N.C. Gen. Stat. §
24-1. If arrested as part of failure to pay, an additional $5 fee is imposed, plus a $5/day fee for every day defendant
is held in jail. N.C. Gen. Stat. § 7A-304(a)(1); N.C. Gen. Stat. § 7A-313; Telephone Interview with Cynthia
Buchanan, Head Cashier, Office of the Durham Clerk of Court (Nov. 19, 2009). Ohio: Some jurisdictions charge
defendants a $25 late fee. Telephone Interview with Matt Davenport, Accounting/Finance Supervisor, Franklin
County Municipal Clerk of Court (Nov. 25, 2009). Court clerks can collect “any interest due on the judgment
for costs.” Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 2335.19(B). Pennsylvania: Interest and late fees do not appear to be utilized in
practice, but statute permits charging interest. 42 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 9728(a)(1); Telephone Interview with
Nicole Spring, Defender, Lycoming County, Penn. (Oct. 26, 2009). Texas: $25 fee if a defendant pays any part of
the fine, court costs, or restitution on or after the thirty-first day after the date on which judgment was entered,
even if the defendant is on a payment plan. Tex. Loc. Gov’t Code Ann. § 133.103(a); Telephone Interview with
Ted Wood, Assistant Gen. Counsel, Tex. Office of Court Admin. (Oct. 15, 2009). Virginia: 6 percent interest may
be ordered on fines, costs, and restitution, but interest on unpaid fines and costs does not accrue if the defendant
is incarcerated or on a deferred or installment payment plan and makes timely payments. Va. Code Ann. §§ 19.2305.4, -353.5.
90	Cal. Penal Code § 1214.1(A). The Brennan Center confirmed that at least Los Angeles, Santa Clara, and San
Francisco counties use this mechanism. See http://www.lasuperiorcourt.org/criminal/; http://www.scselfservice.org/
crim/payment.htm#fine; Telephone Interview with Sangeeta Sinha, Deputy Public Defender, S.F. Pub. Defender’s
Office (Dec. 17, 2009); Telephone Interview with Jessica, Court Manager, L.A. Criminal Court (Oct. 29, 2009)
(last name withheld on request)
91	Leon and Orange Counties charge a $10 surcharge. Leon County Court of Clerks Frequently Asked Questions, http://
www.clerk.leon.fl.us/index.php?section=204&server=&page=clerk_services/faqs/index.php&division=collections
(last visited Dec. 15, 2009) [hereinafter Payment FAQ]; Amended Administrative Order Governing a Collections
Court Program in Orange County (2007), http://www.ninja9.org/adminorders/orders/07-99-26-4%20-%20
amended%20order%20governing%20collections%20court.pdf.
92	Highlands County charges a $20 late fee. Order Establishing a Collections Court Program in Highlands County
(2003), http://www.jud10.org/AdministrativeOrders/orders/Section7/7-13.0.htm.
93	Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 600.4803(1).
94	Alabama: 30 percent fee if ninety days past due and transferred to district attorney for collection. Ala. Code § 1217-225.4; see also Telephone Interview with Veronica Harris, Macon County Circuit Court (Nov. 2, 2009). Arizona:
Courts may charge defendants for collection costs. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 12-116.03. Maricopa County, which
contains Phoenix, allows private collection agencies to collect an 18 percent surcharge on defendants. Telephone
Interview with Kim Knox, Supervisor, Maricopa County Dep’t of Finance Collections Unit (Nov. 19, 2009).
Florida: A private attorney or collections agent hired by the court clerk can add up to a 40 percent surcharge to
the amounts it collects from delinquent payments. Fla. Stat. § 28.246(6). Illinois: For delinquent payments,
an additional collection fee of 30 percent goes to the State’s Attorney in the relevant county to compensate for
the costs of collection. 730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/5-9-3(e). Missouri: If debts are sent to private debt collectors,

Brennan Center for Justice | 45

an additional 20 percent fee is collected. Telephone Interview with Jaime Baker, Court Program Specialist, Scott
County Circuit Court Clerk’s Office (Nov. 23, 2009). North Carolina: Defendants not sentenced to supervised
probation can be charged a “collection assistance fee” if an amount due is not paid for 30 days, which cannot
exceed the average cost of collecting the debt or 20 percent, whichever is lower. N.C. Gen. Stat. § 7A-321(b)(1).
Ohio: Court clerk can charge defendants for collection fees charged by private debt collectors or public agencies
involved in collection. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2335.19(b). Practices vary. For example, Dayton Municipal
Court passes along the 30 percent fee charged by private debt collectors. Telephone Interview with Rita Orlowski,
Central Payments Office Supervisor, Dayton Municipal Clerk of Court (Oct. 30, 2009). Summit County does not
charge defendants collection fees. Telephone Interview with Dan Horrigan, Summit County Clerk of Courts (Nov.
3, 2009). Pennsylvania: Practices vary. Public defenders in several counties noted that private collection agencies
are not utilized. See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Nicole Spring, Defender, Lycoming County (Oct. 26, 2009);
Telephone Interview with Lisa Lazzari, Defender, Cambria County (Oct. 29, 2009); Telephone Interview with Art
Ettinger, Defender, Alleghany County (Oct. 29-30, 2009). A Philadelphia public defender stated that private
collection agencies sometimes impose an extra fee on defendants. See Telephone Interview with Daniel Bartoli,
Defender, Defender Ass’n of Phila. County (Oct. 27, 2009). If such agencies are used, defendants can be charged
a fee up to 25 percent of amount collected. 42 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 9730.1(b)(2). Texas: 30 percent collection
fee is authorized for debts more than sixty days past due and referred to a private attorney or vendor, but not if the
defendant has been found unable to pay the underlying debt Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 103.0031(b),
(d).
95 	Ala. Code § 12-17-225.4.
96	

Fla. Stat. Ann. § 28.246(6).

97	730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/5-9-3(e).
98	

Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 103.0031(d).

99	

See supra note 65.

100	

Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-354(A).

101	

Telephone Interview with Rebecca Bers, Orleans Pub. Defender (Dec. 2, 2009).

102	

Fla. Stat. § 28.24(26)(b)-(c).

103	Cal. Penal Code § 1214.1(a) (court may impose up to $300); see also Telephone Interview with Jessica, Court
Manager, L.A. Criminal Court (Oct. 29, 2009) (last name withheld on request) ($300 charge issues if defendant
fails to make payments).
104	See U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2010 tbl. 672 (2010), http://www.census.
gov/compendia/statab/2010/tables/10s0672.pdf (stating that the average annual expenditures on food for consumer
units with income less than $70,000 was $4,625 in 2007). According to this data, one month’s expenditures would
be $385.42.
105	An informal Brennan Center survey found that Florida defendants faced an average debt of $772.23, such that a 40
percent collection fee would be $308.89, bringing the defendant’s the total debt to $1,081.12. Rebekah Diller,
Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s Criminal Justice Fees
8 (2010).
106	Ala. Code § 12-17-225.4.
107	Ala. Code § 8-8-1.
108	

Bearden v. Georgia, 461 U.S. 660, 668-69 (1983).

109	Jayne S. Ressler, Civil Contempt Confinement and the Bankruptcy Abuse and Consumer Protection Act of 2005, 37
Rutgers L. J. 355, 359 (2006).
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110	In 1869, England enacted the “1869 Act for the Abolition of Imprisonment for Debt.” Certain forms of debtors’
prison continued even past that point. Under the Act, courts retained the power to imprison people for willful
failures to pay and between 1869 and 1914, courts imprisoned over 300,000 people for debt. See Sandor E. Schick,
Globalization, Bankruptcy, and the Myth of the Broken Bench, 80 Am. Bankr. L.J. 219, 258 & n.202 (2006).
111	Christopher L. Peterson, Truth, Understanding, and High-Cost Consumer Credit, 55 Fla. L. Rev. 807, 846 (2003)
(describing Massachusetts, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania).
112	Charles Jordan Tabb, The History of the Bankruptcy Laws in the United States, 3 Am. Bankr. Inst. L. Rev. 5, 16
(1995).
113	Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery By Another Name 63-69 (2008).
114	Williams v. Illinois, 399 U.S. 235, 240–41 (1970).
115	Bearden v. Georgia, 461 U.S. 660 (1983). Another Supreme Court case discussing the rights of the indigent is
Tate v. Short, 401 U.S. 395, 398 (1971) (finding it unconstitutional to “impos[e] a fine as a sentence and then
automatically [convert] it into a jail term solely because the defendant is indigent and cannot forthwith pay the fine
in full”).
116	See State v. Hotard, 17 So. 3d 64 (La. Ct. App. 2009).
117	

Some of these terms are adopted from Black’s Law Dictionary (8th ed. 2004).

118	Alabama: See Ala. Code § 15-22-52 (courts may make fines or costs, or portions thereof, a condition of probation);
Ala. Code § 15-18-70 (courts may make restitution a condition of probation). Arizona: See Ariz. Rev. Stat.
Ann. § 13-808(B) (courts are required to impose the payment of fines, fees, and restitution as a condition of
probation). California: See Cal. Penal Code § 1202.4(m) (court must make the payment of restitution fines
a condition of probation); Cal. Penal Code § 1203.1(j) (court may make fines a condition of probation, as
well as “other reasonable conditions, as it may determine are fitting and proper to the end that justice may be
done”). Florida: See Fla. Stat. Ann. § 27.52(1)(b)(1) (if a defendant does not pay the public defender application
fee prior to the disposition of the case, the fee must be made part of the sentence or a condition of probation);
Fla. Stat. Ann. § 948.09(6) (offenders under any type of supervision must submit to and pay for urinalysis
as a condition of supervision); see also Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice, The Hidden Costs of
Florida’s Criminal Justice Fees 4 (Mar. 2010), available at http://www.brennancenter.org/content/resource/FL_
Fees_report/ (many individuals convicted of misdemeanors and criminal traffic violations are sentenced to county
or court probation on the condition that they pay legal financial obligations). Georgia: See Telephone Interview
with Claudia Saari, Defender, DeKalb County, Ga. (Oct. 23, 2009) (criminal justice debt imposed as a condition
of probation); Telephone Interview with Robert Persse, Defender, Ogeechee Circuit Pub. Defender’s Office (Nov.
6, 2009) (probation always imposed if there is a fine or other financial obligation imposed on defendant); see also
Ga. Code Ann. § 17-14-3 (restitution shall be a condition of probation or a suspended, deferred, or withheld
sentence); Ga. Code Ann. § 15-21A-6(c) (public defender application fee shall be imposed as a condition of
probation if it has not been paid prior to sentencing). Illinois: See 730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/5-6-3(b) (court may
require a person to pay a fine, costs, and restitution as a condition of probation). Louisiana: See La. Code Crim.
Proc. Ann. art. 895 (supervision fee must be a condition of probation); La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 895.1
(restitution must be a condition of probation, court may impose court costs and other user fees as a condition of
probation). Michigan: See Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 769.1a(11) (restitution must be condition of probation,
parole, or conditional sentence if ordered); Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 769.1f(5) (prosecution costs must be
condition of probation or parole if ordered); Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 769.1j(3) (payment of the “minimum
state cost” is a condition of probation ); Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 771.3(1)(f ) (mandatory assessment under
Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 780.905 must be a condition of probation); Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 771.3(2)(b)(d) (allowing courts to condition probation on payment of fines, legal expenses, and other assessments). In practice
many jurisdictions make fees and fines a condition of probation. Missouri: See Mo. Rev. Stat. § 600.093 (allowing
courts to make repayment of all or part of the value of public defender services a condition of probation); Mo.
Rev. Stat. § 559.021(2) (“In addition to such other authority as exists to order conditions of probation, the court
may order such conditions as the court believes will serve to compensate the victim, any dependent of the victim,

Brennan Center for Justice | 47

any statutorily created fund for costs incurred as a result of the offender’s actions, or society.”). New York: See N.Y.
Crim. Proc. Law § 420.10(1)(c) (“Where the defendant is sentenced to a period of probation as well as a fine,
restitution or reparation and such designated surcharge, the court may direct the payment of the fine, restitution or
reparation and such designated surcharge be a condition of the sentence.”). North Carolina: See N.C. Gen. Stat.
§ 15A-1343(b) (as a regular condition of probation, defendant must pay a supervision fee, court costs, defender
costs, any fine imposed, and restitution); N.C. Gen. Stat. 15A-1374(b)(c) (parole commission may require parolee
to make restitution, pay a supervision fee, and comply with court orders regarding payment obligations). Ohio:
See Telephone Interview with Glen Dewar, Defender, Montgomery County (Nov. 25, 2009) (criminal justice debt
is normally made a condition of probation); Telephone Interview with Barbara Cannon, Deputy Clerk, Greene
County Clerk of Courts (Nov. 2, 2009) (same). Pennsylvania: See Telephone Interview with Flo Messier, Pub.
Defender of Phila. (Oct. 19, 2009) (criminal justice debt is normally made a condition of probation); Telephone
Interview with Lisa Lazzari, Pub. Defender, Cambria County. (Oct. 29, 2009) (same); see also 18 Pa. Cons. Stat.
Ann. § 1106(b) (“Whenever restitution has been ordered . . . and the offender has been placed on probation or
parole, his compliance with such order may be made a condition of such probation or parole.”). Texas: See Tex.
Code Crim. Proc. art. 42.12 (payment of fines, court costs and other user fees, and restitution to the victim may
be made a condition of community supervision, but must consider ability to pay); Tex. Code Crim. Proc. art.
42.037(h) (restitution must be a condition of community supervision, parole, or mandatory supervision). Virginia:
Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-356 (court may make payment of fine and costs a condition of probation or suspension of
sentence).
119	See, e.g., Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing interviews
with public defenders and collection officials) (discussing frequent use of revocation hearings in jurisdictions in
Georgia, New York, North Carolina, Michigan, and Ohio).
120	See Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing interviews
with public defenders and collection officials); see also Equal Justice Initiative, Criminal Justice Reform in
Alabama: Sentencing, Probation, Prison Conditions, and Parole 69 (2005) (“[J]udges and inmates indicate
that probation is often revoked for failure to pay fines, court fees and/or restitution, and sentences sometimes may
exceed statutory limits.).
121	See, e.g., Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing
interviews with public defenders and collection officials) (saying revocation sometimes happens for failure to pay in
jurisdictions in Michigan, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania).
122	See Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s Criminal Justice Fees
13 (Mar. 2010) (when an offender in Florida is unable to pay a treatment provider, “the treatment provider may
eventually terminate the treatment as unsuccessful or the offender may cease showing up because he is unable to
pay for sessions. Termination of treatment then can be a basis for a violation of probation or community release”)
available at http://www.brennancenter.org/content/resource/FL_Fees_report/.
123	Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing interviews with
public defenders and collection officials) (discussing instances where courts did not consider ability to pay in
Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, and Missouri).
124	Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing interviews with
public defenders and collection officials).
125	Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing interviews with
public defenders and collection officials).
126	Telephone Interview with Sangeeta Sinha, Deputy Public Defender, S.F. Pub. Defender’s Office (Dec. 17, 2009);
Telephone Interview with Gary Gibson, Defender, San Diego Pub. Defender (Dec. 2, 2009).
127	

18 Pa. Stat. Ann. § 11.1101(e).

128	E-mail from Margaret Degen, Defender, Jackson County, to Brennan Center for Justice (Dec. 1, 2009, 17:35 EST)
(on file with the Brennan Center).

48 | Brennan Center for Justice

129	

Telephone Interview with Angus Love, Pennsylvania Institutional Law Project (Mar. 17, 2010).

130	See Pew Ctr. on the States, 1 in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections, Fact Sheet on Pennsylvania
(2009) (finding that Pennsylvania spends $97.72 per inmate per day), available at http://www.pewcenteronthestates.
org/report_detail.aspx?id=49382.
131	Alabama: See Ala. Code. § 15-18-62 (“In cases of willful nonpayment of the fines and costs, the defendant shall either be
imprisoned in the county jail or, at the discretion of the court, sentenced to hard labor for the county . . . .”); Telephone
Interview with Veronica Harris, Macon County Circuit Court (Dec. 8, 2009) (incarceration for failure to pay criminal
justice debt is very common in Macon County). Arizona: See Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-810 (if a person sentenced to
pay a fine, fee, costs, or restitution defaults, the clerk shall notify the prosecutor and sentencing court and the court shall
require the defendant to show cause why the defendant’s default should not be treated as contempt); Telephone Interview
with Tom O’Connell, Division Director, Probation Department, Maricopa County (Nov. 19, 2009) (Maricopa County
uses contempt proceedings to enforce debt payments). California: See Cal. Penal Code § 1205(b) (“If time has been
given for payment or it has been made payable in installments, the court shall, upon any default in payment, immediately
order the arrest of the defendant and order him or her to show cause why he or she should not be imprisoned. If
the fine, restitution order, or installment, is payable forthwith and it is not so paid, the court shall without further
proceedings, immediately commit the defendant to the custody of the proper office to be held in custody until the fine
or the installment thereof, as the case may be, is satisfied in full”). Florida: See e.g. Fla. Stat. § 938.30(9) (“Any person
failing to appear or willfully failing to comply with an order under this section, including an order to comply with a
payment schedule established by the clerk of court, may be held in civil contempt.”) (emphasis added). Defendants are
not provided counsel. See Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s Criminal
Justice Fees 17 (Mar. 2010), available at http://www.brennancenter.org/content/resource/FL_Fees_report/. Illinois:
730 Ill. Comp. Stat. § 5/5-9-3(a)(“An offender who defaults in the payment of a fine or any installment of that fine may
be held in contempt and imprisoned for nonpayment.”); Telephone Interview with Margaret Degen, Defender, Jackson
County (Oct. 28, 2009) (individuals are regularly held in contempt for failure to pay for 30 days); Telephone Interview
with Lester Finkle, Defender, Cook County (Oct. 29, 2009) (same). But see Marie Claire Tran-Leung, Sargent
Shriver National Center on Poverty Law, Debt Arising From Illinois’ Criminal Justice System 39 (Nov. 2009)
(finding that “imprisonment is not a typical enforcement tool”), available at http://www.theshriverbrief.org/2009/12/
articles/criminal-reentry/debt-arising-from-illinois-criminal-justice-system-making-sense-of-the-ad-hoc-accumulationof-financial-obligations/. Louisiana: La. Rev. Stat. § 13:1381.2(A) (“When any defendant, other than an indigent,
fails to pay [certain criminal justice debt], he shall be sentenced to a term of thirty days in the parish prison in default of
the payment of same.”); La. Code Crim. Proc. arts. 884-85 (a sentence that includes fines or costs shall provide that
if individuals default they will be incarcerated for a specified term, but can be released if they pay their debt). See also
Telephone Interview with Rebecca Bers, Orleans Public Defender (Aug. 5, 2009) (individuals face potential incarceration
for failures to pay). Michigan: See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Paula Taylor, Fin. Dir., 17th Circuit Court, Kent
County (Dec. 21, 2009) (contempt proceedings used to collect debt; individuals can be incarcerated up to 45 days unless
they pay off their debts, but in practice the sentence is usually 3-4 days); Phone Interview, Sheila Blakney, Senior Assistant
Public Defender, Washtenaw County Public Defender’s Office (December 15, 2009) (contempt proceedings used in
Washtenaw County). New York: See N.Y. Crim. Proc. Law. § 420.10(3) (sentence may provide that if a defendant
fails to pay a fine, restitution, or reparation, he or she must be imprisoned until the debt is satisfied). North Carolina:
See N.C. Gen. Stat. § 15A-1364(b) (following a show-cause proceeding for non-payment, the court may activate a
defendant’s suspended sentence or if no suspended sentence was imposed, order imprisonment for not more than 30
days, and may provide that payment will result in release or a reduction in the jail term); Telephone Interview with Matt
Osborne, Assoc. Counsel, N.C. Admin. Office of the Courts (Nov. 20, 2009) (defendants can be subject to incarceration
for willful nonpayment through contempt proceedings); Telephone Interview with Emily Harrell, Defender, Buncombe
County (Nov. 20, 2009) (contempt not common in her county, but in other counties contempt proceedings are used
as an additional “stick” as part of the probation supervision process, imposing periods of incarceration on top of what a
defendant is subject to through probation). Ohio: See Ohio Rev. Code § 2947.14(A) (“If a fine is imposed as a sentence
or a part of a sentence, the court or magistrate that imposed the fine may order that the offender be committed to the
jail or workhouse until the fine is paid or secured to be paid, or the offender is otherwise legally discharged, if the court
or magistrate determines at a hearing that the offender is able, at that time, to pay the fine but refuses to do so.”); E-mail
from Miguel Santiago, Defender (Oct. 16, 2009) (courts frequently incarcerate defendants not only for failures to pay
fines but for failure to pay costs, even though there is no statutory authorization to do so). Texas: See Tex. Code. Crim.
Proc. art. 43.03(a) (if a defendant defaults on paying fines or costs, the court may order the defendant confined in jail
until discharged as provided by law).

Brennan Center for Justice | 49

132	See Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s Criminal Justice Fees 15
17 (Mar. 2010), available at http://www.brennancenter.org/content/resource/FL_Fees_report/.
133	Andrews v. Walton, 428 So.2d 663 (Fla. 1983).
134	

Adkins v. Adkins, 248 S.E.2d 646 (Ga. 1978).

135	In re Calhoun, 350 N.E.2d 665 (Ohio 1976). Some appellate courts in Ohio have treated Calhoun as overruled by
Lassiter, while others have continued to follow the case’s holding. See Garfield Hts. v. Stefaniuk, 712 N.E.2d 808,
809 (Ohio Ct. App. 1998) (“There is a conflict in the appellate decisions concerning whether a contemnor in a civil
contempt proceeding is entitled to appointed counsel.”).
136	Lower courts in Pennsylvania and Virginia have likewise rejected the right to counsel in civil proceedings involving
incarceration, while courts in Alabama, Arizona, and Louisiana appear to have never considered the question. See
Wade v. Daniels, No. 008610210, 1997 WL 1433799 (Ct. Com. Pl. Phila. County, Nov. 21, 1997), appeal dismissed
718 A.2d 869 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1998) (mem.); Krieger v. Commonwealth, 567 S.E.2d 557 (Va. Ct. App. 2002). But
see Another court of common pleas disagreed; however, the decision was quashed. See Carnes v. Carnes, No. NS 81
9044, 1990 WL 302942 (Ct. Com. Pl. Erie County, Oct. 23, 1990) (indigent defendant is entitled to court-appointed
counsel for civil support contempt proceedings), quashed 598 A.2d 1325 (Pa. Super. Ct. 1991) (mem.).
137	See, e.g., United States v. Anderson, 553 F.2d 1154, 1155-56 (8th Cir. 1977) (concluding that a person charged
with civil or criminal contempt is entitled to appointed counsel and noting that three Circuit Courts of Appeals
had previously come to the same conclusion); McBride v. McBride, 431 S.E.2d 14, 18 (N.C. 1993) (indigent civil
contemnors may not be incarcerated for failure to pay child support arrearages); Mead v. Batchlor, 460 N.W.2d 493,
504-05 (Mich. 1990) (holding that a defendant may not be imprisoned for civil contempt if denied counsel during
the contempt proceeding).
138	In California, defendants can choose to sit out fines at a daily rate set by the county, pursuant to Cal. Penal Code
§ 1205(a). See also Telephone Interview with Gary Gibson, Defender, San Diego Pub. Defender (Dec. 2, 2009) (jail
option used in San Diego County); Telephone Interview with Jose Valera, Defender, Marin County (Nov. 11, 2009)
(jail option used in Marin County); Telephone Interview with Phil Dube, Assistant Pub. Defender, L.A. County
Pub. Defender (Nov. 17, 2009) (jail option used in Los Angeles County, which has set the rate at the statutory
minimum of $30/day). But see Telephone Interview with Sangeeta Sinha, Defender, San Francisco Pub. Defender
(Dec. 17, 2009) (not used in San Francisco).
139	See Mo. Rev. Stat. § 543.270(1) (circuit judge has the power, at the request of a defendant, to commute fine and
costs to imprisonment in the county jail, which is credited at $10 per day); see also Email from Kari Cornstock,
District Defender, District 26 (forwarded by Cathy Kelly on Jan. 14, 2010) (jail option used in Morgan County);
Email from Justin Carver, District Defender, District 12 (forwarded by Cathy Kelly on Jan. 14, 2010) (jail option
used in Callaway County).
140	Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing interviews with
public defenders and collection officials).
141	Tate v. Short, 401 U.S. 395, 398 (1971).
142	

Telephone Interview with Jose Valera, Defender, Marin County (Nov. 11, 2009).

143	See E-mail from Richard Scheibe, Defender, Dist. 11 (Jan. 14, 2010) (forwarded by Cathy Kelly on Jan. 14,
2010).
144	Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing interviews with
public defenders and collection officials).

50 | Brennan Center for Justice

145	Alabama: See Telephone Interview with Veronica Harris, Macon County Circuit Court (Dec. 8, 2009) (arrest
warrants issue both for the failure to appear at debt-related show cause hearings for the failure to pay when
individuals are on probation). But see Telephone Interview with Robert Oakes, Assistant Exec. Dir., Ala. Bd.
of Pardons and Parole (Nov. 2, 2009) (arrests for non-payment do not happen often in practice). Arizona: See
Telephone Interview with Jessica Alonso, Collections Officer, Prob. Dep’t, Greenlee County (Nov. 11, 2009)
(if a person is 60-90 days behind on payments, the probation officer will usually have the person arrested and
brought before the court on the threat of probation revocation, although actual revocation is very rare); Telephone
Interview with Dusty Alder, Senior Deputy Probation Officer, Mojave County (Nov. 18, 2009) (individuals who
miss payments are required to fulfill alternative requirements, such as attending a budget training, and failure to
fulfill these requirements can lead to arrest for probation violation). California: See Telephone Interview with Phil
Dube, Assistant Pub. Defender, L.A. County Pub. Defender (Nov. 17, 2009). (individuals face arrest for failing
to appear at a scheduled check-in meeting regarding their criminal justice debt); Superior Court of California,
General Information, http://www.lasuperiorcourt.org/criminal/ (noting that, in Los Angeles County, “[i]f you fail
to pay a fine as promised/ordered, the Court may order and issue a warrant for your arrest.”); Telephone Interview
with Jessica, Court Manager, L.A. Criminal Court (Oct. 29, 2009) (last name withheld on request) (confirming
that arrest warrants are used for failures to pay fines but noting that warrants are rarely used in the case of fees);
Payment of Fines, Santa Clara County Superior Court, http://www.scselfservice.org/crim/payment.htm (“If you
don’t pay your fine on time, the Court can put out a warrant for your arrest or proceed by Civil Assessment. If you
need more time to pay, contact the Department of Revenue.”). Florida: See Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for
Justice, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s Criminal Justice Fees 15, 20 (Mar. 2010), available at http://www.
brennancenter.org/content/resource/FL_Fees_report/ (finding that in counties with collections courts, a failure to
appear for a payment hearing will typically result in an arrest warrant being issued, and that in Alachua County,
in some circumstances arrest warrants issue automatically for failures to pay). Georgia: See Telephone Interview
with Nick White, Defender, Houston County Pub. Defender Office (Nov. 6, 2009) (individuals who cannot pay
criminal justice debt are often arrested for failing to report to probation officers, who are involved in collection).
Illinois: See Telephone Interview with Margaret Degen, Assistant Pub. Defender, Jackson County (Oct. 29, 2009)
(failure to appear at a payment hearing can result in an arrest warrant being issued). Louisiana: See infra notes
158-159 and accompanying text (discussing data on arrest warrants in New Orleans). Michigan: See Telephone
Interview with Paula Taylor, Fin. Dir., 17th Circuit Court, Kent County, Mich. (Dec. 21, 2009) (if a defendant
fails to comply with the payment plan set up at a show cause hearing (which was the result of previous failure to
pay), a bench warrant issues); Telephone Interview with Sheila Blakney, Senior Assistant Pub. Defender, Washtenaw
County Pub. Defender’s Office (Dec. 15, 2009) (individuals are arrested if they fall behind on payments and fail to
appear at a show-cause hearing). Missouri: Email, Cathy Kelly, Deputy Director, Director’s Office, Missouri Public
Defender, St. Louis (Jan. 14, 2010) (individuals can be arrested and held in jail for a night for a failure to pay costs).
New York: See Telephone Interview with Jay L. Wilber, Defender, Broome County (Dec. 1, 2009) (arrests warrants
are issued for failure to pay and failure to pay can sometimes result in jail time). North Carolina: See Telephone
Interview with Jennifer Harjo, Defender, New Hanover County (Nov. 24, 2009) (warrants are issued for failures to
appear at a show cause hearing). Ohio: See Telephone Interview with Miguel Santiago, Defender (Nov. 23, 2009)
(practices vary across counties, but in general, it is common for people to be arrested for failing to pay fines and
costs); Telephone Interview with Glen Dewar, Defender, Montgomery County (Nov. 25, 2009) (arrest warrants
issue for failures to appear at payment hearings). Pennsylvania: See E-mail from David Crowley, Defender, Centre
County, Pa. (Nov. 30, 2009) (Magisterial District Courts automatically issue arrest warrants for missed payments if
a person is 31 days delinquent); E-mail from Nicole Spring, Defender, Lycoming County, Pa. (Dec. 1, 2009) (bench
warrants are issued for failure to appear at a payment hearing). Texas: See Carl Reynolds et al., Council of
State Gov’ts Justice Ctr., A Framework to Improve How Fines, Fees, Restitution, and Child Support are
Assessed and Collection from People Convicted of Crimes 82 (2009), available at http://www.courts.state.
tx.us/oca/debts/pdf/TexasFinancialObligationsInterimReport.pdf (a “capias pro fine” may be issued for a person’s
arrest if he or she fails to pay criminal justice debt, and in Collection Improvement Program districts, arrests are
sometimes used in misdemeanor cases but seldom used in cases where an individual is on parole). Virginia: See
Telephone Interview with Renee Howard, Deputy Clerk, Lee Circuit Court, Virginia (Jan. 5 2010) (A defendant is
sent a notice to appear at a show cause hearing for failure to pay, and a capias arrest warrant issues if the defendant
fails to appear).
146	See, e.g., E-mail from David Crowley, Defender, Centre County, Pa. (Nov. 30, 2009) (Magisterial District Courts
automatically issue arrest warrants for missed payments if a person is 31 days delinquent).

Brennan Center for Justice | 51

147	See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Jessica Alonso, Collections Officer, Prob. Dep’t, Greenlee County, Ariz. (Nov.
11, 2009) (if a person is 60-90 days behind on payments, the probation officer will usually have the person arrested
and brought before the court on the threat of probation revocation, although actual revocation is very rare).
148	See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Sheila Blakney, Senior Assistant Pub. Defender, Washtenaw County Pub.
Defender’s Office, Mich. (Dec. 15, 2009) (individuals are arrested if they fall behind on payments and fail to appear
at a show-cause hearing).
149	See Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s
Criminal Justice Fees 15-17 (2010).
150	See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Jennifer Harjo, Defender, New Hanover County, North Carolina (Nov. 24,
2009) (in her county, bond amounts are frequently higher than what the defendant owes); Rebekah Diller,
Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s Criminal Justice Fees
16 (2010) (“purge” amounts are not linked to ability to pay, requiring family, friends, or employers to often put up
the required money).
151	Brennan Center Memorandum (Sept. 15, 2010) (on file with the Brennan Center) (summarizing interviews with
public defenders and collection officials).
152	These statistics reflects a review of eight days of dockets (December 1-4 and December 7-10, 2009) for the twelve
sections that make up New Orleans’ felony courtrooms. The Brennan Center calculated the percentage of cases that
involved payment issues, as well as the percentage of payment issue cases that involved arrest warrants. Payment
issues included appearances categorized as “Filed Arrest on Cap[ias] Notification” (where the docket reflected the
capias warrant was issued for a failure to pay fees and fines or appear at a status on payment hearing), “Status on
Payment,” “Restitution Hearings,” and “Payment of Restitution Hearings.”  The Brennan Center did not count
cases listed as “contempt of court hrg”, “probation status” and “hrg and resentencing,” even though these may be
about fees as well. For further details on methodology, see Memorandum, New Orleans Data Methodology (on file
with the Brennan Center).
153	In response to a willful failure to pay a fine, the magistrate or clerk of the court may give notice of the fact to
the [Department of Motor Vehicles] for a violation.” Cal. Veh. Code 40509.5(b). In response, the DMV will
sometimes suspend licenses. See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Sally Pina, Clerk, San Francisco Collections Unit
(Dec. 20, 2009) (DMV sometimes suspends licenses upon notification);Telephone Interview with Randy Dickow,
KCBA Indigent Defense Program, Bakersfield, California (Nov. 12, 2009) (DMV suspends licenses in drivingrelated cases).
154	This is a very common enforcement mechanism in Florida. Office of Program Policy Analysis and Gov’t
Accountability, Florida Legislature,,Clerks of Court Generally Are Meeting the System’s Collection
Performance Standards 4 (2007), available at http://www.oppaga.state.fl.us/reports/pdf/0721rpt.pdf (85 percent
of county clerks use “Driver’s License Sanctions” as a collection tool). See also Fla. Stat. Ann. § 322.245(3-5)
(authorizing the clerk of courts to notify the Florida Department of Motor Vehicles if “a person licensed to operate
a motor vehicle in [Florida] . . . has failed to pay financial obligations for any criminal offense other than [certain
traffic misdemeanors and traffic felonies]” and requiring the DMV to suspend the person’s driver’s license upon
receipt of such notification).
155	

S ee La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 885.1 (courts may order defendants with outstanding fines to surrender their
driver’s licenses, ultimately leading to a suspended license).

156	If the Secretary of State finds that a defendant is in default or has a warrant issued for certain motor vehicle code
violations, it can trigger a suspension of the defendant’s license. This is not ordered by the court, but is rather
through the Secretary of State. The suspension is lifted if the defendant pays plus an additional clearance fee and
a reinstatement fee. Mich. Comp. Laws 257.321c.
157	Generally not, but for motor vehicle offenses, after a period of default the court will report a failure to pay to the
DMV, which will suspend a defendant’s license until he or she pays. Telephone Interview with Matt Osborne,
Associate Counsel, North Carolina Admin. Office of the Courts (Nov. 20, 2009); Telephone Interview with Cynthia
Buchanan, Head Cashier, Durham Clerk of Court (Nov. 19, 2009).
52 | Brennan Center for Justice

158	For individuals convicted of driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, full fees and fines must be paid
before a suspended license can be reinstated. Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 1541(d). At least one jurisdiction suspends
driver’s licenses. Telephone Interview with Holly Raymin, Clerk, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania (Nov. 4, 2009)
(collections division has used authority to suspend driver’s licenses).
159	Individuals may be denied their driver’s license renewals for a failure to pay or satisfy court judgments in any court
with criminal jurisdiction. Tex. Transp. Code Ann. § 706.002; Tex. Transp. Code Ann. § 706.004(a); Tex. Op.
Att’y Gen. GA-0479 (2006). Generally, courts will only exercise this power in the case of defendants convicted of
Class C misdemeanors, rather than more serious crimes. Justice Center, Council of State Governments, A
Framework to Improve How Fines, Fees, Restitution, and Child Support are Assessed and Collected
from People Convicted of Crimes at 81. License suspension is one of a number of powers utilized as part of the
state’s Comprehensive Collections Program. See Office of Court Administration, Collection Improvement
Program 1 (2010), available at http://www.courts.state.tx.us/oca/collections/collections.asp.
160	

 nder Va. Stat Ann. § 46.2-395(B), if a defendant fails to make payments on any fine, costs, forfeiture, restitution,
U
or penalty, the court must suspend the defendant’s driver’s license until the amounts due are paid in full or the
defendant enters into a new payment plan. A number of Virginia jurisdictions participate in this program. See,
e.g., Telephone Interview with Laura Rodgers, Deputy Clerk, Halifax Circuit Court, Virginia (January 5, 2010);
Telephone Interview with Diane Blackburn, Deputy Clerk.

161	See, e.g. Alabama: Telephone Interview with Veronica Harris, Clerk of Court, Macon County Circuit Court (Nov.
2, 2009) (Macon County suspends driver’s licenses for a failure to appear.); California: A comprehensive collection
program for recovering delinquent fees and fines payments may include a driver’s license revocation element where
appropriate. Cal. Penal Code § 1463.007(m); Missouri: Mo. Rev. Stat. § 302.341(1); Ohio: Ohio Rev. Code
Ann. § 4507.091 describes the use of warrant blocks. A court, at its discretion, “may order the clerk of the court
to send to the registrar of motor vehicles a report containing the name, address, and such other information as
the registrar may require by rule, of any person for whom an arrest warrant has been issued by that court and is
outstanding.” Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 4507.091(A). The information is entered into the BMV’s records. Id. The
warrant block prevents the person from obtaining a certificate of registration for a vehicle or obtaining or renewing
a driver’s license. Id. When all outstanding arrest warrants have been satisfied, the defendant must pay the BMV
$15 to lift the warrant block. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 4507.091(B).
162	

Cal. Veh. Code § 14601(b)(1).

163	

Cal. Veh. Code § 14601.3(d)(1).

164	Telephone Interview with Sangeeta Sinha, Defender, San Francisco Public Defender’s Office (Dec. 17, 2009).
165	
	
	
	
	

Probation can be extended for up to five years for nonpayment. At the end of the five years the defendant is rolled
off probation even if he has not paid. In split sentence cases there is no automatic roll-off after five years. Telephone
Interview with Robert Oakes, Assistant Executive Director, Alabama Board of Pardons and Paroles (Nov. 2, 2009).
The practice here is particularly bad because the DA can still bring contempt proceedings after probation or parole
has ended. Id.

166	Probation can be extended beyond the expiration or termination of probation if the defendant still owes restitution.
Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-902(c). This is standard practice. See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Tom O’Connell,
Division Director, Probation Department, Maricopa County, Arizona (Nov. 19, 2009); Telephone Interview with
Jessica Alonso, Collections Officer, Probation Department, Greenlee County, Arizona (Nov. 13, 2009) (probation
is generally extended when restitution is owed; if the probationary period has already ended, financial obligations
are more likely to be converted into a civil judgment).. Probation can be extended up to five years for a felony and
two years for a misdemeanor. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-902(c).
167	People v. Medeiros, 25 Cal. App. 4th 1260, 1267 (Cal. Ct. App. 1994) (if a defendant cannot pay fees and fines,
the court can extend probation to the maximum time permitted by law but not beyond that and must discharge
probation); People v. Sisco, No. E037254, 2005 WL 3473325, at *9 (Cal. App. 4th Dec. 20, 2005) (a defendant
can also consent to extend probation). In Marin County, defendants agree to extensions because otherwise their

Brennan Center for Justice | 53

record would reflect that probation was unsuccessfully terminated. See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Jose Varela,
Defender, Marin County, California (Nov. 12, 2009). This is problematic for defendants because the other terms of
probation are extended as well and the extension is usually for five years. Further when a defendant is on probation
and has an infraction the punishment is harsher. Telephone Interview with Sangeeta Sinha, Defender, San Francisco
Public Defender’s Office (Dec. 17, 2009). But see, e.g., Telephone Interview with Randy Dickow, Administrator,
KCBA Indigent Defense Program, Bakersfield, California (Nov. 13, 2009) (California mandates a hearing prior to
probation term extension; in light of the hearing requirement, which may dissuade the state from pursuing this
course of action, defendants often do not give their consent for extensions); Telephone Interview with Sally Pina,
Clerk, Superior Court of California, San Francisco County (Dec. 20, 2009) (probation is usually extended only for
restitution but the Collections Unit continues to pursue fees and fines from the defendant after the termination of
probation).
168	See Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, The Hidden Costs of Florida’s
Criminal Justice Fees 24 (2010) (when monthly payment plan is set by Florida Department of Corrections, a
probation violation for failure to pay can only occur at the end of the probation term, at which point the judge can
extend the supervision period for a willful failure to pay).
169	

 a. Code Ann. § 17-10-1(a)(2) (“Probation supervision shall terminate in all cases no later than two years from
G
the commencement of probation supervision unless specially extended or reinstated by the sentencing court upon
notice and hearing and for good cause shown; provided, however, in those cases involving the collection of fines,
restitution, or other funds, the period of supervision shall remain in effect for so long as any such obligation is
outstanding, or until termination of the sentence, whichever first occurs”). The court generally cannot extend
a defendant’s total sentence, however. Telephone Interview with Claudia Saari, Interim Circuit Public Defender,
DeKalb County, Georgia (Oct. 23, 2009); Telephone Interview with Robert Persse, Defender, Ogeechee Circuit
Public Defender’s Office (Oct. 29, 2009).

170	

 a. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art 894.4 (“When a defendant has been sentenced to probation or is on parole and
L
has a monetary obligation, including but not limited to court costs, fines, costs of prosecution, and any other
monetary costs associated with probation or parole, the judge may extend the period of probation or parole until
the monetary obligation is extinguished”).

171	Telephone Interview with Sheila Blakney, Defender, Washtenaw County Public Defender’s Office (Dec. 15, 2009)
(when probation is coming to an end and the defendant still owes money the judge will often extend probation to
the maximum period allowed by law to give the defendant more time to pay); Telephone Interview with Donald
Johnson, Chief Defender, State Defender Office (Dec. 10, 2009) (sometimes a defendant will have probation
extended if the defendant can’t pay by the end of the term, thus has never seen an extension for more than a year).
172	Telephone Interview with Dewayne Perry, Defender, State Public Defender (Nov. 23, 2009) (probation can be
extended up to a year beyond the statutory maximum as a result of failure to pay costs but this happens only if the
defender has the capacity to pay); Telephone Interview with Jaime Baker, Court Program Specialist, Scott County
Circuit Clerk’s Office (Nov. 23, 2009); see also Mo. Rev. Stat. § 559.105(2) (“No person ordered by the court to
pay restitution pursuant to this section shall be released from probation until such restitution is complete. If full
restitution is not made within the original term of probation, the court shall order the maximum term of probation
allowed for such offense.”); Mo. Rev. Stat. § 599.105(3) (applying similar provisions to parole).
173	Telephone Interview with Emily Harrell, Defender, Buncombe County, North Carolina (Nov. 20, 2009) (judges
typically extend a defendant’s probation term at hearings on probation violations for failure to pay).
174	Under Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2929.15(B) and Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2929.25(C)(2), if a person violates the
conditions of community control, the court can extend the period of community control, impose a more restrictive
community control sanction, or impose a prison or jail term, provided, the total duration of community control
does not exceed five years. Payment of fees and fines is considered a condition of community control. See State v.
Carpenter, No. 2008 CA 00238, 2009 WL 2894603 (Ohio Ct. App. Aug. 31, 2009). Therefore, a person’s term
of community control can be extended if he or she fails to pay. Before the term can be extended, however, the
defendant is entitled to notice and a hearing. State v. Fairbank, No. WD-06-015, No. WD-06-016, 2006 WL
3378338 at *3 (Ohio Ct. App. Nov. 22, 2006); State v. Flekel, No. 80337, No. 80338, 2002 WL 1307430 at *3
(Ohio Ct. App. June 13, 2002).

54 | Brennan Center for Justice

175	In practice some counties do extend probation, often to correspond with an extended payment plan set based on
defendant’s ability to pay. Telephone Interview with David Crowley, Defender, Centre County, Pennsylvania (Oct.
23, 2009); Telephone Interview with Nicole Spring, Defender, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania (Oct. 26, 2009).
In Allegheny County, courts may extend probation terms for failure to pay restitution. Telephone Interview with
Art Ettinger, Defender, Alleghany County, Philadelphia (Oct.29, 2009). Courts often limit the length of probation
terms. For a first misdemeanor, for example, courts impose a maximum of 5 years. Telephone Interview with Daniel
Bartoli, Defender, Defender Association of Philadelphia County (Oct. 27, 2009).
176	

 ex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 42.12(22)(c) (“The judge may extend a period of community supervision on a
T
showing of good cause under this section as often as the judge determines is necessary, but the period of community
supervision in a first, second, or third degree felony case may not exceed 10 years and, except as otherwise provided
by this subsection, the period of community supervision in a misdemeanor case may not exceed three years.  The
judge may extend the period of community supervision in a misdemeanor case for any period the judge determines is
necessary, not to exceed an additional two years beyond the three-year limit, if the defendant fails to pay a previously assessed
fine, costs, or restitution and the judge determines that extending the period of supervision increases the likelihood that the
defendant will fully pay the fine, costs, or restitution.  A court may extend a period of community supervision under
this section at any time during the period of supervision or, if a motion for revocation of community supervision is
filed before the period of supervision ends, before the first anniversary of the date on which the period of supervision
expires”) (emphasis added); Justice Ctr., Council of State Gov’ts, A Framework to Improve How Fines,
Fees, Restitution, and Child Support are Assessed and Collected from People Convicted of Crimes70
n.50 (2009), available at http://www.courts.state.tx.us/oca/debts/pdf/TexasFinancialObligationsInterimReport.pdf
(Good cause is generally interpreted to include failure to pay fees and fines in felony cases).

177	Pursuant to Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-305(C), “No defendant shall be kept under supervised probation solely because
of his failure to make full payment of fines, fees, or costs, provided that, following notice by the probation and
parole officer to each court and attorney for the Commonwealth in whose jurisdiction any fines, fees, or costs are
owed by the defendant, no such court or attorney for the Commonwealth objects to his removal from supervised
probation.” However, this statute does not apply to restitution. Id. Some clerks interviewed for this report stated
that they believed probation is extended even when restitution is not involved. See Telephone Interview with Kerry
Rohr, Clerk, Bristol Circuit Court, (Dec. 28, 2009); Telephone Interview with Renee Howard, Deputy Clerk, Lee
Circuit Court (Jan. 5, 2010).
178	See Pew Ctr. on the States, 1 in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections, Fact Sheet on California
(2009) (finding that California spends $134.83 per inmate per day), available at http://www.pewcenteronthestates.
org/report_detail.aspx?id=49382.
179	Randal C. Archibold, California, in Financial Crisis, Opens Prison Doors, N.Y. Times, Mar. 23, 2010, at A14..
180	Tony Burbeck, 12 Mecklenburg Libraries to Close in Two Weeks, WCNC.com, Mar. 18, 2010, http://www.wcnc.
com/news/local/County-debates-which-libraries-to-close-88418652.html.
181	Telephone Interview with Mohammed Kemokai, Fine Collection Lead Coordinator, 26th Judicial District (Jan. 12,
2010).
182	See Mecklenburg County Fine Collection Status Report, Dec. 2009 (Jan. 13, 2010) (on file with the Brennan
Center); see also Telephone Interview with Mohammed Kemokai, Fine Collection Lead Coordinator, 26th Judicial
District (Jan. 12, 2010). This figure does not include individuals who failed to appear at payment hearings. An
additional 63 individuals failed to appear at payment hearings and had warrants automatically issued for their
arrest.
183	See Telephone Interview with Tony Purcell, Assistant Public Defender, Mecklenburg County (Jan. 19, 2010)
(stating that judges often remit the debts of individuals who were held in jail pending a hearing).

Brennan Center for Justice | 55

184	This calculation is based on a daily jail cost of $40, the current reimbursement rate paid by the North Carolina
Department of Corrections to county jails. See North Carolina Administrative Office of the Courts, Court Costs
and Fee Chart (Sept. 2009), http://www.nccourts.org/Courts/Trial/Documents/court_costs_chart-2009-criminal.
pdf. According to Mecklenburg County Fine Collection Department data, arrested individuals were collectively
held for a total of 1022 days pending a court appearance.
185	See Mecklenburg County Fine Collection Status Report, Dec. 2009 (Jan. 13, 2010) (on file with the Brennan
Center); see also Telephone Interview with Mohammed Kemokai, Fine Collection Lead Coordinator, 26th Judicial
District (Jan. 12, 2010).
186	An additional 63 individuals failed to appear at payment hearings and had warrants automatically issued for their
arrest. See Mecklenburg County Fine Collection Status Report, Dec. 2009 (Jan. 13, 2010) (on file with the
Brennan Center); see also Telephone Interview with Mohammed Kemokai, Fine Collection Lead Coordinator, 26th
Judicial District (Jan. 12, 2010).
187	Arizona: If probation is not ordered, or if probation is ordered but has expired and fees, fines, or restitution remain
to be paid, the court may issue a criminal restitution order. Ariz. Rev. Stat. §13-805(A). The criminal restitution
order functions as and may be enforced just like any civil judgment, except that it does not expire and it imposes
10 percent interest per year. Ariz. Rev. Stat. §§ 13-805(C) and 44-1201; see also Telephone Interview with Kim
Knox, Supervisor, Maricopa County Dep’t of Fin. Collections Unit (Nov. 19, 2009). California: Many fees and
fines can be enforced “in the same manner as on a judgment in a civil action.” See Cal. Gov’t Code § 27712 (cost
of legal assistance); Cal. Penal Code § 1202.4(a)(3)(B) (restitution). Practices vary. In San Diego, fees and fines
are converted to civil judgment if at the end of a probation term, there is a balance due. Telephone Interview with
Gary Gibson, Defender, San Diego County Pub. Defender (Dec. 2, 2009). In Los Angeles, some debts are also
enforced through civil judgments. Telephone Interview with Phil Dube, Defender, L.A. County Pub. Defender
(Nov. 17, 2009). Florida: Fla. Stat. § 938.30(6) (“If judgment has not been previously entered on any courtimposed financial obligation, the court may enter judgment thereon and issue any writ necessary to enforce the
judgment in the manner allowed in civil cases.”); § 960.294(2) (“A civil restitution lien order may be enforced . . .
in the same manner as a judgment in a civil action . . . .”). Georgia: Ga. Code Ann. § 17-10-20(a) (“In any case in
which a fine or restitution is imposed as part of the sentence, such fine and restitution shall constitute a judgment
against the defendant.”). Illinois: 725 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/124A-10 (“The property, real and personal, of a person
who is convicted of an offense shall be bound, and a lien is created on the property, both real and personal, of every
offender, not exempt from the enforcement of a judgment or attachment, from the time of finding the indictment
at least so far as will be sufficient to pay the fine and costs of prosecution.”). Louisiana: The court can convert legal
fees, fines, and restitution (and interest) into a judgment, which can be enforced in the same manner as a money
judgment in a civil case. See La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 886(A), 895.1. Michigan: Penalties, fees, or costs
not incurred as a result of a misdemeanor “may be recovered in the same manner as civil judgments . . . .” Mich.
Comp. Laws § 600.4805; see also § 769.1f(6) (“An order for reimbursement [for prosecution costs] under this
section may be enforced . . . in the same manner as a judgment in a civil action.”). New York: N.Y. Crim. Proc.
Law § 420.10(6)(a) (“A fine, restitution or reparation imposed or directed by the court . . . shall be entered by the
county clerk in the same manner as a judgment in a civil action . . . .”); § 420.35(1) (stating that the provisions of
§ 420.10 are applicable to specified fees, including certain mandatory surcharges, the sex offender registration fee,
the DNA databank fee and the crime victim assistance fee); § 420.40(5) (“The order shall direct that any unpaid
balance of the mandatory surcharge, sex offender registration fee or DNA databank fee may be collected in the
same manner as a civil judgment.”). North Carolina: Restitution in excess of $250 is docketed in the same manner
as a civil judgment and may be collected in the same manner, with certain exceptions for restitution as a condition
of probation. N.C. Gen. Stat. §§ 15A-1340.38(a)-(b). Public defender costs are also entered as judgments and
constitute a lien. § 7A-455(b). Upon a defendant’s default in paying fines or costs, the court may order the
judgment be docketed, becoming a lien on real estate in the same manner as do judgments in civil actions. § 15A1365. Texas: Restitution may be collected as a civil judgment. See Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 42.037(m)
(“An order of restitution may be enforced by the state or a victim named in the order to receive the restitution in the
same manner as a judgment in a civil action.”). Virginia: Fines imposed and costs taxed in a criminal prosecution
are recorded as a judgment against the defendant in favor of the Commonwealth and execution may issue on that
judgment in the same manner as on ay other monetary judgment, subject to a 20 year statute of limitations. Va.
Code Ann. §§ 19.2-340, -341.

56 | Brennan Center for Justice

188	See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Lynn Baas, Senior Court Clerk Dep’t Head, N.Y. County Clerk’s Office (June
7, 2010) (in New York, debt judgment filed in clerk’s office and becomes public information that credit agencies
have access to); Telephone Interview with Judy Lockhart, Chief of Fiscal Servs., Oakland County Executive Office,
Michigan (June 7, 2010) (same in Michigan).
189	Arizona: See Telephone Interview with Kristie Weegan, Dir., Admin. Office of the Courts, Ariz. Supreme Court
(Nov. 23, 2009) (under Arizona’s Fines Fees and Restitution Enforcement Program (FARE), private contractors
report individuals with unpaid debt to credit bureaus); Telephone Interview with Kim Knox, Supervisor, Maricopa
County Department of Finance, Collections Unit (Nov. 19, 2009) (if a person fails to pay for 120 days, the county
clerk directs a private collection agency to begin collection efforts, which includes credit reporting). California:
See Telephone Interview with Phil Dube, Los Angeles County Defender (Nov. 18, 2009) (Los Angeles County
uses private company for collecting debt from traffic-related offenses, and this company can report information to
credit reporting agencies. Illinois: See Telephone Interview with Suzy Choi, Deputy Gen. Counsel, Clerk of the
Circuit Court of Cook County (July 6, 2010) (court clerks refer unpaid criminal justice debt to a private collection
company, which reports the debt to credit bureaus after 30 days). Virginia: See Telephone Interview with Susan
Hopkins, Clerk, Louisa Circuit Court (Jan. 4, 2010) (individuals who fail to pay criminal justice debt may be
subject to the efforts of private collection agencies, including credit reporting).
190	See What Is A Credit Bureau Score And How Do lenders Use Them?, 100 Questions & Answers About Buying A
New Home, (last visited June 20, 2010), http://www.hud.gov/offices/hsg/sfh/buying/buyhm.cfm..
191	Allan Appel, 12 Ex-Offenders Will Get Public Apartments, New Haven Indep., Mar. 17, 2010, http://
newhavenindependent.org/index.php/archives/entry/ex-offenders_gain_access_to_public_housing/.
192	Special Comm. on Collateral Consequences of Criminal Proceedings, N.Y. State Bar Ass’n, Re-Entry and
Reintegration: The Road to Public Safety 177 (2006) (noting that 35 percent of employers ran credit checks of
applicants in 2003, up from 19 percent in 1996) (citing Susan R. Hobbs, Employee Background Checking Seen as
Staple in Today’s Job Environment, Daily Lab. Rep. (BNA, Arlington, Va.), May 3, 2004, No. 84, at S-7).
193	

 rivacy Rights Clearinghouse, Fact Sheet 16: Employment Background Checks: A Jobseeker’s Guide (April
P
2010), http://www.privacyrights.org/fs/fs16-bck.htm; see also Jonathan D. Glater, Another Hurdle for the Jobless: Credit
Inquiries, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 6, 2009, at A1, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/07/business/07credit.
html?hp=&adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=1249624822-AdNTN6kxyhaWwYGWQhdODQ (“Employers, often winnowing
a big pool of job applicants in days of nearly 10 percent unemployment, view the credit check as a valuable tool for
assessing someone’s judgment.”). Some states have passed statutes prohibiting credit checks as part of employment
background checks. For example, Oregon has banned the use of credit histories in evaluating an applicant or
discriminating against an applicant or employee in any way, with specific exceptions for employers such as banks or
credit unions 2010 Or. Laws 102 (to be codified at Or. Rev. Stat. § 659A.885).

194	See e.g. N.Y. Correct. Law §§ 752 to 753 (limiting the use of prior convictions in employment decisions and
requiring employers to consider “the state’s public policy of encouraging employment of previously convicted
persons”).
195	Rachel L. McLean & Michael D. Thompson, Council of State Gov’ts Justice Ctr., Repaying Debts 8
(2007), available at: http://www.reentrypolicy.org/jc_publications/repaying_debts_full_report/RepayingDebts_
Guide_v13.pdf.
196	Alabama: See Ala. R. Crim. P. 26.11(h)(4) (court may “[o]rder an employer to withhold amounts from wages
to pay fines and/or restitution”); see also Telephone Interview with Brian Barnett, Restitution Recovery Unit of
Tuscaloosa County Dist. Attorney’s Office (Nov. 5, 2009) (wage garnishment commonly used in Tuscaloosa
County). But see Telephone Interview with Brandy (last name withheld upon request), Morgan County Restitution
Recovery Officer, Morgan County Dist. Attorney’s Office (Nov. 5, 2009) (wage garnishment not used in Morgan
County). Arizona: See Ariz. Rev. Stat. §13-804(J) (“A restitution lien shall be created in favor of the state for
the total amount of the restitution, fine, surcharges, assessments, costs, incarceration costs and fees ordered, if
any.”); Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 13-806 (if filed with the appropriate agency, a restitution lien creates an interest in
favor of the state or victim in the defendant’s real and personal property); Telephone Interview with Kim Knox,
Supervisor, Maricopa County Dep’t of Fin. Collections Unit (Nov. 19, 2009) (Maricopa County refers unpaid

Brennan Center for Justice | 57

debts to collection agencies, which engage in collection efforts that can include wage garnishment). California:
See State of California Franchise Tax Board, Court-Ordered Debt – Frequently Asked Questions (Debtor), http://
www.ftb.ca.gov/online/Court_Ordered_Debt/faq_debtor.shtml (last visited Sept. 20, 2010) (describing use of
wage and account garnishment to collect criminal justice debt); see also Cal. Penal Code § 1202.42 (permitting
income deductions for collection of restitution); Cal. Penal Code § 987.8(a) (to reimburse costs of providing
legal assistance, court may impose a lien on defendant’s real property that can be enforced by way of attachment,
except that it cannot be enforced through a writ of execution on a defendant’s principal place of residence). Florida:
See Fla. Office of Program Policy Analysis & Gov’t Accountability, Clerks of Court Generally Are
Meeting the System’s Collection Performance Standards 4 (2007) (most clerks use liens as a collection
method and some also garnish wages or bank accounts), available at www.oppaga.state.fl.us/reports/pdf/0721rpt.
pdf; see also Fla. Stat. § 938.30(6) (court may enter a judgment on court-imposed financial obligations, which
constitutes a civil lien against the debtor’s presently owned or after-acquired property). Georgia: See Ga. Code
Ann. § 17-10-20(c) (fines and restitution can be collected through levy, foreclosure, garnishment, and all other
actions provided for the enforcement of judgments in Georgia) Ga. Code Ann.§ 42-8-34.2(a) (authorizing the
collection of “arrearage . . . through issuance of a writ of fiera facias” from defendants for whom payment of fines,
costs, and restitution is a condition of probation). However, no one the Brennan Center interviewed knew of
wage garnishment or liens being used in practice. Illinois: See 725 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/124A-10 (“The property,
real and personal, of a person who is convicted of an offense shall be bound, and a lien is created on the property .
. . of every offender, not exempt from the enforcement of a judgment or attachment, . . . to pay the fine and costs
of prosecution.”); 730 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/5-9-4; 5/5-5-6(h) (judge may enter an order of withholding to collect
fines and restitution). Louisiana: The court can convert fees, fines, and restitution (and interest) into a judgment,
which can be enforced in the same manner as a money judgment in a civil case, La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. arts.
886(A), 895.1(A)(2)(a), including through garnishment, La. Code Civ. Proc. Ann. art. 2411, and the seizure
and sale of property, La. Code Civ. Proc. Ann. art. 2291. Michigan: See Mich. Comp. Laws § 769.1k(4) (“The
court may require the defendant to pay any fine, cost, or assessment ordered to be paid under this section by
wage assignment.”); Mich. Comp. Laws § 769.1a(13) (“An order of restitution is a judgment and lien against all
property of the defendant for the amount specified in the order of restitution.”); see also Telephone Interview with
Judy Lockhart, Chief of Fiscal Services, Oakland County Executive (Dec. 21, 2009) (Oakland County utilizes wage
and bank account garnishment). Missouri: See Telephone Interview with Defender (name withheld upon request),
Missouri (Nov. 24, 2009) (wage garnishment used for collection in her district). But see Telephone Interview
with Paul Fox, Director of Judicial Administration, St. Louis County Circuit Clerk’s Office (Nov. 30, 2009) (wage
garnishment not used in St. Louis). New York: See N.Y. Crim. Proc. Law § 420.10(6) (fines and restitution can
be entered as a civil judgment); Collecting the Judgment, http://www.nycourts.gov/courts/nyc/civil/collectingjudg.
shtml (describing garnishment and liens as civil collection options). North Carolina: See N.C. Gen. Stat. §
7A-455(b) (the court must enter a judgment for the value of legal services provided to the defendant, which shall
constitute a lien); N.C. Gen. Stat. § 15A-1340.38(a) (restitution orders in excess of $250 can be enforced in the
same manner as a civil judgment); N.C. Gen. Stat. § 15A-1365 (unpaid fines and court costs may be docketed
upon default, constituting a lien on the defendant’s real estate). North Carolina law generally does not provide for
wage garnishment for criminal justice debt. See Telephone Interview with Matt Osborne, Associate Counsel, North
Carolina Administrative Office of the Courts (Nov. 20, 2009). Ohio: See Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 2929.18(D)
(fines, costs, and restitution can be collected through attachment of property and wage or account garnishment);
see also Telephone Interview with Dan Horrigan, Summit County Clerk of Courts (Nov. 3, 2009) (after a year of
non-payment, use garnishment, judgment liens, and attachment of property); Telephone Interview with Barbara
Cannon, Deputy Clerk, Greene County Clerk of Courts (Nov. 2, 2009) (office occasionally garnishes wages).
Pennsylvania: See 42 Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. § 9728(b)(4) (criminal justice debt can be entered as a judgment upon
the person or the person’s property); see also Telephone Interview with David Crowley, Chief Public Defender,
Centre County (Oct. 23, 2009) (jurisdiction uses liens). Texas: See Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 43.07
(providing for execution against a person’s property to collect fines and costs); Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art.
42.22(8) (providing for “restitution liens” to collect restitution and certain fines and costs, which can be perfected
against real property, personal property, and motor vehicles. Virginia: See Va. Code Ann. §§ 19.2-340, 341 (fines
and costs constitute a judgment and may be executed in the same manner as any other monetary judgment); see also
Telephone Interview with Diane Blackburn, Deputy Clerk, Buckingham Circuit Court (Dec. 28, 2009) (utilizes
services of the Department of Taxation to garnish wages); Telephone Interview with Laura Rodgers, Deputy Clerk,
Halifax Circuit Court (Jan. 5, 2010) (contract with private collector to garnish wages).

58 | Brennan Center for Justice

197	Alabama: Alabama intercepts tax rebates in order to collect payments. Intercepted returns go to local clerks to
pay towards debt. Telephone Interview with Brian Barnett, Restitution Recovery Unit, Dist. Attorney’s Office
of Tuscaloosa County. (Nov. 5, 2009). Arizona: Arizona utilizes the TIP program, established by state statute,
to recover funds that Arizona State taxpayers owe to the state or court by intercepting tax refunds and lottery
winnings. Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§ 42-1122(A) and 5-525(A). California: Counties can participate in the
Franchise Tax Board’s optional Court-Ordered Debt Collections Program under California Revenue and Taxation
Code §§ 19280 and 18670. This collection program has the ability to intercept state tax returns and lottery
winnings. See Marcus Nieto, Cal. Research Bureau, Cal. State Library, Who Pays for Penalty Assessment
Programs in California? 26 (Feb. 2006), available at http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/06/03/06-003.pdf. Illinois:
Circuit clerks can intercept state income tax returns in order to recover court costs and fees. 705 Ill. Comp. Stat.
105/27.2b. Louisiana: See La. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 886(A). Michigan: The treasury has a “debt referral
program” through which it can offset tax refunds or other payments due from the state in circumstances where
an individual owes fees or fines. See Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. §§ 12.133, 12.136. Missouri: Tax intercepts are
a common form of collection in Missouri. Telephone Interview with Dewayne Perry, Dist. Defender, Dist. 30
(Nov. 23, 2009). See also Telephone Interview with Defender (name withheld upon request), Missouri (Nov. 24,
2009) (adding that wage garnishment is used, as well). North Carolina: The state intercepts tax refund checks for
attorneys’ fees and restitution. See N.C. Gen. Stat. Ann. § 7A-321(b); Telephone Interview with Matt Osborne,
Assoc. Counsel, N.C. Admin. Office of the Courts (Nov. 20, 2009). Virginia: Under Va. Code Ann. § 19.2349(B), the Commonwealth’s attorney for a given jurisdiction is responsible for collection, and may use the services
of the Department of Taxation to expedite collection. Among other things, the Department runs a tax refund setoff
program. See Va. Code Ann. § 58.1-523. Virtually all jurisdictions participate in the state income tax refund setoff
program. See, e.g., Telephone Interview with Laura Rodgers, Deputy Clerk, Halifax Circuit Court. (Jan. 5, 2010);
Telephone Interview with Kerry Rohr, Clerk, Bristol Circuit Court (Dec. 28, 2009).
198	See Margy Waller, High Cost or High Opportunity Cost? Transportation and Family Economic Success, The Brookings
Institution Policy Brief, Center on Children and Families, no. 35, Dec. 2005, available at http://www.
brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/papers/2005/12poverty_waller/pb35.pdf; Sandra Gustitus et al., The Mobility
Agenda, Access to Driving and License Suspension Policies for the Twenty-First Century Economy
(2008).
199	Florida: See Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law, The Hidden Costs of
Florida’s Criminal Justice Fees 6 (2010) (suspension of an individual’s driver’s license for failure to pay criminal
justice debt is very common, and county clerks routinely request driver’s license suspensions without any prior
determination of ability to pay). Virginia: See Va. Code Ann. § 46.2-395(B) (“[W]hen any person is convicted
of any violation of the law of the Commonwealth or of the United States or of any valid local ordinance and fails
or refuses to provide for immediate payment in full of any fine, costs, forfeitures, restitution, or penalty lawfully
assessed against him, or fails to make deferred payments or installment payments as ordered by the court, the court
shall forthwith suspend the person’s privilege to drive a motor vehicle on the highways in the Commonwealth.”).
In Lee County, Virginia, a defendant’s driver’s license can be suspended at show cause hearing after 30 days of
delinquency. Telephone Interview with Renee Howard, Deputy Clerk, Lee Circuit Court, Virginia (Jan. 5, 2010).
In Halifax County, a defendant will not face show cause hearings if he makes any payment towards debt, but paying
less than amount due will result in driver’s license suspension. Telephone Interview with Laura Rodgers, Deputy
Clerk, Halifax Circuit Court, Virginia (Jan. 5, 2010).
200	U.S. Gov’t Accountability Office, License Suspensions for Nondriving Offenses 34 (2010), available at
http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10217.pdf.
201	See supra note 118 and accompanying text.
202	42 U.S.C. § 608(a)(9)(A).
203	7 U.S.C. § 2015(k)(1).
204	42 U.S.C. § 1437d(l)(9) (it shall be cause for immediate termination of the tenancy of a public housing tenant if the
tenant is violating a condition of his or her probation or parole); 42 U.S.C. § 1437f(d)(1)(B)(v) (contracts to make
assistance payments entered into by a public housing agency with an owner of existing housing units shall provide
that violating a condition of probation or parole is cause for termination of tenancy).

Brennan Center for Justice | 59

205	

42 U.S.C. § 1382(e)(4)(A)(ii).

206	

602 F.3d 140 (2d Cir. 2010).

207	Brief for Empire Justice et al. as Amici Curiae Supporting Plaintiff-Appellant at 17-19, Clark v. Astrue, 602 F.3d 140
(2d Cir. 2010) (No. 08-5801-cv) (describing how individuals in California and Florida lost benefits due to criminal
justice debt warrants).
208	

Clark, 602 F.3d at 149.

209	

Telephone Interview with Jennifer Parish, Dir. Of Crim. Justice Advocacy, Urban Justice Center (June 28, 2010).

210	Carl Reynolds et al., Tex. Office of Court Admin., A Framework to Improve How Fines, Fees, Restitution,
and Child Support are Assessed and Collected from People Convicted of Crimes, Interim Report 8
(2009), available at http://www.courts.state.tx.us/oca/debts/pdf/TexasFinancialObligationsInterimReport.pdf.
211	42 U.S.C. § 666(b)(7).
212	Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 42.038(d).
213	See Brennan Center for Justice, Felony Disenfranchisement Laws Across the United States (2006), available at www.
brennancenter.org/dynamic/subpages/download_file_47267.pdf.
214	Erika L. Wood & Neema Trivedi, Modern-Day Poll Tax: How Economic Sanctions Block Access to the Polls,
Clearinghouse Rev. J. of Poverty L. & Pol’y, May-June 2007, at 32.
215	Alabama: Ala. Code § 15-22-36.1(a)(3) (must fully pay all fines, court costs, fees, and victim restitution). Arizona:
Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-912(A)(2) (must pay “any fine or restitution imposed”). Florida: Fla. R. Exec. Clem.
5.E, 9.A.3 (must pay “all restitution”), available at https://fpc.state.fl.us/Policies/ExecClemency/ROEC04052007.
pdf. Virginia:.Virginia Secretary of the Commonwealth, Restoration of Rights, http://www.commonwealth.
virginia.gov/JudicialSystem/Clemency/RORLongApp.pdf (last visited Sept. 23, 2010) (must pay “costs, fines, and/
or restitution”).
216	Georgia: Ga. Const. art. II, § 1, ¶ III (“No person who has been convicted of a felony involving moral turpitude
may register, remain registered, or vote except upon completion of the sentence.”). Texas: Tex. Elec. Code Ann.
§ 11.002(4)(A) (individuals convicted of a felony are qualified to vote after having “fully discharged the person’s
sentence, including any term of incarceration, parole, or supervision, or completed a period of probation ordered
by any court”).
217	See supra notes 170, 173, 176 (probation can be extended for failing to pay criminal justice debt in Louisiana, North
Carolina, and Texas); Brennan Center for Justice, Felony Disenfranchisement Laws Across the United States (2006)
(voting rights restored in Louisiana, North Carolina, and Texas after completion of sentence, including prison, parole
and probation), available at www.brennancenter.org/dynamic/subpages/download_file_47267.pdf.
218	

See supra note 118.

219	See, e.g., Ala. Code § 12-19-152 (except as provided elsewhere, fines collected in felony and misdemeanor cases
are remitted to the State General Fund); § 12-19-154 (90 percent of docket fees collected in district and circuit
courts for violation of municipal ordinances go to the State General Fund); Ariz. Rev. Stat § 41-1723 (all money
received each year by the public safety equipment fund after the first $1.2 million goes to the state general fund);
§ 36-2219.01(B)(5) (5.5 percent of money sent to the medical services enhancement fund is deposited in the state
general fund); Cal. Penal Code § 1465.7(a)-(c) (a state surcharge of 20 percent levied on a defendant’s base fine
is transmitted to the General Fund); Rebekah Diller, Brennan Ctr. for Justice at N.Y. Univ. Sch. of Law,
The Hidden Costs of Florida’s Criminal Justice Fees 6 (2010) (“Some fees [in Florida] go directly to the
state’s general revenue fund to subsidize the state’s overall budget.”); Ga. Code Ann. § 42-8-34(d)(1)-(2) (imposing
various fees to be deposited into the general fund of the state treasury, such as a monthly probation fee of $23); 705

60 | Brennan Center for Justice

Ill. Comp. Stat. 105/27.5 (41 percent of all fees, fines, costs and other penalties collected by a circuit court shall be
disbursed into that county’s general corporate fund); Champaign County Admin. Servs., Champaign County
FY2010 Budget 35 (2009), available at http://www.co.champaign.il.us/COUNTYBD/2010budget/fullbudget.
pdf (13 percent of Champaign County’s [Illinois] revenue comes from fees and fines); Mich. Comp. Laws §
780.905 (assessing fees of $60 and $50 for those convicted of felonies or certain misdemeanors, respectively, 90
percent of which is transmitted to the department of treasury); N.C. Const. art. IX, § 7(a) (“. . . the clear proceeds
of all penalties and forfeitures and of all fines collected in the several counties for any breach of the penal laws of the
State, shall belong to and remain in the several counties, and shall be faithfully appropriated and used exclusively
for maintaining free public schools.); About Court Costs, http://www.nccourts.org/County/Moore/Costs/Default.
asp (last visited July 21, 2010) (“Except for certain fees that are devoted to specific uses, all superior and district
court costs collected by the Judicial Department are paid into the State’s General Fund, as are appellate court fees.”);
42 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 3571(a) (“Except as otherwise provided by statute, the Commonwealth shall be entitled to
receive all fines, forfeited recognizances and other forfeitures imposed, lost or forfeited, fees and costs which by law
have heretofore been paid or credited to, or which by statute are payable or creditable to, the Commonwealth.”);
Tex. Code Crim. Proc. Ann. art. 102.020(h) (35 percent of funds received as costs for DNA testing go to the state
highway fund); Va. Code Ann. § 19.2-353 (proceeds from fines collected for offenses against the Commonwealth
are to be deposited into the State Literary Fund.)
220	See ABA Commission on State Court Funding, Black Letter Recommendations of the ABA Commission
on State Court Funding: Report 7 (Aug. 2004) (stating that courts should have “a predictable general funding
stream that is not tied to fee generation”); see also Conference of State Court Administrators, Position
Paper on State Judicial Branch Budgets in Times of Fiscal Crisis 14 (2003), available at htp://cosca.ncsc.
dni.us/WhitePapers/BudgetWhitePaper.pdf (courts must guard against the perception that they are responsible for
funding themselves) [hereinafter COSCA Position Paper].
221	See Conference of State Court Administrators, Standards Relating to Court Costs: Fees, Miscellaneous Charges and
Surcharges, and a National Survey of Practice 6 (1986), available at http://contentdm.ncsconline.org/cgi-bin/showfile.
exe?CISOROOT=/financial&CISOPTR=81] (noting that the complexity of fees and surcharges imposed in confusing
to court personnel and requires the maintenance of complex accounting systems); Robert Tobin, National Center for
State Courts, Funding the State Courts: Issues and Approaches 50 (1996), available at http://contentdm.ncsconline.org/
cgibin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/financial&CISOPTR=5 (stating that “[i]t is beyond dispute that [the concept of
self-supporting courts] is not consistent with judicial ethics or the demands of due process”)
222	
	

Safety Net for Abused Persons v. Segura, 692 So.2d 1038, 1042 (La. 1997) (striking down three dollar filing fee
imposed in criminal and civil cases to fund domestic violence programs).

223	
	
	

See State v. Lanclos, 980 So.2d 643 (La. 2008) (striking down five dollar traffic-violation fee that went to police as “a
tax to be levied improperly through the judicial system” because connection between law enforcement and court
system was too attenuated).

224	See Leslie Eaton, Judge Steps in for Poor Inmates Without Justice Since Hurricane, N.Y.Times (May 23, 2006),
available at http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/23/us/23court.html?scp=1&sq=poor%20inmates%20without%20
justice%20since&st=cse..
225	Paul Purpura, Cupboard Bare for Poor’s Legal Aid, Times Picayune, Nov. 2, 2005, at B-3, available at http://www.
nola.com/katrina/pages/110205/1102B03.pdf.
226	See, e.g., Eaton, supra note 224; Peter Whoriskey, In New Orleans, Justice on Trial: Katrina Strains Public Defender’s
Office, Wash. Post (Apr. 15, 2006).
227	

See Eaton, supra note 224.

Brennan Center for Justice | 61

228	Alabama: Probation officers are involved in setting up payment plans Telephone Interview with Robert Oakes,
Assistant Executive Director, Alabama Board of Pardons and Parole (November 2, 2009). Arizona: Ariz. Rev. Stat.
§ 31-466(A) (parole or probation officer is required to monitor the collection of supervision fees). California:
Telephone Interview with Phil Dube, Assistant Public Defender, Los Angeles County Public Defender (Nov. 18,
2009) (probation department is involved in dunning defendants into paying costs). Telephone Interview with
Gary Gibson, Deputy Public Defender, San Diego Public Defender (Dec.2, 2009) (Probation officers are the
main interface in collections and judges are not involved in the process). Florida: If the sentencing court or Parole
Commission has ordered a specific monthly payment amount, and the probationer fails to make that monthly
payment, the probation officer must report the failure to pay to the court or commission. E-mail from Shari
Britton, Chief, Bureau of Probation & Parole Field Services, Florida Dept. of Corrs. to Rebekah Diller, Brennan
Center (Jan. 14, 2008). Georgia: Depending on what the judge orders, defendants make payments either to the
clerk of the court or to the probation office. See Ga. Code Ann., § 42-8-34.1(f ) (stating that the sentencing judge
has discretion to order payments made either to the clerk of the court or the probation office). In either case,
the probation officer oversees collection enforcement, because payment is a condition of probation. Telephone
interview with Claudia Saari, Interim Circuit Public Defender, DeKalb County, Georgia (Oct. 23, 2009);
Telephone interview with Peter Wilson, Fiscal Technician in the Cobb County Clerk of Superior Court Office (Oct.
9, 2009). Illinois: Probation officers work out payment plans. Telephone Interview with Lester Finkle, Assistant
Public Defender, Cook County (Oct. 30, 2009). Louisiana: Probation officers and parole agencies are involved
in collecting probation/parole related fees and fines. Telephone Interview with Collections Department, New
Orleans Criminal Court (Aug. 11, 2009). Missouri: Mo. Code Regs. Ann. tit. 14, § 80-5.010(1)(I) (process for
sanctions for nonpayment includes reminder from supervising officer, submission of violation report. Michigan:
Phone Interview with Paula Taylor, Finance Director, 17th Circuit Court (Kent County, Michigan) (Dec. 21, 2009)
(financial obligations are normally a condition of probation and probation officers monitor payments and report
failures to pay.); Phone Interview with Judy Lockhart, Chief of Fiscal Services, Oakland County Executive (Dec.21,
2009) (For those with probation, payment is a condition of probation, and the probation office monitors failure to
pay and reports violations). New York: Probation agencies can be chosen by the courts to be the collection agency
for the various financial obligations of defendants who are given sentences of probation. Telephone Interview
with Jay L. Wilber, Public Defender, Broome County (Dec. 1, 2009). North Carolina: Telephone Interview with
Matt Osborne, Associate Counsel, North Carolina Administrative Office of the Courts (Nov. 20, 2009) (Payment
schedules are usually set up by the probation officer). Ohio: Probation officers warn persons under supervision who
have not paid that arrest warrant will be issued if payment is not made within a certain number of days. Telephone
Interview with Barbara Cannon, Deputy Clerk, Greene County Clerk of Courts (Nov. 2, 2009). Pennsylvania:
42 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 9728(a)(1) (“Except as provided in subsection (b)(5), all restitution, reparation, fees, costs,
fines and penalties shall be collected by the county probation department or other agent designated by the county
commissioners of the county with the approval of the president judge of the county for that purpose in any manner
provided by law.”). Texas: Carl Reynolds et al., Council of State Governments Justice Center, Texas Office of Court
Administration, A Framework to Improve How Fines, Fees, Restitution, and Child Support are Assessed and Collection
from People Convicted of Crimes: Interim Report (2009), available at http://www.courts.state.tx.us/oca/debts/pdf/
TexasFinancialObligationsInterimReport.pdf. (Probation officers are involved in collecting financial information
from defendants, setting up payment plans, collecting payments, and administering progressive sanctions.) Virginia:
Although probation officers do not have a formal role in the actual collection of fees, fines and restitution, they
often assist in collection by threatening revocation, and much more rarely, actually initiating revocation proceedings
for a failure to pay. Telephone interview with Kerry Rohr, Clerk, Bristol Circuit Court, Virginia (Dec. 28, 2009);
Telephone interview with Diane Blackburn, Deputy Clerk, Buckingham Circuit Court, Virginia (Dec. 28, 2009);
Telephone Interview with Renee Howard, Deputy Clerk, Lee Circuit Court, Virginia (Jan. 5, 2010).
229	See, e.g. Telephone Interview with Barbara Cannon, Deputy Clerk, Greene County Clerk of Courts, Ohio (Nov.
2, 2009) (Probation officers warn persons under supervision who have not paid that arrest warrant will be issued if
payment is not made within a certain number of days); S. Ctr. for Human Rights, Profiting From the Poor: A
Report on Predatory Probation Companies in Georgia 2 (2008) (discussing how private probation companies
assigned to supervise misdemeanors threaten imprisonment and use other bullying tactics in order to collect fees),
available at http://www.schr.org/files/profit_from_poor.pdf.
230	Telephone interview with Walter Pulliam, Chief of Operations, Virginia Department of Corrections, Division of
Community Corrections (Jan. 8, 2009).

62 | Brennan Center for Justice

231	Id; Telephone interview with Richard Crossen, Virginia Department of Corrections, Community Corrections
Manager (Jan. 12, 2009).
232	Telephone interview with Walter Pulliam, Chief of Operations, Virginia Department of Corrections, Division of
Community Corrections (Jan. 8, 2009).

Brennan Center for Justice | 63

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