BOXED IN
The True Cost of Extreme Isolation in New York’s Prisons

A Report by the New York Civil Liberties Union

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“A fair criticism that can be made is
whether or not we’re placing the right
inmate in disciplinary segregation
and are we keeping them there longer
than necessary.”
Brian Fischer, Commissioner, New York State Department
of Corrections and Community Supervision, Albany Times
Union, August 20.12

“I’ll be the first to admit – we overuse it.”
Commissioner Fischer, January 20.12, at New York State
Bar	Association	Panel	on	Solitary	Confi	nement

“I guess they forget people make mistakes
which land them in jail & the fact that we
was living a normal life, too, before our
conviction. It’s sad the things we have to go
through just to make it home in one piece. . .

. . . I still be having a lot of mood swings
lately, I don’t be meaning any harm I just be
mad at my situation . . .

. . . It gets real lonely in here, especially if
you don’t have family to communicate with or
send you books. I’m grateful to have that, but
after you be in this cell for so long it hard to
keep your mind outside of these four walls, all
you have is memories.”
Donell, incarcerated at Upstate Correctional Facility

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Boxed In was written by Scarlet Kim, Taylor Pendergrass and Helen Zelon.
It was edited by Jennifer Carnig, Mike Cummings, Helen Zelon, Donna Lieberman, Art Eisenberg and Christopher Dunn.
It was designed by Li Wah Lai; Abby Allender and Elina Poikane were design consultants.
Sara LaPlante provided graphics and data analysis.
The authors acknowledge with sincere thanks Yale Law School’s Gruber Fellowship in Global Justice for its generous
support of Gruber Fellow Scarlet Kim.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of readers Jack Beck, John Boston, David Fathi, Amy Fettig,
Tanya Greene, Sarah Kerr, Karen Murtagh, Scott Paltrowitz, Jennifer Parish and Corey Stoughton.

DEDICATION
Boxed In is dedicated to the incarcerated men who so eloquently and courageously shared their stories with the NYCLU.
Many of these stories were raw and painful in their telling. We are grateful to these men for entrusting us with their stories
and sincerely hope that this report does justice to their experiences.

NEW YORK CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION
125 Broad Street, 19th Floor
New York, NY 10004
www.nyclu.org

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TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................................................................. 1
	

Findings ....................................................................................................................................................... 2

	Recommendations......................................................................................................................................... 3

I. THE BOX	 ............................................................................................................................................... 5
	Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 5
	

Prying the Box Open...................................................................................................................................... 7

	

New York’s Boxes.......................................................................................................................................... 8

II. BUILDING THE BOX............................................................................................................................ 11
	

The Early Life and Death of Extreme Isolation............................................................................................. 11

	

The Resurrection of Extreme Isolation in the United States......................................................................... 11

	

New York Embraces Extreme Isolation........................................................................................................ 12

	

Judicial Oversight and the Expansion of Extreme Isolation......................................................................... 14

III. BOX HITS............................................................................................................................................ 17
	

How Violations of Prison Rules Lead to Extreme Isolation........................................................................... 17

	

Determining the Severity of an Alleged Rule Infraction................................................................................ 18

	

Determining Whether a Prisoner is Guilty of a Rule Infraction..................................................................... 18

	

Determining Whether a Conviction Warrants a Punishment of Extreme Isolation........................................ 20.

	

Who is in the Box? ...................................................................................................................................... 23

IV. LIFE IN THE BOX................................................................................................................................ 27
	

Isolation, Idleness, Violence and Suicide..................................................................................................... 27

	

An Open & Shut Case................................................................................................................................... 30

	

Two in a Box................................................................................................................................................. 34

	

Culture of Deprivation.................................................................................................................................. 37

	

Denied When Needed Most: Medical and Mental Health Care..................................................................... 40

V. THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOX............................................................................................................ 43
	Findings........................................................................................................................................................ 43
	

	

Finding No. 1: New York’s Use of Extreme Isolation is Arbitrary and Unjustified.................................. 43

	

	

Finding No. 2:  Extreme Isolation Harms Prisoners and Corrections Staff............................................ 43

		

Finding No. 3: Extreme Isolation Decreases Prison and Community Safety........................................ 44

	

Alternatives: Reconsidering Extreme Isolation Across the United States..................................................... 45

	

Extreme Isolation is Legally Indefensible...................................................................................................... 47

	Recommendations....................................................................................................................................... 49
		

Recommendation No. 1: Adopt Stringent Criteria, Procedures and Safeguards for

		

Prisoner Separation.............................................................................................................................. 49

		

Recommendation No. 2: Audit the Population of Prisoners in Extreme Isolation................................. 50

EPILOGUE	 ............................................................................................................................................. 51
ENDNOTES	............................................................................................................................................. 53

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Every day, nearly 4,500 prisoners across New York live in extreme isolation, deprived of all meaningful human
interaction or mental stimulation, confined to the small, barren cells where they spend 23 hours a day. Disembodied
hands deliver meals through a slot in the cell door. “Recreation” offers no respite: An hour, alone, in an empty,
outdoor pen, no larger than the cell, enclosed by high concrete walls or thick metal grates. No activities, programs
or classes break up the day. No phone calls are allowed. Few personal possessions are permitted. These prisoners
languish in isolation for days, weeks, months and even years on end.
What occurs inside our prisons may seem remote, but it affects all New Yorkers. It impacts public safety: Of the
roughly 56,000 people incarcerated in New York’s prisons,1 about 25,000 are released and return to our communities
each year, bringing their prison experiences home with them.2 It reflects how we allocate increasingly scarce public
resources: New York spends about $60,000 a prisoner – or $2.7 billion on state prisons – per year.3 And it raises
essential questions about how we value and protect human dignity.
Each of these concerns is directly implicated by an ongoing phenomenon behind New York’s prison walls – the use
of “solitary confinement” as punishment on an unprecedented scale and for extraordinary lengths of time.
New York employs an unusual brand of “solitary confinement.” Roughly half of the 4,500 prisoners in “solitary
confinement” spend 23 hours a day locked down alone in an isolation cell. The other half are locked down in an
isolation cell with another prisoner – a practice known as “double-celling,” which forces two strangers into intimate,
constant proximity. The New York Civil Liberties Union (NYCLU) uses the term “extreme isolation” throughout
this report to capture New York’s particular practice of subjecting one or two prisoners in a cell to the conditions
most commonly understood as “solitary confinement.”
The purpose of extreme isolation is the absolute
deprivation of meaningful human interaction and
mental stimulation. Extreme isolation results in
forced idleness and the complete cessation of
education and rehabilitation. Like extreme isolation,
prisoner separation, long an accepted corrections
practice, removes violent or vulnerable prisoners
from the general prison population. But unlike
extreme isolation, separation aims to preserve, as
much as possible, the social interaction, education
and rehabilitation that maintains prisoners’
psychological and physical well-being and supports
a productive return to society.

New York employs an unusual brand
of “solitary confinement.” Roughly
half of the 4,500 prisoners in “solitary
confinement” spend 23 hours a day
locked down alone in an isolation cell.
The other half are locked down in an
isolation cell with another prisoner – a
practice known as “double-celling.”

Over the past two decades, New York has spent
hundreds of millions of dollars to build and operate
an extensive network of extreme isolation cells,
which the New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision (DOCCS) calls “Special Housing
Units” or “SHUs” – and prisoners call “the Box.” New York has nearly 5,000 SHU beds located in 39 prisons across
the state,4 including two dedicated extreme isolation prisons – Upstate and Southport Correctional Facilities – which
cost about $76 million a year to operate.5 From 2007 to 2011, New York issued more than 68,100 sentences to
extreme isolation for violations of prison rules.6 The average sentence was five months, although many prisoners are
held in extreme isolation for years.7
The NYCLU set out to investigate New York’s use of extreme isolation. We explored the history that led to the
emergence and expansion of the practice in New York. We asked who New York subjects to extreme isolation, for
what reasons, and for how long. We sought to understand and articulate its effects on prisoners and their families,
as well as an often-overlooked population – the corrections staff assigned to watch them. We compared New York’s
use of extreme isolation with practices in other states and asked if the widespread use of the practice violates legal

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standards. Finally, we considered how reforming the use of extreme isolation would affect the safety of New York’s
prisons and communities.
In order to answer these questions, the NYCLU conducted an intensive year-long investigation. We communicated
with more than 100 prisoners who have spent significant amounts of time – in one case, more than 20 years – inside
a SHU cell. We interviewed family members and corrections
staff. We consulted corrections experts, mental health
professionals, lawyers and academics. We read decades of
The SHU sweeps in a wide
DOCCS reports and press coverage recounting the history of
New York’s SHU expansion. We researched the scientific and
swath of prisoners, including
academic literature regarding the use and effects of extreme
those uniquely vulnerable to
isolation. We studied domestic and international legal standards
governing extreme isolation and the steps undertaken by other
conditions of extreme isolation,
states to reform their use of the practice. Finally, we reviewed
such as juveniles, the elderly,
DOCCS’ internal regulations and policies and analyzed
thousands of pages of official DOCCS records obtained
and people with mental illness or
through New York’s open records laws.

substance abuse issues.

Findings
Based on a year of study and analysis, the NYCLU found
that New York’s use of extreme isolation is arbitrary,
inhumane and unsafe.
New York’s use of extreme isolation is arbitrary and
unjustified. Extreme isolation is too frequently used as a
disciplinary tool of first resort. Corrections officials have
enormous discretion to impose extreme isolation as a
disciplinary sanction. Prisoners can be sent to the SHU for
prolonged periods of time for violating a broad range of
prison rules, including for minor, non-violent misbehavior.
As a result, the SHU sweeps in a wide swath of prisoners,
including those uniquely vulnerable to conditions of extreme
isolation, such as juveniles, the elderly, and people with mental
illness or substance abuse issues. This same discretion permits
bias to corrupt the disciplinary process, as suggested by the
disproportionate number of black prisoners in the SHU.

Nearly 2,000 people in New
York are released directly from
extreme isolation to the streets
each year. Prisoners in extreme
isolation receive no educational,
vocational, rehabilitative or
transitional programming.

Corrections officials can
separate and remove violent
or vulnerable prisoners from
the general prison population
without subjecting them to
the punishing physical and
psychological deprivation of
extreme isolation.

Extreme isolation harms prisoners and corrections staff.
Extreme isolation causes emotional and psychological harm,
inducing apathy, lethargy, anxiety, depression, despair,
rage and uncontrollable impulses, even among the healthy
and mentally stable. For the vulnerable, particularly those
with mental illness, extreme isolation can be devastating
and potentially life-threatening. The emotional and
psychological harm prisoners experience in extreme isolation
is compounded by the formal and informal deprivation of
basic necessities, including food, exercise and basic hygiene.
Prisoners buckling under the emotional and psychological
weight of isolation and deprivation often lack access to adequate medical and mental health care. For corrections
staff, working in extreme isolation has lasting negative consequences that affect their lives at work and home.
Extreme isolation negatively impacts prison and community safety. People in extreme isolation find its
psychological effects fuel unpredictable and sometimes violent outbursts. These outbursts endanger the prisoners

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themselves, as well as other prisoners and corrections
staff, who have few resources to manage prisoners
struggling under the toll of extreme isolation. Prisoners
with mental health issues fare even worse, some
resorting to self-harm and suicide. Prisoners carry
the effects of extreme isolation back into the general
prison population. They also carry them home. Nearly
2,000 people in New York are released directly from
extreme isolation to the streets each year.8 While in
the SHU, prisoners receive no educational, vocational,
rehabilitative or transitional programming, leaving them
less prepared to successfully rejoin society.

Recommendations
New York’s arbitrary, inhumane and unsafe use of
extreme isolation has led to an urgent human rights
crisis. Extreme isolation is not synonymous with
prisoner separation, which has long been an accepted
corrections practice. Corrections officials can separate
and remove violent or vulnerable prisoners from the
general prison population without subjecting them to
the punishing physical and psychological deprivation

Quick Guide to Boxed In

of extreme isolation – a point of consensus among

Section I, The Box, provides an introduction to
extreme isolation, explains why the NYCLU undertook
its investigation of extreme isolation in New York
prisons and describes the report’s methodology.

international human rights bodies.

Section II, Building the Box, recounts New York’s
history with extreme isolation and the factors that drove
and enabled its modern resurgence.

corrections officials in other states, legal scholars and

New York must end its use of extreme isolation by:
(1) adopting stringent criteria, protocols
and safeguards for separating violent
or vulnerable prisoners, to ensure that
prisoners are separated only in limited

Section III, Box Hits, describes DOCCS’ process for
placing prisoners in extreme isolation and provides a
demographic and statistical overview of who serves time
in extreme isolation, for what reasons, and for how long.

and legitimate circumstances for the

Section IV, Life in the Box, provides first-hand accounts
of prisoners, corrections staff and family members
regarding their respective experiences living, working
and supporting loved ones in extreme isolation.

(2) auditing the current population in

Section V, Thinking Outside the Box, outlines the
NYCLU’s findings, discusses recent reforms in other
states, describes an emerging consensus among
international human rights bodies and legal scholars
critiquing extreme isolation and advocates for evidencebased practices that would end the use of extreme
isolation in New York prisons. n

briefest period and under the least
restrictive conditions practicable; and

extreme isolation to identify people who
should not be in the SHU, transitioning
them back to the general prison
population and reducing the number of
SHU beds accordingly.
These steps will align New York’s prisons with smart
and effective evidence-based corrections practices.
They will improve the safety of our prisons and
communities, bring New York into compliance with
international human rights law and emerging legal
standards, and reaffirm our commitment to respecting
basic human dignity.

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A typical special housing unit (SHU) cell for two prisoners, in use at Upstate Correctional Facility and SHU 200s in New York.
“New Concept in Disciplinary Housing: Upstate,” DOCS Today, Apr. 2003, 15.

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I. THE BOX
Introduction
On September 5, 2015, Adrian* will return home after spending more than 1,600 consecutive days in a room the size of
a typical elevator. Adrian lives in the “Special Housing Unit” (SHU) at Southport Correctional Facility, located in Pine
City, an hour outside of Ithaca. Since his arrival there in February 2011, Adrian has spent 23 to 24 hours a day alone,
inside the Box. His one hour outside the Box is in a fenced-in recreation pen, smaller than Adrian’s cell, which prisoners
and staff alike call a human kennel. Inside the kennel, Adrian can glimpse the sky through heavy metal grates and hear
the din of other isolated inmates.
On his cell wall, the 26-year-old has taped a newspaper photo of an executive’s corner office, with glass walls and
city views. Adrian dreams of the life he will live outside, but in the SHU, he does not have access to educational
programs or vocational training. When Adrian nears his release, he will receive no transitional services to prepare for
his re-entry to society. Like nearly 2,000 other New York prisoners each year, Adrian will be released from extreme
isolation directly to the street.
Like most people who end up in the SHU, Adrian was placed in extreme isolation as punishment. Because Adrian has
received additional SHU time for disciplinary infractions committed while at Southport, his original two-year SHU
sentence has been extended to nearly five.
Adrian is already serving the rest of his sentence in extreme isolation, so if he’s found to break a rule – like talking
back or refusing to return a food tray – punishment with additional SHU time is meaningless. Instead, corrections
officials may punish Adrian with food, by placing him on “the loaf,” a hard, tasteless brick of bread-and-vegetable
matter served with water and a wedge of raw cabbage three times a day.
But corrections officers (COs) also use food to punish Adrian informally. His meals have arrived covered with hair
or spoiled. Sometimes meals don’t come at all, an occurrence that happens so often that prisoners have a name for it:
a “drive-by.” COs “drive-by” Adrian’s cell without delivering his meal, or leave a covered tray with no food beneath
the cover. Adrian has quickly learned that in the Box, little can be taken for granted.
***
On May 16, 2012, Marcus marked his 120th day in extreme isolation at Upstate Correctional Facility, in Malone, a
town on the Canadian border. Inside a concrete cell about the size of a parking space, the 22-year-old spent 23 hours
a day locked down with another prisoner.
For four months, Marcus had little human contact beyond his cellmate. The two men urinated and defecated in clear
view of each other. They showered in an open steel cabinet in the corner of the cell. Water flowed three times a week,
for 15 minutes. Both men stripped down and washed in sequence: One stepped out, dripping onto the concrete floor,
as the other stepped in, all before the clock ran out.
Like Adrian, Marcus received an hour a day of recreation. At the beginning of the hour, a metal door at one end of
the cell, controlled remotely by prison guards, swung open. Marcus could step out into a rec pen, where he could hear
and see other isolated prisoners in their rec pens – shouting, cursing, babbling – until the rec doors clamped shut.
Marcus was sent to the Box for misbehavior in the general prison population: tattooing his own hands (a broken
star, with his initials at the center), smoking in the bathroom, failing to report for work duty and visiting another
prisoner’s dormitory.
*Prisoners are represented by pseudonyms to protect individual privacy and safety.

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Soon after he arrived at Upstate, Marcus began to notice changes in himself: Anxiety and depression that suddenly
shifted into uncontrollable bursts of aggression and violence that he took out on his cellmate. Impulses to do
something. But extreme isolation means doing nothing. By design, extreme isolation affords no opportunity to take
classes, learn a trade or otherwise prepare for life after prison. Instead, Marcus and his cellmate spent their days
pacing, sleeping, reading, writing. Always, waiting. Waiting for time to run out; waiting to leave the Box.
***
Malone native Dan Benware worked for a quarter-century as a DOCCS corrections counselor. In his last decade on
the job, Benware, trained as a social worker, witnessed the dramatic increase in New York’s use of extreme isolation.
He saw the effects on prisoners he counseled who returned from
extreme isolation to the general prison population: men who were
broken, filled with uncontrollable rage or who had succumbed to
Extreme isolation means
deep depression.

doing nothing: No opportunity
to take classes, learn a trade
or otherwise prepare for life
after prison.

Benware also saw the effects of extreme isolation on his close
friends and neighbors, the men and women who worked at
Upstate. Prisoners’ responses to extreme isolation frequently
boiled over into violent hostility and erratic behavior; mental
illness flourished. COs at Upstate felt as cooped-up as the
prisoners they guarded. Although the state expected COs to
manage prisoners in extreme isolation – many with mental illness
or histories of substance abuse – most COs were hired with only a high school diploma or GED. For many, Benware
says, what they did and saw inside the prison affected their personal lives and their families.
Monsignor Dennis Duprey, pastor of St. Peter’s Church in Plattsburgh, served as Upstate’s chaplain from the day it
opened in 1998 until 2003. He knows the toll that extreme isolation takes on COs: “A system that asks COs to walk
into a place for eight hours a day at a minimum, where the people they look after ... do not trust a single word they say,
or a single action they do – that’s not a wonderful
way to conduct human relationships. When they
go home, officers have trouble with their own
relationships, with their sons and daughters; they
“When it comes to human beings, we are
treat them like inmates.”
Both Benware and Duprey understand that violent
and vulnerable prisoners must be separated from
others. But both men say that separating prisoners
does not have to entail extreme isolation. They
are baffled that thousands of prisoners, men like
Marcus and Adrian, have been placed in the SHU
for breaking minor prison rules, drug-related
infractions or routine scuffles in the prison yard.
These infractions merit a response, to be sure, but a
response that is proportional to the offense.

keeping them in cages that wouldn’t be
fit for our cows... It doesn’t take half a
brain to realize, we’re not going to get a
good product out of this. It’s a Holocaust
in our own backyard that few people
know about.”

“Where we live, it’s a large farming community,” Benware said. “We have laws on the books against cattle being
confined to these huge, huge barns. The Department of Agriculture watches for that type of abuse. ... Yet when it
comes to human beings, we are keeping them in cages that wouldn’t be fit for our cows.
“It’s a strange parallel, but anybody that’s locked in like that, for those extended times, it doesn’t take half a brain to
realize, we’re not going to get a good product out of this. It’s a Holocaust in our own backyard that few people know
about and, among those that do, we acknowledge and say ‘ok.’ But it doesn’t work and it’s inhumane.”
***

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Lynn Finley knows firsthand what Benware and Duprey are talking about. Her son spent five months in extreme
isolation at Upstate after he was discovered taking medication, prescribed during a pre-incarceration detox program,
without official authorization. Depressed and “hopeless” in extreme isolation, Finley said, her son’s despair turned
into constant hyper-alertness and overwhelming anxiety.
Finley has only one child. Yet on the occasions when she was able to travel the four hours from her home in Albany
to Upstate, she barely recognized her son. He lost 30 pounds in the SHU, Finley said.
His hands cuffed and secured to a waist chain, Finley’s son and the other prisoners were brought by COs to the
visiting room. Each man was placed in a numbered cage, physically separated from his visitor. Inside each cage,
small slots at table height allow enough room for a vending-machine food packet or a hand-clasp, no more.
The negative effects of the SHU persisted after her son returned to the general prison population.
“He’s emotionally damaged,” Finley said, adding that her son was terrified of being with other prisoners and terrified
of returning to the Box.
“[My son] had a serious addiction problem and he was trying to treat it,” Finley said. “Instead of facilitating his
recovery, the prison system punished him severely with extreme isolation. It’s absolutely baffling, and one of the
hardest things I’ve had to witness as a mother.”
***
These five stories are representative of the tens of thousands of human lives marked by extreme isolation each year
in New York. Prisoners experience the daily effects of extreme isolation and its indelible consequences. Corrections
staff, who must manage the anxiety, anger and mental illness of men in extreme isolation, endure consequences in
their personal and professional lives. Family members on the outside, unable to readily communicate or support
their loved ones in isolation, also undergo a particular kind of punishment, imposed on the innocent. New Yorkers
collectively bear the expense of the hundreds of millions of dollars it costs to incarcerate people in extreme isolation
and we all live in the communities that prisoners will return to when they are released. The NYCLU undertook this
study to document the true costs – for all of us – of New York’s use of extreme isolation.

Prying the Box Open
What occurs behind prison walls is murky. What occurs inside a “prison within a prison,” as many describe
New York’s SHUs, is murkier still. The NYCLU produced this report to ensure that all New Yorkers, including
policymakers and corrections officials, have information regarding the use and effects of extreme isolation in New
York prisons.
From September 2011 to October 2012, the NYCLU conducted an intensive year-long investigation of the social,
economic and human costs of extreme isolation in New York prisons. To understand those costs, the NYCLU relied
on a variety of quantitative and qualitative sources of information.
First, the NYCLU communicated with more than 100 prisoners. Most were housed at Southport and Upstate
Correctional Facilities, although the NYCLU also communicated with prisoners isolated in other SHUs across the state.†

†
Where prisoners’ letters are quoted, they are quoted verbatim, with spelling and grammatical errors intact. Below are the pseudonyms of
prisoners quoted throughout the report and the SHU facilities where they were housed during the course of the NYCLU’s investigation; some have
been in both facilities, over time.

Upstate

Southport

Chris, Miguel, Daniel, Marcus, Kevin, Samuel, Donell, Daryl

Adrian, Trevor, Tevin, Na’im, Stephan, Justin, Hector

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See It Online:
Correspondence from prisoners in extreme isolation is available online at www.nyclu.org/boxedin.

Second, the NYCLU consulted with lawyers and mental health professionals with experience representing prisoners
in extreme isolation in New York. We also reviewed DOCCS’ regulations and policies and researched applicable
law and legal standards. The NYCLU also consulted with
attorneys and academic experts on the use of extreme
isolation in other parts of the country, including states that
have significantly reformed their use of extreme isolation.

Over the last two decades, New
York has employed extreme
isolation on a massive and
unprecedented scale.

Third, the NYCLU interviewed corrections employees
regarding their perspectives on the use of extreme isolation
and its impact on their working environment. The NYCLU
also spoke with family members and friends of those
in extreme isolation who described the toll of isolated
confinement on themselves and their loved ones.

Finally, under the New York Freedom of Information Law (FOIL), the NYCLU obtained thousands of pages
of records from DOCCS and the Office of Mental Health (OMH). These records include statistical information
regarding DOCCS’ use of extreme isolation, as well as prisoners’ disciplinary and mental health histories.

See It Online:
Documents obtained by the NYCLU from DOCCS and OMH are available online at
www.nyclu.org/boxedin.

Extreme isolation reaches across a broad range of institutional settings in New York: a pre-trial detainee on Rikers
Island,9 a teenager in a juvenile detention facility,10 a person serving a 10-year prison sentence or an immigrant in a
federal detention facility11 all may be subjected to extreme isolation. This report focuses on the population in New
York most frequently subjected to extreme isolation: men in the state prison system.12
While this report does not explore the use of extreme isolation in other New York detention settings, all facilities
that employ extreme isolation share a common purpose: to cut the individual off from all meaningful human contact
and mental stimulation. The effects of extreme isolation are constant despite superficial differences in the physical
environment or the particular label an institution uses for its brand of extreme isolation. Accordingly, this report’s findings
and conclusions about extreme isolation in New York prisons apply broadly to all detention settings in New York.
What happens in the Box is far from clear. The NYCLU’s inquiry was limited by this lack of transparency as well
as DOCCS’ reluctance to provide factual information sought by the NYCLU during our investigation.13 This study
relies on statistics and anecdotes, hard numbers and personal experiences. But it is not a comprehensive, technical
accounting of every aspect of extreme isolation in New York. Ultimately, this study is an educated glimpse inside the
Box. It has answered some questions; many persist.

New York’s Boxes
New York’s SHU cells are located in dedicated extreme isolation facilities and in designated buildings or cellblocks
on the grounds of New York’s minimum-, medium- and maximum-security prisons. New York has two dedicated
SHU facilities – Southport, which contains 789 SHU beds, and Upstate, which contains 1,040 SHU beds. In addition,
New York has eight designated SHU buildings (SHU 200s) located on the grounds of medium-security prisons,
which each have 200 SHU beds. More than 70 percent of the prisoners in the SHU are concentrated at Southport,

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Map of Extreme Isolation Beds Across New York State

Upstate

1040

Riverview 32

Bare Hill 32

Gouverneur 232

Clinton 48

Franklin 32

Cape Vincent 32
Watertown 12

Washington 32

Mohawk 48

Orleans 232

Wende

Collins 200
232

Auburn 83

34

Attica 102

Gowanda 48

Great Meadow 68

Mid-State 232

Albion 48

Cayuga 232

Livingston 32
Groveland 24

Marcy 32

Five Points 149

Elmira 54

Lakeview

Greene 215
Coxsackie 32

789

Ulster 32
14

Southport

Woodbourne
Sullivan
Shawangunk

Eastern 32
24

Green Haven

50

Downstate 36
24

Fishkill 284
Bedford Hills 24
30
Sing Sing

Map of SHU Cells Across New York State.
“DOCCS	Daily	Population	Capacity	Report	–	06/11/12,”	obtained	through	FOIL	and	on	fi	le	with	the	NYCLU.

Upstate and the SHU 200s. Finally, 29 additional minimum-, medium- and maximum-security prisons have SHU
cellblocks or SHU beds separated from the general prison population.14
The extreme isolation of prisoners such as Marcus and Adrian may vary slightly but is fundamentally identical in most
meaningful aspects. They are physically confined to a cell for 23 to 24 hours a day. They receive their meals through
their cell door. They may recreate for one hour a day in a small cage, no larger than their cell, enclosed by concrete
walls or heavy metal grating. They receive no educational, vocational or rehabilitative programming, and no transitional
services to help them prepare for their return to society – even when they are soon to be released. Their personal
possessions are strictly limited to legal materials and a few personal books and magazines. They are handcuffed and
escorted by corrections officers every time they exit their cells, which may not be for weeks or months.
Subjecting prisoners to extreme isolation raises serious moral, social, penological and economic concerns. Over the
last two decades, New York has employed extreme isolation on a massive and unprecedented scale. How New York
arrived at this state of affairs is explored in Section II, Building the Box. n

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II. BUILDING THE BOX
The Early Life and Death of Extreme Isolation
From 1821 to 1823, New York’s Auburn state prison experimented with extreme isolation, housing a group of
prisoners in individual cells “without any labor or other adequate provisions for physical exercise.”15 Alexis de
Tocqueville and Gustave de Beaumont, who toured Auburn during this period, reported:
This trial, from which so happy a result had been anticipated, was fatal to the greater part of the
convicts: in order to reform them, they had been submitted to complete isolation; but this absolute
solitude, if nothing interrupt it, is beyond the strength of man; it destroys the criminal without
intermission and without pity; it does not reform, it kills. The unfortunates, upon whom this experiment
was made, fell into a state of depression, so manifest, that their keepers were struck with it; their lives
seemed in danger, if they remained longer in this situation.
Both Beaumont and Tocqueville also challenged
the idea that extreme isolation could aid
rehabilitative efforts, noting that “this system,
fatal to the health of the criminals, was likewise
inefficient in producing their reform.” The
governor of New York subsequently pardoned 26
of those subjected to the experiment, 14 of whom
“returned after a short time after into the prison, in
consequence of new offences.”16
A handful of other states also experimented
with extreme isolation only to quickly reject the
practice.17 In 1890, the Supreme Court surveyed
the history of extreme isolation and concluded
that “experience demonstrated that there were
serious objections to it.” In particular, the court
described devastating psychological effects:

“A considerable number of the prisoners
fell, after even a short confinement, into a
semi-fatuous condition… others became
violently insane; others still, committed
suicide; … [those who stood the ordeal
better] did not recover sufficient mental
activity to be of any subsequent service
to the community.”

A considerable number of the prisoners fell, after even a short confinement, into a semi-fatuous
condition, from which it was next to impossible to arouse them, and others became violently insane;
others still, committed suicide; while those who stood the ordeal better were not generally reformed,
and in most cases did not recover sufficient mental activity to be of any subsequent service to the
community.18
By the turn of the 20th century, extreme isolation had largely ceased to be a significant feature of incarceration
in America.19

The Resurrection of Extreme Isolation in the United States
On October 22, 1983, prisoners at the United States Penitentiary (USP) in Marion, Ill., a federal correctional facility,
killed two corrections officers in separate incidents. The warden declared a state of emergency and placed USP
Marion on permanent lockdown status. For the next 23 years, all prisoners incarcerated at USP Marion were confined
to their cells for 23 hours a day.20
The lockdown at USP Marion prompted many states to construct or repurpose freestanding facilities entirely devoted
to the extreme isolation of prisoners.21 By 1991, Human Rights Watch reported that 36 states, including New York,
had constructed or repurposed facilities emulating USP Marion, while demonstrating “creativ[ity] ... in making the

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conditions particularly difficult to bear, at times surpassing the original model.”22 Today, at least 44 states have such
freestanding “supermax” facilities housing approximately 25,000 prisoners.23
Many states also expanded the number of extreme isolation units within lower-security facilities.24 Given these varied
housing arrangements, obtaining an accurate count of all prisoners confined to extreme isolation has proven elusive.
In 2006, the Commission on Safety and Abuse in America’s Prisons, a bipartisan committee of experts, reported
that the figure provided by the U.S. Department of Justice in 2000 – approximately 80,000 – was “just a fraction of
the state and federal prisoners who spend weeks or months in expensive, high-security control units [within lowersecurity facilities] over the course of a year, and it does not
capture everyone incarcerated in supermax prisons.”25

Beginning in the 1970s,
American penal culture and
policy witnessed the birth of a
newly punitive climate and the
rejection of rehabilitation as a
major goal of incarceration.

Why were so many states eager to embrace the USP Marion
model? The rate of incarceration in the United States began
to increase dramatically in the early 1970s. From 1973 to
1993, the U.S. prison population increased by 346 percent,
from roughly 204,000 to 909,000.26 This extraordinary
growth put tremendous pressure on correctional systems,
which began to experience overcrowding and attendant
management and control problems.27

Beginning in the 1970s, American penal culture and policy
also began undergoing dramatic changes that helped
support the expansion of extreme isolation. This period
witnessed the birth of a newly punitive climate and the
rejection of rehabilitation as a major goal of incarceration.28
The construction and operation of extreme isolation facilities became “politically and publicly attractive” – potent
“symbols of how ‘tough’ a jurisdiction has become.”29 And a new rhetoric about prisoners, and the need to house
them in extreme isolation, began to emerge. Prison officials depicted a “new ‘dangerous’ prisoner,” one “more
violent, more disturbed, more disruptive” – “the worst of the worst” – that had to be separated from the general
prison population.30
Such rhetoric was seldom supported by hard evidence. From the outset, policymakers failed to examine the link
between the exponential increase in the prison population and violence – and to scrutinize whether extreme isolation
was an effective response to such violence. Corrections systems failed to establish effective tracking mechanisms
to analyze the efficacy of extreme isolation, exemplified by the lack of basic data on how many prisoners are even
placed in such conditions. And political officials, who funneled millions to expand the use of extreme isolation, failed
to consider the net costs to society when prisoners subjected to these conditions returned home. The vast majority of
state prisoners do return to society; at least 95 percent will eventually be released.31

New York Embraces Extreme Isolation
New York epitomized the modern trend to expand extreme isolation. In 1991, the state converted Southport Correctional
Facility, a maximum-security prison opened in 1988, into a dedicated extreme isolation facility. Southport was
transformed from a prison that “offered extensive classes and clean hallways” to one where prisoners are “kept isolated,
shackled at the waist and wrists when allowed out of their 6-by-10 cells and made to spend their daily recreation hour
in newly built cages.” As part of its conversion, Southport “ended its vocational and academic classes” and emptied its
“instructional wing ... of chairs, tables, chalkboards,” which were sent to other correctional facilities.32
Prior to Southport’s conversion, New York used designated cellblocks in lower-security facilities to place prisoners in
extreme isolation.33 Southport was the first facility dedicated solely to housing prisoners in these conditions.
Between 1998 and 2000, New York constructed 10 additional facilities dedicated to extreme isolation, with the
combined capacity to house approximately 3,000 prisoners.34 Nine of these facilities were free-standing buildings –
called SHU 200s – located on the grounds of pre-existing medium-security correctional facilities.35 Each SHU 200

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Growth in New York State Prison Population
Number of prisoners from 1983-2003

80,000
61,736

60,000

54,895
44,560

40,000

38,647
33,809

30,951

66,750

64,569

69,647

68,185

69,108

70,044
71,466

70,112

66,748

67,395

65,197

57,862

51,232

40,842

35,141

20,000

0
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

By the mid-1990s, New York’s prisons were filled to 130 percent of their capacity. Statewide, the prison population, less than 31,000 in 1983, more than doubled by 1999, when more than 71,000 people were incarcerated in
New York prisons.
Inmates Under Custody at End of Calendar Year: New York State Department of Correctional Services 1950-2003, Correctional
Association of News York, Mar. 2012.

consisted of 100 double-occupancy cells. The 10th
facility was Upstate Correctional Facility, a stand-alone
prison with the capacity to house 1,200 prisoners in 600
double-occupancy cells.36
Many of the same factors underlying the national
movement toward extreme isolation were in play in
New York. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, New
York prisons experienced the growing pressures of
overcrowding. In 1983, when USP Marion entered
permanent lockdown, New York’s prison population
was 30,951. By 1990, it was 54,895, and by 1999, it had
reached a historic high of 71,466.37

Even as New York’s use of
extreme isolation was dramatically
expanding, a robust body of
scientific evidence had already
linked extreme isolation with grave
personal harm.

Non-violent drug offenders made up a large percentage of newly admitted prisoners. The Rockefeller Drug
Laws – a program of mandatory minimum sentences for drug offenses enacted in 1973 – coupled with intensified
street drug enforcement from the mid-1980s to the 1990s, led to a growing tide of drug commitments to state
prison.38 Annual drug commitments, which totaled 886 in 1980, surged to a high of 11,209 in 1992, and remained
above 8,000 until 2000. These commitments constituted approximately 45 percent of total state prison system
commitments from 1989 until 2000.39

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SHU Syndrome
Studies have demonstrated that in otherwise
healthy and mentally stable individuals, adverse
psychological effects manifest even after short,
defined periods in extreme isolation. In the mid1980s, psychiatrist Stuart Grassian studied a group of
prisoners living in extreme isolation in the “Special
Housing Unit” (SHU) of a Massachusetts prison.
He identified a variety of negative physiological and
psychological symptoms, which he called “SHU
syndrome,” exhibited by these prisoners. These
symptoms included social withdrawal; anxiety and
nervousness; panic attacks; irrational anger and rage;
loss of impulse control; paranoia; hypersensitivity
to external stimuli; severe and chronic depression;
difficulties with thinking, concentration and
memory; and perceptual distortions, illusions and
hallucinations.46 Other studies have documented
similar responses by prisoners housed in extreme
isolation.47 For people with pre-existing mental
health issues, studies have demonstrated that extreme
isolation can be devastating and result in further
mental deterioration.48

In the mid-1990s, New York also began punishing
violent offenders with harsher sentences. In 1995,
Governor George Pataki successfully ushered
passage of legislation increasing sentences for
violent offenders and abolishing parole for
individuals convicted of a second violent offense.40
Three years later, Pataki steered a bill through
the Legislature abolishing parole for individuals
convicted of a first violent offense.41 Thus, as the
population of non-violent drug offenders continued
to swell, New York also began imposing much
longer sentences for violent offenses. By the
mid-1990s, New York prisons were filled to “130
percent of their capacity.”42
The relationship between harsher sentencing and
the construction of extreme isolation beds in New
York reflected the national embrace of the punitive
penological model. In 1994, Congress passed
the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement
Act, which staked federal funds to states for new
prisons in return for enacting laws eliminating
parole for violent offenders.43 In 1998, the United
States General Accounting Office documented the
influence of federal grants on states’ decisions to
abolish parole for violent offenders; the grants
were a “key factor” in passing such legislation in
New York.44 Between 1996 and 2000, New York
received nearly $200 million in federal funding to
construct Upstate and the SHU 200s, which cost
roughly $238 million in total to build.45

Judicial Oversight and the Expansion of Extreme Isolation
Even as New York’s use of extreme isolation was dramatically expanding, a robust body of scientific evidence had
already linked extreme isolation with grave personal harm. But New York continued to embrace and sustain its use of
extreme isolation, even in the face of this evidence.
In these circumstances, our system of government provides that
individuals can turn to the courts to ensure that executive and
legislative action does not violate fundamental constitutional rights.
Indeed, the Supreme Court has affirmed that “[c]onfinement in …
an isolation cell is a form of punishment subject to scrutiny under
Eighth Amendment standards.”49 And yet, courts presented with
evidence of prisoner suffering and trauma in extreme isolation have,
for the most part, been unable or unwilling to effectively apply that
scrutiny to constrain its use.

By the turn of the 21st
century, New York had
constructed a massive
network of extreme
isolation cells.

Several factors have impeded meaningful judicial review of
extreme isolation. Beginning in the 1980s, the Supreme Court issued a series of rulings instructing lower courts
to grant enormous deference to executive officials operating corrections systems.50 At the same time, the Court
began requiring prisoners to meet difficult thresholds to prove constitutional violations. With respect to claims
challenging conditions of confinement under the Eighth Amendment, the Court has established an elusive

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standard.51 Finally, prisoners seeking to challenge conditions of confinement in federal courts face significant
procedural and legal obstacles under the Prison Litigation Reform Act, enacted by Congress in 1996.52 To date,
the few federal courts that have held extreme isolation to violate the Eighth Amendment have narrowly restricted
their holdings to those prisoners with serious pre-existing mental illness or who are prone to suffering severe
mental injury.53
By the turn of the 21st century, New York had constructed a massive network of extreme isolation cells. This
expansion was driven by a misguided response to prison overcrowding, fanned by political rhetoric, untethered to
evidence-based analyses and largely unchecked by the courts. Section III, Box Hits, explores how DOCCS currently
employs extreme isolation – who is subjected to extreme isolation, why and for how long. n

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III. BOX HITS
DOCCS separates prisoners for three reasons: to punish violations of prison rules (disciplinary segregation); to
isolate prisoners who pose a threat to the safety and security of the prison (administrative segregation); and
to shield vulnerable prisoners, such as those potentially targeted for violence in the general prison population
(protective custody).54
The overwhelming majority of separated prisoners are placed in extreme isolation for breaking prison rules
(disciplinary segregation). From 2007 to 2011, DOCCS placed prisoners in SHU cells more than 75,000 times; more
than 68,100 – roughly 90 percent – of those placements were for disciplinary reasons.55

How Violations of Prison Rules Lead to Extreme Isolation
Individuals sentenced to prison enter a strictly regimented environment where they must conform to an elaborate set
of rules. Corrections officials may discipline prisoners for violating these rules by levying a range of penalties, from
a simple reprimand to the progressive deprivation of privileges. In New York, the violation of many rules – from
the minor and non-violent to the disruptive and violent – may also result in a “sentence” of extreme isolation (what
prisoners call a “Box hit”) to one of New York’s roughly 5,000 SHU beds.
DOCCS regulations contain the “Standards of Inmate Behavior,” a list of more than 100 rules prisoners must obey.
These rules govern every aspect of prisoner behavior, from personal grooming (“an inmate shall not grow a beard
or mustache over one inch in length”) and eating (“an inmate shall not waste food items”) to intellectual stimulus
(“an inmate shall not possess literature or any other material which has been disapproved by the Media Review
Committee”) and personal interactions (“an inmate may
not provide legal assistance to another inmate without prior
approval of the superintendant”).56
Keeplock in Isolation
Particular rules operate as a disciplinary catch-all. For
example, Rule 106.10 states: “An inmate shall obey
all orders of department personnel promptly without
argument.”57 Thus, even a momentary lapse in obedience
can bring harsh consequences: Kevin once received 30 days
of keeplock for violating Rule 106.10 after continuing a
conversation with another prisoner after a corrections officer
ordered him to stop.58

Prisoners may also experience extreme isolation
as a result of being sentenced to “keeplock,”
a form of confinement that DOCCS imposes
as punishment for less serious disciplinary
infractions.59 Keeplock subjects prisoners to
23-hour lockdown; the prisoner may remain
confined to his ordinary cell within the general
prison population or be transferred to a block of

See It Online:
For the complete list of New York’s prison rules,
“Standards of Inmate Behavior,” go to
www.nyclu.org/boxedin.

keeplock cells within the same facility. Prisoners
sentenced to keeplock, however, may also be
transferred to the SHU to serve their keeplock
time, where they are subject to the same
restrictions as those sentenced directly to the

Whether a prisoner receives a punishment of extreme
isolation for breaking a prison rule depends on three
phases of DOCCS’ disciplinary process, which determine:
(1) the severity of an alleged rule infraction; (2) whether
a prisoner is guilty of the rule infraction; and (3) whether
a conviction warrants a punishment of extreme isolation.
The operation of each of these phases often differs on
paper and in practice.

SHU.60 From 2007 to 2011, DOCCS issued more
than 136,500 keeplock sentences.61 A January
2012 snapshot of the SHU population revealed
that 428 prisoners – roughly 10 percent – were
serving their keeplock time in the SHU.62

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Determining the Severity of an Alleged Rule Infraction
DOCCS regulations describe how corrections staff should respond to rule infractions. When staff believe a prisoner
has committed a rule infraction for conduct “involving danger to life, health, security or property,” they are directed
to submit a “misbehavior report” initiating a formal disciplinary process.63 DOCCS regulations counsel against
submitting misbehavior reports for “minor infractions, or other violations of rules and policies governing inmate
misbehavior, that do not involve danger to life, health, security or property.” Rather, DOCCS instructs staff to
respond to such misbehavior “by counseling, warning, and/or reprimanding the inmate.”64
Each misbehavior report contains a description of the alleged incident and a citation to the rule(s) allegedly
violated.65 A “review officer” at each correctional facility reviews all misbehavior reports and determines the “tier
rating” of the alleged rule infraction(s).66 Every prison rule has a predetermined range of tier ratings that may be
assigned to its infraction: (a) I to II, (b) II to III or (c) I to III. The review officer assigns a tier rating from this
predetermined range based on the severity of the infraction. The tier rating then determines the type of hearing
afforded the prisoner and the range of potential penalties the prisoner may receive if convicted at hearing. (See
centerfold, page 30, for an example of the tier rating process.)
Tier I infractions are the least serious; tier III infractions are the most serious. A prisoner convicted of an infraction
assigned a tier II rating may receive a sentence to keeplock, which can be served in the SHU.67 A prisoner convicted
of an infraction assigned a tier III rating may receive a sentence to keeplock or the SHU.68 Thus, infractions assigned
either a tier II or III rating may ultimately result in a punishment of extreme isolation. Since every rule has multiple
tier ratings, any rule infraction may potentially result in a punishment of extreme isolation – whether a prisoner is
housed in a minimum-, medium- or maximum-security facility.

Any rule infraction may
potentially result in a
punishment of extreme
isolation – whether a
prisoner is housed in a
minimum-, medium- or
maximum-security facility.

DOCCS regulations suggest that review officers assign tier I
ratings to less serious infractions and tier III ratings to the most
serious. Yet DOCCS provides no mandatory standards and little
detailed guidance on how review officers should assign tier
ratings to infractions in practice. Rather, DOCCS has chosen
to vest corrections officials with wide discretion in assigning
tier ratings. As a result, DOCCS permits corrections officials to
assign tier II and III ratings to alleged infractions that involve
non-violent misbehavior.

DOCCS has described tier III ratings as reserved “for the most
serious offenses, such as assaults on staff or other inmates.”69 But
many rules proscribing non-violent misbehavior have potential
tier ratings of III. For example, consider Rules 106.10 (“an
inmate shall obey all orders of department personnel promptly
and without argument”), 116.10 (“an inmate shall not lose, destroy, steal, misuse, damage or waste any type of State
property”), 109.12 (“an inmate shall follow all facility regulations and staff directions relating to movement within
the facility”) and 107.20 (“an inmate shall not lie or provide an incomplete, misleading and/or false statement or
information”).70 Each of these rules prohibits non-violent misbehavior, yet all carry potential tier III ratings that could
result in a punishment of extreme isolation.
In fact, DOCCS regularly assigns tier III ratings to these rule infractions in practice. From 2007 to 2011, DOCCS
assigned tier III ratings to these rule infractions and upheld the charges at disciplinary hearing the following number
of times: 106.10 – 35,095, 116.10 – 6,019, 109.12 – 4,008, and 107.20 – 3,788. The violation of Rule 106.10 alone
constituted roughly 15 percent of all upheld tier III charges over this period.71

Determining Whether a Prisoner is Guilty of a Rule Infraction
A prisoner accused of a tier II or III rule infraction receives a formal disciplinary hearing. At the hearing, the
prisoner, unaided by legal counsel, may respond to the charges and evidence, call (but not cross-examine) witnesses,

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Upheld Tier III Infractions Leading to Extreme
Isolation Sentences, 2007-2011
Rule 106.10, Failure to obey an order – 35,095 sentences

(15 percent of all upheld tier III charges)

Rule 116.10, Loss or destruction of state property – 6,019 sentences
Rule 109.12, Failure to follow all facility movement regulations – 4,008 sentences
Rule107.20, Lying, misleading, false information – 3,788 sentences
DOCCS tier ratings indicate the severity of infractions, which determines whether prisoners can be punished with extreme
isolation. Some rules, like Rule 106.10 (“an inmate shall obey all orders”), seem to encompass a broad range of misbehavior
and constitute a large subset of cited tier III infractions. From 2007 to 2011, infractions of Rule 106.10 accounted for 15
percent of all upheld tier III charges, reserved for the most serious infractions.
“DOCCS Disciplinary Charge File Analysis – Incidents Occurring between 01/01/2007 and 12/31/2011,” obtained through FOIL and on file
with the NYCLU.

and submit evidence or witness statements on his behalf.72 Prisoners found guilty may appeal the conviction to the
facility superintendent (tier II) or the commissioner (tier III).73
“My story was credible. I appealed ... to Albany. You can never
beat a ticket. The disciplinary hearings are unfair ... [T]he hearing
officers are friends with the COs.” – Donell‡

Disciplinary hearings often
boil down to the testimony
of a corrections officer
against that of a prisoner.

In practice, disciplinary hearings often boil down to the testimony
of a corrections officer against that of a prisoner. Hearing officers,
who are themselves DOCCS employees, may credit the testimony
of a CO over that of a prisoner.74 From 2007 to 2011, DOCCS held
more than 105,500 tier III disciplinary hearings. Nearly 100,000
– roughly 95 percent – of those hearings resulted in a conviction.75 In many of the disciplinary dispositions that
the NYCLU reviewed, hearing officers found prisoners guilty based solely on the misbehavior report and the CO’s
testimony while dismissing conflicting prisoner testimony.
“The hearing officer didn’t listen to the facts ... I’m not wrong, but [they] find me guilty ... We are incarcerated for a
crime. We are in here repaying that. We shouldn’t be punished in here with unfairness.” – Adrian
By placing greater weight on CO testimony than on prisoner testimony, DOCCS’ disciplinary process risks
erroneously convicting prisoners because of a CO’s mistake or animus towards a particular prisoner. Indeed, many
prisoners who spoke with the NYCLU identified instances where they insist they were erroneously convicted of a
particular infraction, even as they took full responsibility for committing other infractions. Errors in the disciplinary

‡

Prisoners’ communications are quoted verbatim (spelling and grammatical errors intact).

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process have severe consequences in a system like New York’s where a guilty conviction does not just result in a
reprimand or a loss of privileges but may result in a sentence of extreme isolation.

Determining Whether a Conviction Warrants a Punishment of Extreme Isolation
If a prisoner is convicted of an infraction with a tier II or III rating, he may be punished with extreme isolation.
Approximately 68 percent of tier III disciplinary hearings resulting in conviction also result in a sentence to
the SHU.76 As with tier ratings, DOCCS provides no mandatory standards and little detailed guidance on when
corrections officials should punish convictions with extreme isolation. DOCCS guidelines recommend penalties for
certain classes of offenses, but corrections officials are free to craft sentences according to mitigating or aggravating
circumstances, such as the prisoner’s prior record, the facility type and the nature of the infraction.77 Therefore,
DOCCS vests corrections officials with wide discretion to punish convictions for a broad range of misbehavior with
extreme isolation.
“My first ticket ever was for a fistfight in the yard. It was just a misunderstanding. I was a 20- year-old kid.
It was my first time in a max facility and I was scared out of my mind. I got six months.” – Kevin
DOCCS characterizes prisoners in extreme isolation as “disruptive, dangerous or violent,” whose isolated
confinement prevents their “assaulting inmates, attacking staff or endangering prison operations.”78 But in New
York, people can be placed in extreme isolation for non-violent misbehavior or a single violent altercation – such
as a fistfight in the recreation yard – despite no indication
they are a serious threat to prison safety and security. Even
DOCCS’ highest authority, Commissioner Brian Fischer, has
DOCCS provides no
acknowledged extreme isolation’s potential overuse.79

mandatory standards and
little detailed guidance on
when corrections officials
should punish convictions
with extreme isolation.

DOCCS did not disclose exactly how many people are sent
to the SHU for non-violent misbehavior. In December 2011,
the NYCLU requested from DOCCS, through the New York
Freedom of Information Law (FOIL), a breakdown of the
specific infractions resulting in SHU time, which would have
revealed the number of prisoners who receive SHU time for
non-violent misbehavior. At the time this report went to print,
nearly 10 months after the NYCLU’s initial FOIL request and
after repeated follow-up requests, DOCCS was still unable or
unwilling to produce this information. DOCCS’ inability to readily access or share data on the specific infractions
that lead to SHU time suggests it is not closely tracking its use of extreme isolation – including who it subjects to
extreme isolation, for what types of misbehavior, and for how long.
DOCCS was able to provide limited information on the broad categories of infractions resulting in SHU time. From
2007 to 2011, DOCCS held more than 68,000 tier III disciplinary hearings resulting in SHU sentences. Only 16
percent of those sentences were for infractions related to violent misbehavior, specifically assault and weapons.80

Inconsistent Box Hits
The substantial discretion afforded corrections officials in crafting SHU sentences is exemplified by several instances
uncovered by the NYCLU where prisoners received widely disparate SHU sentences, even when the underlying
circumstances were substantively similar. For example, Chris received a four-and-a-half month SHU sentence for his
first marijuana infraction; Trevor received a one-month keeplock sentence for the same offense. Chris, who received the
longer sentence, had not received any prior misbehavior reports for violent conduct, whereas Trevor had received prior
misbehavior reports for fighting. In another example, Kevin and Miguel, neither of whom had any prior misbehavior
reports, were each involved in a fistfight at their respective prisons. Kevin received a six month SHU sentence; Miguel
received a one month keeplock sentence.

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New York Extreme Isolation Sentence Length
Total Sentences 2007-2011

30,000

25,931
25,000

19,470

20,000

The average sentence was
roughly five months.

17,977

15,000

10,000

5,000

2,782

2,020
0

Less than 1 month*

1-3 months

3- 6 months

6 months- 1 year

1 year or more

From 2007 to 2011, DOCCS issued more than 68,100 SHU sentences. Of these, more than 20,700 – or roughly 30 percent
– were for six months or longer.81
“DOCCS Dispositions with SHU Sentences – 01/01/2007-12/31/2011: Length of SHU Sentence by Incident Year,” obtained through FOIL
and on file with the NYCLU.

Prisoners’ experiences suggest the regularity with which DOCCS uses extreme isolation to punish non-violent
misbehavior. According to DOCCS’ disciplinary records, John received six months in the SHU after a CO discovered
homemade alcohol and another person’s television set in his cell. Chris received three months in the SHU after a CO
discovered gambling chips and a list of prisoners who owed him chewing tobacco in his cell. Trevor received 45 days
in the SHU for tattooing himself.
Drug-related infractions can often lead to sentences in extreme
isolation.82 From 2007 to 2011, DOCCS held more than 21,000
tier III disciplinary hearings resulting in SHU sentences for drugrelated infractions. These hearings constituted roughly 23 percent
of all tier III disciplinary hearings resulting in SHU sentences
during this period.83
Roughly 90 percent of drug-related charges are assigned a tier
III rating.84 More than half of drug-related charges are for the
violation of Rule 113.24, which prohibits prisoners from using
or being “under the influence of any narcotics or controlled
substances unless prescribed by a health service provider.” In
fact, the violation of Rule 113.24 was one of the top five most
commonly upheld tier III charges from 2007 to 2011.85

Prisoners in extreme isolation
are offered virtually no
resources to break the habits
that may have brought them
to the SHU or extended their
SHU sentences.

DOCCS penalty guidelines specifically contemplate punishing prisoners with extreme isolation for alcohol and drugrelated infractions – up to three months for a first offense, three to six months for a second offense, and six to 12
months for a third offense. Corrections officials may, however, impose longer sentences at their discretion.86 Several
prisoners that communicated with the NYCLU received SHU sentences that exceeded these recommendations,

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The Unending Box Hit
“Once you get to Southport, it’s hard to get out. They keep us hostage.” – Tevin
While DOCCS is quick to impose extreme isolation in response to misbehavior in the general prison population, additional
punishment for misbehavior once a prisoner is in the SHU is even more swift and severe. Prisoners in extreme isolation
can earn additional disciplinary sentences that keep them in the SHU far beyond their initial SHU sentence. DOCCS
places no upper limit on the ultimate length of time that a prisoner may spend in extreme isolation.
Samuel has earned an additional two-and-a-half-years of SHU time since he arrived at Upstate, all for non-violent
misbehavior. For refusing to hand his food tray back to a CO, for example, he received an additional six months in
extreme isolation (see centerfold, page 30). Samuel is set to return to the general prison population in October 2012, more
than four-and-a-half years after he first arrived at the facility. Donell has received an additional seven months of SHU time
for two counts of “tampering with property”: He received a SHU sentence of one month for returning a broken razor to a
CO who was collecting used razors, and six months when garbage jammed his cell door.

even for their first drug infraction. For example, Chris received four-and-a-half months in the SHU for his first drug
infraction after testing positive for marijuana.
As the guidelines recommend, prisoners found guilty of multiple drug infractions often receive increasingly
longer SHU sentences. For example, Stephan, who received one month in the SHU for his first drug infraction

Age Distribution
New York SHUs

1,000
900

856

886

800

711

700
600
500

444

400

409

319

300

313

200
100

0

158
83

16-18

76

19-20

21-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

28

16

60-64

65+

New York’s SHUs house both very young and old prisoners, people that are particularly vulnerable to the harsh
conditions of extreme isolation.88 A January 2012 snapshot of the SHU population revealed that 402 prisoners were
20 or younger; 83 were 18 or younger. The snapshot further revealed that 278 prisoners were 50 or older – elderly, in
prison demographics89 -– including 44 who were 60 or older.90 According to the snapshot, roughly 1-in-6 SHU prisoners was younger than 21 or older than 49.
“Age by Facility for Offenders Housed in SHU – DOCCS Under Custody Pop. Jan. 1, 2012,” obtained through FOIL and on file with
the NYCLU.

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and three-and-a-half months for his second, received seven-and-ahalf months for his third – all for testing positive for marijuana.

Disability Advocates, Inc. Lawsuit and SHU Exclusion Law

Prisoners in extreme isolation are offered virtually no resources to
break the habits that may have brought them to the SHU or extended
their SHU sentences. They may not participate in any programming,
including substance abuse treatment. This prohibition holds true
even if that prisoner was enrolled in a rehabilitative program, such
as a substance abuse
treatment program, in the
general prison population
when he committed the
Bias may corrupt the
disciplinary infraction
that led to SHU time.
disciplinary process that

The number of people in extreme
isolation with mental health problems
would likely be greater if DOCCS was
not subject to an important limitation
on who it can place in the SHU –
prisoners diagnosed as “seriously
mentally ill.”96

leads to sentences of
extreme isolation.

When it comes to
substance abuse, many
prisoners report being
able to obtain illegal and
pharmaceutical drugs
while in the SHU and
many incur subsequent drug infractions while in the SHU. From 2007
to 2011, at Southport and Upstate alone, DOCCS upheld nearly 1,700
drug-related charges.87
Kevin, who received additional SHU time after testing positive for
marijuana at Upstate, has requested substance abuse treatment to help
him avoid future drug-related disciplinary infractions. In a letter to a
corrections counselor, Kevin wrote:
[T]his is my 4th dirty urine [and] it is evident that I have a
real drug problem and need help (I’ve asked for help once
before) and I firmly believe that by keeping me in “SHU”
is not going to help in any way, it’s only going to make
matters worst for me. So if at all possible may you please
help me! (I am sincerely begging you).
Consistent with similar observations by several prisoners about drug
use in extreme isolation, Kevin noted that using drugs keeps him “out
of trouble” in the SHU:
It keeps me calm. Instead of thinking about the present, I
reflect on family events, parties, family and friends. When
I’m sober, I’m bored, aggravated, and miserable.

Who is in the Box?
The DOCCS disciplinary system grants corrections officials wide
discretion to charge prisoners with infractions that can lead to extreme
isolation, to rely on the word of a corrections officer over a prisoner
during the disciplinary hearing and to punish convictions with lengthy
sentences to extreme isolation. Not surprisingly, the demographic and
statistical evidence illustrates that the SHU captures a wide swath of
prisoners, including individuals uniquely vulnerable to conditions

In 2002, Disability Advocates, Inc.,
the Legal Aid Society’s Prisoners’
Rights Project and Prisoners’
Legal Services of New York filed a
landmark lawsuit against DOCCS
and OMH alleging that prisoners with
mental illness were not receiving
adequate mental health treatment
in violation of the U.S. Constitution
and federal statutes.97 In particular,
the complaint highlighted how the
failure to adequately treat prisoners
with mental illness often resulted in
their placement in extreme isolation,
where they deteriorated further.98
In 2007, OMH and DOCCS agreed
to a settlement establishing major
improvements to the provision of
psychiatric treatment for prisoners
with mental illness, including
prisoners diagnosed as seriously
mentally ill serving disciplinary
sentences in extreme isolation.99
As the lawsuit wound its way through
the judicial system, a coalition of
former prisoners, family members,
advocates and lawyers – Mental
Health Alternatives to Solitary
Confinement – began pushing for
state legislation to end the use of
extreme isolation for prisoners with
serious mental illness. In 2008,
Governor Eliot Spitzer signed the
SHU Exclusion Law, which was
co-sponsored by Assemblyman
Jeffrion Aubrey and Senator Michael
Nozzolio. The law, which came
into full effect on July 1, 2011,
reinforces and expands upon the
settlement provisions pertaining to
prisoners with serious mental illness
in extreme isolation.100 At its core,
the law mandates the diversion of
prisoners with serious mental illness
from extreme isolation to units
operated jointly by DOCCS and OMH
whose purpose is therapeutic, not
disciplinary.101

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Racial Distribution

s
New York State vs. General Prison Population vs. Extreme
Isolation Population
70.0%
60.0%

59.0%

58.3%
49.5%

50.0%

White

40.0%

Black
Latino

30.0%
20.0%

23.2%
14.4%

24.6%

17.6%

24.7%
14.6%

10.0%
0.0%

New York State Population

General Prison Population

Extreme Isolation Population

A disciplinary system where government officials may act with substantial discretion creates opportunities for bias and
prejudice to influence who receives punishment. One manifestation of this may be the disproportionate number of black
prisoners in the SHU as compared to the overall prison population.
State population data from Census 2010. Prison population data from “Security Level and Facility by Ethnic Status, DOCCS Under
Custody Pop. Jan. 1, 2012,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU. SHU population data from “Table 3H: Race/Ethnicity
for Offenders Housed in SHU – DOCCS Under Custody Pop. Jan. 1, 2012,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.

of extreme isolation. These data also suggest that bias may corrupt the disciplinary process that leads to sentences of
extreme isolation.
DOCCS has identified 83 percent of New York prisoners as “substance abusers” in need of treatment.91 According
to a sampling of self-reporting data from 2007 to 2012 among prisoners housed at Southport, Upstate and the
SHU 200s, an average of 88 percent of men reported some form of substance abuse.92 These prisoners receive no
meaningful treatment and may incur additional SHU time for alcohol or drug-related disciplinary infractions.
The SHU also houses many prisoners with mental health problems. Data released by the New York State Office of
Mental Health (OMH) shows that in March 2012, more than 600 prisoners in the SHU – roughly 14 percent of the
total SHU population – were on the mental health caseload.93 (Roughly 14 percent of prisoners in the general prison
population were also on the mental health caseload.)94 Among prisoners in the SHU on the mental health caseload,
roughly 35 percent had been diagnosed with a major or serious mental illness.95
Policies are abstract. Punishments are concrete. Section IV, Life in the Box, goes inside the SHU, using the
voices of prisoners, their family members and corrections employees to bring life in extreme isolation fully and
vividly into focus. n

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Racial Tension in Extreme Isolation
The racial make-up of prisoners in the SHU contrasts particularly sharply with the racial make-up of SHU
corrections staff. For example, the corrections staff at Southport and Upstate is about 80 percent white, in marked
contrast to the SHU prisoner population at both facilities, which is about 12 percent white.102

Southport
Prisoners
(761 total)

Corrections staff
(430 total)

8 Other

1 Native American
3 Latino

93 White

66 Other

7 Black

189 Latino
353 White

469 Black

(Includes 2 “unknown”)

Upstate
Corrections staff
(516 total)

9 Other

1 Native American
1 Asian

Prisoners
(994 total)
121 White

95 Other

2 Latino
0 Black

273 Latino
417 White

586 Black

(Includes 5 “unknown”)

Prisoners of varying racial and ethnic backgrounds who communicated with the NYCLU consistently noted high levels
of racial tension between staff and prisoners. Many black prisoners reported the repeated use of virulent racial epithets
by corrections staff at Southport and Upstate. One black prisoner observed that corrections staff at Upstate “call you
nigger to your face quicker than anyone else.” Several Southport prisoners reported that staff use the prison’s internal
public address system to broadcast racially charged insults or jokes. One prisoner shared a joke he recently heard over
the loudspeaker: “What do a black person and a bicycle have in common? They both only work with chains on them.”
White prisoners also commented on the racially charged interactions between prisoners and corrections staff. One white
prisoner, who was sent to Upstate for a weapon, recalled, “When I was booked into Upstate ... on the way to my cell,
several COs asked me if I was ‘making weapons to stab niggers’ and made several ‘nigger’ jokes, which I had to continue
to endure for the rest of my stay there.” Another white prisoner at Upstate observed, “It sucks to be black in here.”

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I V. L I F E I N T H E B O X
The experience of extreme isolation is most keenly expressed through the first-hand accounts of the individuals who
endure it. From the effects of extreme isolation on the psyche and spirit to the wholesale culture of deprivation to the
challenges of effective medical and mental health care, prisoners’ lives are shaped and often scarred by their time in
extreme isolation. The complicated experience of visiting or working in the Box is not to be underestimated. Even
those who are not incarcerated feel its effects.

Isolation, Idleness, Violence and Suicide
New York’s 19th century experiment with extreme isolation linked these conditions of confinement with mental
anguish and pain.103 Recent experience has verified what New York discovered nearly two centuries ago: Extreme
isolation inflicts grave harm. In otherwise mentally stable individuals, adverse psychological effects manifest even
after short, defined periods in extreme isolation.104 These same conditions ravage individuals with pre-existing mental
illness, who may deteriorate tragically, sometimes to the point of self-mutilation and suicide.105 The experiences of
prisoners who shared their stories with the NYCLU vividly illustrate these findings.
Prisoners in extreme isolation live in a world of unrelenting monotony, marked by isolation and idleness, where all
extrinsic purpose and structure slowly unravels. When men in the SHU were asked to picture their lives in the general
prison population, many pointed to social interaction, activities and programming around which they structure their
time. Stephan misses “communicating with family, talking to other inmates, and playing chess.”§ Daniel, with more
than 20 years in and out of the Box, expressed even simpler desires: “I want to interact with others, see others. I want
to go to the yard or the shower. I want the liberty of walking down the company [gallery] so that I can feel human.”
“You could be in outer space.” – Daniel
By design, the SHU frustrates social interaction. Daniel described feeling like he is expected “to just sit quietly like
in a space capsule in a cell with very little human contact or cordial conversation.” Trevor shared that living locked
down in a cell has left him feeling “isolated, forgotten, like you don’t matter.” Kevin explained: “Nobody likes to be
alone. It’s not human nature. We’re social. When you take that away from a person it’s standing still, with nothing.
Nothing forward, backward, sideways. You just have you.”
The SHU also imposes upon prisoners a deeper and more profound isolation from the outside world. Prisoners in
the SHU may not make phone calls. Yet “there is nothing like talking on the phone to a loved one, it’s something to
give you a sense of normal,” Kevin said. Beyond the geographic challenges posed by the far-flung locations of New
York’s prisons, family visits are neither easy nor encouraged. Prisoners in the SHU must wear restraints – handcuffs
secured to a waist chain – and sit behind a physical barrier separated from their loved ones. Kevin described how a
friend who visited him at Upstate “couldn’t do nothing but cry” at the sight of him shackled and in a cage.
At times, extreme isolation strains relationships to the breaking point. Miguel described how the SHU has taken a
negative toll on his family:
Many of us have kids, bad enough we’re in a SHU ... but the visit floor has a gate between you and your
family. You can’t kiss, or hug your family ... A lot of our family and wives abandone or refuse to visit
us due to this which in turns mentally break us down and eventually leads to problems ... I’ve lost my
wife and haven’t seen my son due to this living condition.
Miguel described the one occasion that his wife and son traveled eight hours by bus to visit him. His son, who was 7
years old, couldn’t understand why he couldn’t touch his father. They have not come to visit Miguel again.
§

Prisoners’ communications are quoted verbatim (spelling and grammatical errors intact).

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This isolation from loved ones can be traumatic and hinder
rehabilitation; studies have documented that prisoners who sustain
contact with loved ones are less likely to recidivate after their
release.106 Daniel had no contact with family members during
the first 15 years of his incarceration, most of which was spent
in extreme isolation. He began receiving regular “support and
correspondence” from his sister after his mother’s death and
described the grounding effect of their communication: “I truly
believe that if it were not for her support coming when it did that
my disciplinary record would’ve deteriorated to such a degree that
to say I was uncivilized would be inadequate description.”
Without meaningful human interaction, prisoners in extreme
isolation have little choice but to focus on themselves. But many who
communicated with the NYCLU made clear that the SHU prevents
them from positively channeling this focus because they lack access
to educational, vocational or rehabilitative programming. Whatever
progress they might have been making in the general prison
population – towards earning a GED, learning a trade, or dealing
with substance abuse or anger management issues – essentially halts
upon placement in the SHU. Often, fragile gains are lost.
Many prisoners pass the time reading, writing or sleeping.109 If their
good behavior has earned the privilege of a pair of headphones, they
may also listen to a pre-selected radio station.110 But these activities
fail to stave off boredom, listlessness and torpor. Tevin, who spends
most of his day reading or exercising, said that he “doesn’t feel like
it sometimes” and ends up “just sitting there.” Trevor described
“reading what you’ve already read, re-reading,” finding it difficult to
concentrate. Daryl similarly reported that after a short period in the
SHU, his “motivation started to drain away,” and he “started to do
less and less” until he “stopped doing anything.” Adrian explained
constantly fighting sleep, “trying to stay awake.” Stephan described
succumbing to his lethargy, simply “try[ing] to sleep the day away.”
With little to do and nowhere to be, some prisoners describe time
collapsing in on itself. Weeks, months and years begin to bleed
together. The distinction between night and day becomes meaningless,
and strange and erratic sleeping patterns are commonplace.
Isolation and idleness corrode prisoners’ psyches. Some changes are
subtle, almost imperceptible given the nature of isolation, such as
withdrawal. Others are more obvious and frightening: the sudden
onset of anxiety or rage, or a rapid descent into depression. Virtually
every prisoner who communicated with the NYCLU reported
disturbing changes in themselves and in those around them. Many
fear these changes are permanent.
	
Some prisoners withdraw into apathy or indifference. Several family
members and friends note these changes. Adrian reported that his
aunt, after visiting him in the SHU, described him as “withdrawn,
less talkative, disinterested.” Trevor’s brother had a similar reaction.
Trevor called his brother after returning to the general prison
population from Southport. His brother said he noticed changes
in the way Trevor spoke and acted. Trevor saw in himself a slow

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Families, Inside and Outside
“The effects that SHU have aren’t
restricted to us confined in the actual
SHU. Our loved ones are somewhat
‘confined’ too and endure stresses which
at times may be more extreme than what
we prisoners endure.” – Adrian
Families and loved ones say they
experience a peculiar form of
punishment when they visit the SHU –
or when distance, economics and daily
responsibilities prevent crucial personal
contact. Extreme isolation facilities like
Southport and Upstate, which house
more than a third of New York’s total
SHU population,107 are hundreds of miles
from New York City and its suburbs, the
home communities of 60 percent of the
total prison population.108 Many family
members say they suffer sentences
along with prisoners, burdened by the
inability to change or improve their loved
ones’ circumstances.
Taylor Alonso’s son was sent to the SHU
for suspected gang involvement.
“What the family goes through – other
people are being sentenced without direct
involvement, i.e., the families,” Alonso
said. “My wife’s Parkinson’s [disease]
has flared, it’s through the roof, she can’t
even write a letter anymore. As for me, my
doctors put me on antidepressants so I
can try to make it through the day. I don’t
sleep, I’m awake all the time. That’s good,
though. I drive to [the prison in] Buffalo
and back [to Long Island] in a day, to visit.”
Visiting means metal detectors and long
waits to greet a loved one in a cage or
behind a glass barrier.
“You don’t get in right away,” said Lynn
Finley, whose son spent five months in
extreme isolation. “You can wait two hours
[to be screened]. I wear nothing metal,
nothing at all. I learned that the first time I
went up. I don’t wear earrings, underwires
– I usually wear an underwire bra – I don’t
want any problems at all.”
Finley described the chaos of waiting for
vending machines in the visiting room:
“Everyone’s in line for the food. … My
son is starving, he said to me, ‘get me
everything.’ For a mother to hear that,
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you’d hear. I get in the line – this
woman would stand there and take
out chicken after chicken, 10 of them!
People would yell at her, ‘what are
you doing?’ … People were angry she
was taking all the chicken, they were
afraid it was going to run out. It’s the
inhumanity of the whole thing, right
down to the chicken.”
Sade Jackson, a legal secretary and
church volunteer, visited her brother
at Upstate.
“I had the worst experience,” she
said. “I felt like I was treated like a
criminal. It was extremely upsetting.
I went through metal detectors, took
off my shoes and all that stuff, and it
was still ringing. They said, ‘go in the
bathroom, take off your bra.’ For a
woman – I felt violated, they were all
male corrections officers.”
Removing her brassiere didn’t silence
the metal detector. Next, Jackson said,
corrections officers began to examine
her hair.
“I wear a lace front, kind of like a wig,
with [metal] pins [to hold the hairpiece
in place]. I had to take it off. I was just
like, wow ... I felt humiliated. I wanted
to cry. I didn’t do anything to deserve
it. They use it like a power trip.”
Her sister Monet Jackson, a hospice
worker, visited their brother, too. She
negotiated the metal detectors and
waited for her brother.
“When I got there, I couldn’t touch
him,” she said. “He was in shackles
and in handcuffs. He had to eat with
handcuffs.”
“They take people in small groups
– they go through packages,
everything is very slow,” Finley said.
“You can’t bring anything in but your

driver’s license and money for the
vending machines. If you get there at
7:30 [a.m.], if you’re lucky, you’ll see
them [your family member] at about
10, 10:30. You wait in the room
until you’re called, you go through
screening devices, metal detectors,
then into the room with the cages
and vending machines. Sometimes
your inmate is waiting, most often
not. It’s really traumatic.”

their brother at Upstate, hasn’t seen
her son since 2006. A resident of
Warrenton, Ga., she could speak to
her son on the phone when he was
in the general prison population. Now
she cannot.
“He’s not able to call, he can’t call
anybody,” Watson said. “He pours
his heart out in his letters.” Since his
SHU bid began, Watson said, “he’s
more emotional. There’s a change
in him.” But he refuses medication

Alonso shared a story from his first
SHU visit. “My
son’s a big guy, 220
lbs, 6’ 4”,” Alonso
said. “He’s a Type
“They don’t treat them like
1 diabetic, and
human beings. I’d be the
he has ulcerative
colitis. The first trip
world’s most blessed mom if he
I was up, in the last
half hour, he started
comes out of solitary sane.”
to go into diabetic
shock, sweating
and shaking, asking
for his bipolar disorder despite a
for juice. I didn’t take any money
prior diagnosis, she said. “He says it
[inside, because] I was told I was only
leaves him disoriented, unaware of his
going to see him through glass. They
surroundings.”
wouldn’t let me go out [to my car] to
get money for orange juice. He would
“They don’t treat them like human
rather have gone into shock and have
beings” at Upstate, she said. “I’d be
another 15 minutes with us, you can
the world’s most blessed mom if he
see it in his eyes.”
comes out of solitary sane.”
Alonso’s wife, Patricia Trainer,
“Who would want to be locked up
expressed deep frustration with the
in one room for 365 days of a year
state prison system.
and not have any contact?,” Sade
Jackson asked. “We were designed to
“Who can sit in a box 23 hours a day,
either alone or with another man?
be social beings. It’s debilitating to be
How are you supposed to change?
alone that long. The thing he struggles
How do they correct you? They don’t
with more than anything is not having
do anything for you, they don’t give
easy access to his family, or his family
you any education. Prison infantilizes
having access to him.”
you. Nothing is given or forgiven. I
know he’s a knucklehead, but he
“They don’t even do this to animals,”
doesn’t deserve this.”
she said. “If I took my dog and locked
him into a room for a year, I would go
Pamella Watson, whose daughters
to jail. Why is it acceptable to do this
Sade and Monet Jackson visited
to human beings?”

distancing from his loved ones. He said, “I know I love [my brother], but now I put the focus all on me.”
Many prisoners experience the onset of anxiety in extreme isolation, sometimes catalyzed by “an intense fear of
walls closing in on you” or the distinct sensation of living in “a cage.” Marcus described his anxiety as stemming
from a “horrible ... caged feeling,” which would ascend until he “was about to have a nervous breakdown.” Daryl
described feeling like he was living “in a void of nothingness.” In this void, he found “his thoughts racing for no
reason” and was “a nervous wreck for no reason.”

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AN OPEN & SHU

The disciplinary process that led to a six month sentence in ex
This “misbehavior report” describes an incident that occurred at 8:17 a.m.
on June 3, 2011 involving Samuel, a prisoner at Upstate correctional
facility, a dedicated “Special Housing Unit” (SHU) prison with 1,040
extreme isolation beds. Prison regulations instruct all corrections officers
(COs) who witness “inmate misbehavior involving danger to life, health,
security or property” to submit a misbehavior report, which triggers
disciplinary action against the prisoner. Prisoners at Upstate receive all three
meals in their cells, delivered on trays by COs. A CO submitted this
misbehavior report after Samuel refused to return his food tray following
breakfast.

The CO alleges in the misbehavior report that Samuel has violated three prison
rules: failing to obey a direct order, interfering with an employee and failing to
comply with mess hall policies. A “review officer” at each facility reviews all
misbehavior reports and assigns a tier rating to the report based on the severity
of the underlying rule infractions. Tier I infractions are the least serious; tier III
are the most. The Department of Corrections (DOCCS) provides little guidance
on how tier ratings relate to rule infractions. For Samuel’s refusal to return his
food tray, the review officer assigned a tier rating of III, which DOCCS
describes as reserved “for the most serious offenses, such as assaults on staff or
other inmates.”

Prisoners in the SHU accused of certain misbehavior resulting in a tier III
rating may be immediately placed on a “restricted diet” for up to seven days
prior to the disciplinary hearing, which determines their guilt or innocence.
The “restricted diet,” commonly known as “the loaf,” is a brick of bread-andvegetable matter, which comes with a wedge of raw cabbage and water. For
withholding his food tray at breakfast, Samuel was placed on the loaf for 21
meals – from lunch on June 3 to breakfast on June 10. Samuel does not eat
the loaf because it leaves him “constipated for days.” Instead, he “drink[s]
plenty of water and fast[s].” He feeds the loaf “to the birds outside” his
recreation cage.

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EN & SHUT CASE

nth sentence in extreme isolation for refusing to return a food tray.
Samuel’s disciplinary hearing, at which he was found guilty of
failing to obey a direct order and failing to comply with mess hall
policies, occurred on June 14. Samuel refused to attend the
disciplinary hearing. According to Samuel, “the hearings are unfair
so I don’t care. The[y] need to be transparent, they don’t follow their
own rules, they need more guidelines.” Samuel was found guilty of
refusing to return his food tray, and punished with an additional six
months in the SHU. From 2007 to 2011, DOCCS held more than
68,000 tier III disciplinary hearings resulting in SHU sentences.
Only 16 percent of those sentences were for infractions related to
violent misbehavior, specifically assault and weapons.

According to the hearing officer, Samuel’s punishment was “to act
as a deterrent for any future misconduct which could result in a
more serious disposition.” But Samuel is not likely to be deterred by
this punishment. In his words, “they gave me so much Box time for
nonsense, I’ve become immune to it.” When it comes to withholding
food trays, Samuel echoed what the NYCLU heard from many other
prisoners in extreme isolation, “the only way you can see a area
supervisor sometime is to hold your tray refusing to give it back to
see the Sgt.”

Samuel has received an additional 30 months of SHU time since
arriving at Upstate in January 2008, all for non-violent misbehavior.
“COs escalate situations, escalate drama, find a reason to give you
tickets for little, simple things,” Samuel said. “They give tickets
because they are trying to justify the existence of this place . . . the
Box only winds a person up, the way they are treated and humiliated,
it gets to the point where they don’t care. After being in the Box for
so long, it don’t mean anything to him.”

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Forced Idleness
Many prisoners reported that they do not wish to remain idle, but that they are denied access to any educational,
vocational or rehabilitative programming in the SHU. Some prisoners may earn the privilege of signing up for in-cell
study packets – GED, substance abuse or aggression management – which consist of little more than materials handed
through the food slot, for prisoners to complete on their own.111
Marcus, who was 20 when he first arrived at Upstate, requested the GED in-cell study packet. During his first month at
Upstate, he received essay and math assignments, which he completed and returned. He never received any feedback on
these assignments. Marcus, who will be released in 2014, would “like to go to school” and hopes DOCCS can help him
with “outreach to colleges.” But he noted that “the Box keeps you away from all that.”
Many wait months simply to access the substance abuse or aggression management packets. Donell requested the
aggression management packet, but was informed he would have to wait more than six months. Marcus was quoted a
similar waiting period when he requested the substance abuse packet. Samuel requested both “a couple of times but
received no response.”

For many prisoners, anxiety is accompanied by severe mood swings, manifested by irrational and uncontrollable
outbursts of anger and rage. Daryl described his mood swings:

“[T]hey were kind of like the temper
tantrums I threw as a child. Raw &
helpless moments of overwhelming
& unchanleable emotions exploding
out of you. I couldn’t seem to function
properly & then I would get so annoied
with my bunkies that I would just
beat on them or scream at them &
afterward I would feel so horrible, like
some monster or something. I know
it wasn’t right but at the same time I
couldn’t control it either.”

[T]hey were kind of like the temper tantrums
I threw as a child. Raw & helpless moments
of overwhelming & unchanleable emotions
exploding out of you. I was anxious & overly
frustrated because I couldn’t seem to function
properly & then I would get so annoied with
my bunkies that I would just beat on them or
scream at them & afterward I would feel so
horrible, like some monster or something. I
know it wasn’t right but at the same time I
couldn’t control it either.
Kevin also felt that extreme isolation stirred up
a whirlwind of emotions: “All the emotions you
experience in 15 years, you experience in one day.”
Many prisoners said that they try to bottle up their
emotions but they eventually explode in dangerous
ways. Donell has found himself “snapping at others” in
“daily outbursts.” He “wasn’t like this before.” Donell’s
explanation: “Anger is built up and not released.”

Some men admit that extreme isolation has aggravated longstanding difficulties controlling their frustration and
anger. Marcus described himself as having “always had a trigger-snap mentality, but not so intense.” He discussed
developing “a hair trigger reaction to situations” in extreme isolation; the “littlest things” caused “a crazy adrenaline
rush, increased blood pressure, heart racing.” Justin admitted “I suffer from rage,” and that his emotions are “harder to
control in the Box.”
“Hostility is endemic to the SHU.” – Justin
The intense emotions that prisoners experience in extreme isolation have little outlet for release. In the general prison
population, when your mood is negative, Justin said, “you can take a walk and clear your mind.” In the Southport
SHU, “you take out your aggression ... on the gate,” standing by the cell door and arguing with adjacent prisoners or

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corrections staff. Tevin saw arguments erupt over “petty things;” “people go off, people you think you have a rapport
with, you really don’t.” Na’im similarly noted that “the smallest things set people off.” Adrian witnessed prisoners
“losing their social skills.”
When prisoners leave extreme isolation and return
to the general prison population, they often find
themselves trapped by the intense emotions and
uncontrollable impulses they developed while in the
SHU. As Donell put it, “population problems start in
the Box.” Daryl, who experienced anxiety, depression
and mood swings in the SHU, found his transition to a
maximum-security facility difficult:

“I’ve always been somewhat antisocial, but my confidence in myself
& my ability to communicate is
more challenged now than it has
been since I was a teenager. All I
know tho is I was fine in Attica &
then I went to Upstate & it seems
like part of me is still there.”

When I arrived here I was terror stricken for the
first two weeks, at least. That kind of behavior
is nothing like me at all. It’s when I got here
that I noticed how badly the box had effected
my charrecter. I’ve always been somewhat antisocial, but my confidence in myself & my ability
to communicate is more challenged now than it
has been since I was a teenager. My depression is pretty bad off too. All I know tho is I was fine in
Attica & then I went to Upstate & it seems like part of me is still there.

Marcus described his return to the general prison population in similar terms. After the extended lack of real social
interaction, the thought of “actually talking to people face-to-face” made him “paranoid.” When he did return to
general population, Marcus “noticed things were different.” He was “more ready to jump at the littlest things, such as
words,” and he couldn’t “hold a conversation without feeling anxious and paranoid.”
Donell expressed fear that his “outbursts of anger” were permanent: “When I go home, I don’t want to be acting like
I do in Upstate. I’m hoping I change back.” He said he realizes that these “outbursts of anger might cause you to go
back in.” But as Trevor, who is currently serving his seventh SHU sentence, said, the SHU has lasting effects. When
a prisoner returns to the general prison population, he said, “no-one knows what you’ve dealt with in the SHU.” If
some “guy disrespects you, instead of saying something, you attack him.”

Maxing Out
In some cases, a prisoner’s disciplinary sentence to the SHU eclipses the remainder of his entire prison sentence.
DOCCS requires these prisoners to serve the balance of their sentence in extreme isolation; every year, roughly
2,000 people are released directly from the SHU back to the community.112 Prisoners in the general prison population
nearing release undergo transitional programming, which assists with release plans and relevant documentation,
including a resume, cover letter and letters of reference. Prisoners in extreme isolation, however, are barred from any
transitional programming prior to their release.
Adrian will return home directly from the SHU in 2015. He wants to work in an office after his release, but he is
worried that won’t be possible. “I have the ambition, but no preparation,” Adrian said. “I thought the goals of DOCCS
was to help us ‘correct’ our wrongs. All they’ve done was lock many of us up in a cell. But the nightmare starts with the
realization ‘I’m going home from the Box’ lacking any transitional services of all sorts. Me personally, I read to keep my
mind busy & intellect growing! And I have a strong desire to never return to jail. But I need help from the ‘professionals’
that work for the state because it’s so obvious my ways aren’t quite the right ones.”
Tevin, who is serving a four-year prison sentence, will also return home directly from the SHU in 2014. He observed,
quite obviously, that he is “not prepared” to return to society.

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“Mentally, being here drains energy out of you. I feel like the walls are closing in on me. I get suicidal.” – Stephan
Confronted with long-term isolation and idleness, some prisoners succumb to depression. Daryl described careening
from anxiety to depression while double-celled at Upstate:
[M]y poor bunkie is going through hell in this cell with me. One minute I’m having an anxiety attack
and hes rubbing my back telling me to calm down and the next I’m depressed as all bloody hell telling
him listen I gotta make some incision on my arm to
releas the pressure. Depresion makes me irrational,
though. I can’t control that emotion when it comes
over me.
Every year, roughly 2,000 people

are released directly from extreme
isolation back to the community.

For Na’im, extreme isolation intensified his bouts of
depression. Na’im attempted suicide after two years at
Upstate. He recalled the sensation of “being in a cage
all day” and thinking “what do I have to lose – I ain’t
leaving the Box soon.” Overwhelmed by “a sense of
hopelessness,” he thought, “you just can’t take it anymore, don’t care what happens.” Na’im is “absolutely afraid”
that he might attempt to take his life again. Extreme isolation “makes
depression harder to deal with,” he said, because there is “nothing to do
to relieve stress.” In the SHU, depression just “builds up” until “you let it
out with violence,” he said.
“When I go home, I
Other prisoners in extreme isolation commit acts of self-mutilation or
self-injury, which constitute a violation of prison rules. Rule 123.10
dictates that “An inmate shall not inflict or attempt to inflict bodily harm
upon his or her person.”113 Prisoners who harm themselves in extreme
isolation – likely due to the mental anguish caused by such conditions –
may find themselves punished with additional SHU time.

don’t want to be acting
like I do in Upstate. I’m
hoping I change back.”

Daniel, who at 52 has spent more than two decades in and out of extreme isolation, has a long history of selfmutilation. He has used razors, staples, envelope clasps and cigarette butts to inflict pain upon himself. He described
the psychological toll the SHU has taken on him:
With so little to do your mind rots with thoughts that are uncommon or unnatural and you wonder where
the hell did that come from. It goes further than daily doldrums because a lack of any constructiveness
only contributes to destructiveness and the Prison System is designed to make a person like myself
and other unfortunate to self destruct become numb lose the sense of reality to the degree that any
commotion at all is better than vegetating by letting hours pass without nothing on your mind or will to
do anything.
Daniel has received 15 misbehavior reports for self-harm. The majority of these reports resulted in a formal
reprimand, but the most recent resulted in a four-month SHU sentence.

Two in a Box
“It’s two grown men in a small space.” – Miguel
Every day, roughly 2,250 men at Upstate and the SHU 200s wake up in extreme isolation with another prisoner, their
“bunkie.”114 Double-celled prisoners experience the same isolation and idleness, withdrawal and anxiety, anger and
depression as do prisoners living alone in the SHU. But double-celled, they must also endure the constant, unabating
presence of another man in their personal physical and mental space. The detrimental effects of housing two people
in a cell for 24 hours a day have been documented.115 The stories of double-celled prisoners provide a vivid and
disturbing human counterpoint.

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Cellmates must constantly negotiate a small and cramped
space of roughly 100 square feet – about the size of a
parking spot – that includes a toilet, open shower stall,
writing platform and bunk beds. The unrelenting lack of
privacy is the primary cause of tension, many double-celled
prisoners say, particularly while showering or using the
toilet. No curtain or barrier separates the shower from the
rest of the cell, forcing prisoners to expose themselves to
their cellmates while bathing. Similarly, no curtain separates
the toilet from the rest of the cell; a prisoner urinating
or defecating must do so in full view of, and mere feet
away from, his cellmate. Daryl described, with equal parts
amusement, irritation and disbelief, how one bunkie asked
him to stand in the corner and sing whenever the bunkie
used the toilet, both to mask sound and ease tension.

Double-celled, prisoners must also
endure the constant, unabating
presence of another man in their
personal physical and mental space.

The lack of privacy grinds down prisoners’ patience. Small
things that might normally go unnoticed suddenly become
pronounced and grating. Marcus vividly described the
pungent odor that permeated his cell when sharing the space
with cellmates close in age. He observed that young men in
their late teens and early 20s are still “going through changes,
hormones” that left the cell “stink[ing] from bad odors.”
Some prisoners express that the lack of privacy hinders
their ability to think. Kevin “need[s] solitude to get [his]
thoughts together,” but is constantly distracted by his
cellmate’s presence. For Miguel, this distraction disrupts
any rehabilitative process. He stated that “double-celling
makes it much more difficult to take personal responsibility
for your own actions” because you find yourself constantly
“reactive to your bunkie.”
Not surprisingly, many double-celled prisoners find it
nearly impossible to establish or maintain healthy, positive
relationships. Rather, these relationships are marked by
frustration and antagonism, often devolving into violence or
the constant threat of violence. Marcus, whose misbehavior
reports document no prior violence, shared that doublecelling resulted in several physical altercations. Sometimes,
he would “want to fight just because of the close space.”

Locked In: COs in the Box
Corrections officers in extreme isolation settings
are a study in contrasts: Authority figures, they
also perform menial tasks, such as delivering
food trays and mail, which can undermine
their ability to maintain control. Many say that
prisoners in the SHU take out their frustrations
on COs. Many also note that the job requires
adherence to a near-military code of honor – a
culture that is, in its own way, as hierarchal and
isolating as the prison culture they monitor.
“Overall, SHUs are more stressful to work,”
a retired CO, who served two multi-year
assignments at Upstate, wrote. “Inmates are
more dependent on officers in confinement since
the officers provide the feed-up trays to feed
them three times a day, give them requested
supplies and turn on the shower water, open the
rec pen doors, etc.”
Monsignor Dennis Duprey, who served as
chaplain at Upstate for six years and now leads
a church that includes COs and their families,
said COs struggle with the reality that they must
in some ways serve the people they’re assigned
to guard.
“I heard more than once, ‘I feel like I’m a waiter
to them,’ [because] everything that the inmate
gets has to be delivered by a CO – even their
laundry,” he said. “The position of the CO
changes. Some COs find it demeaning; they
have become a waiter to those they thought they
were guarding. That process of being demeaned
– COs are affected by the experience.”
“There are so many different noises, cat calls,
whistles, yelling, foul language worse than
anything you ever heard on the outside,”
wrote the retired CO, who lives near the New
York-Canada border. “Hearing the different
languages [prisoners speak] was a big eyeopener for a country boy who had never heard
much more than French from the Canadians in
the shopping malls.”
The SHU’s smell followed him home.
“You got used to the smell somewhat, but when
you got out, the smell was in your clothes and
hair,” he wrote. “It was nasty.”
COs and prisoners alike face constant scrutiny,
he wrote.
“Your first impression walking through Upstate
is how long the corridors are,” he wrote. “They
seem to stretch on for miles. All the gates are
controlled by one person. There were some 800

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He explained that “the littlest things cause people to bug out.”
Even if his cellmate “didn’t do nothing,” he would just get “so
pissed off.”
Tevin, a self-described “neat freak,” discussed his frustration
when his bunkies would “look in the mirror, as they brush
their teeth, leaving toothpaste speckz on the mirror & all over
the sink” or “blow their nose in the sink while washing their

“I was a happy-go-lucky guy when
I married my wife, but she tells me
over the years I became more serious.
Lots of officers have gotten divorced,
become drinkers or too rough and
bossy with their family. The job
changes you. You have to be on edge
all the time.”

face.” After “constantly cleaning up after them & respectfully
explaining that we both have to be mindful,” Tevin would
eventually “get physical.” For Tevin, double-celling is a process
of “built up irritation [that] leadz to provoked violence.”
Daryl experienced the unusual situation of double-celling with
someone he “consider[ed] a close personal friend,” but the
arrangement quickly unraveled:
To be clear, we did not fight for any other reason
than that we found we simply could not get along
while being locked together if locked 24 hours
in a cell. I was having my problems & he was
burdend by the fact that his wife had just died &
with both our moods being dark & depressing all
the time we didn’t mix well & after a few days I
ended up attacking him.
One of Marcus’s bunkies was a “good dude” who reminded
him of his brother. But Marcus still got “aggetated or annoyed
... when I [had] to share a shower day, shit while he [wa]s
awake, or when we work[ed] out because it smell[ed].”
Some prisoners said that when they sensed that violence with
their cellmate was imminent and asked corrections staff to
intervene, staff refused to take any action. Chris explained:
First off they put you in a cell with just about
anyone & you’ve got to just handle it. If you &
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video cameras recording everything inside and
out of the facility, so you always felt you were
being watched by Big Brother.”
One retired DOCCS staffer says that civilian
prison staff have to watch their backs because
trusted allies are few.
“I had to have two mouths and play it well,” he
said. “For security, I had to be an inmate-hater
to [prison staff], yet I played a different role
when dealing with the inmates. It was always a
balancing act.”
For another retired CO, the challenge wasn’t
balance but separation.
“There’s a thin line between officer and inmate,”
he said. “If they [prisoners] know they can rattle
you, you’re gone – and you lose control.”  
Two things that might help COs, Duprey said, are
more education and wider exposure to diversity.
“Going into working with this kind of population,
never having been further than 50 miles from
home in these multicultural facilities, they’re not
equipped to deal with it,” he said. “It’s easier to
become a hard ass, to put it plain.”
The retired CO wrote that his tenure at Upstate,
constantly on guard and in “serious mode,”
changed his personality.
“I was a happy-go-lucky guy when I married my
wife, but she tells me over the years I became
more serious,” he wrote. “Lots of officers have
gotten divorced, become drinkers or too rough
and bossy with their family. The job changes
you. You have to be on edge all the time.”
A third CO said officers know that inmates can
“get at them.”
“They know, I have to choose a side to maintain
my own safety,” he said.
The code of honor must be maintained by
inmates and COs alike.
“I have to behave a certain way, even if I don’t
believe in the culture,” he said.  
“You have to go along [with the culture],”
he said. “It’s brutal. It’s political. It’s not just
inmates. You have to be known to be ‘one of
us.’ What we do may not be 100 percent morally
comfortable, but it could be your life.”
“There is no neutral on either side,” he said. “The
blue has to stay with the blue.”

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Punished for Seeking Help
Time and time again, prisoners explained to the NYCLU that refusing to return their food tray was one of
the only ways to get corrections staff to address a particular problem or concern. Locked into their cells,
prisoners have few other options for summoning the attention of staff. Na’im described how he and eight other
individuals on his gallery refused to return their trays to gain the attention of a CO. They sought to alert the CO
that the “porter,” a prisoner on the gallery permitted to assist corrections staff, had refused to deliver food to
several men. In response, all nine prisoners were charged with disciplinary infractions, and Na’im received the
loaf for seven days.

tell us there is nothing they can do unless we are fighting & bleeding. So basically to avoid a problem &
fight the CO want you to fight & then we get tickets.
When violent outbursts occur, prisoners can receive additional SHU time. Daryl’s physical altercation with his friend
resulted in a misbehavior report – and two more months in the Box.

Culture of Deprivation
The deprivation of many basic necessities, including food, exercise and basic hygiene, compound the psychological
effects of life in the Box. Such deprivations occur routinely as a matter of formal DOCCS policy – as additional
punishment in the SHU – and as informal practice.

See It Online:
DOCCS restricts what prisoners can have in the SHU, from the number of underwear to the size of a bar of soap. For
a list of property prisoners are allowed in the SHU, go to www.nyclu.org/boxedin.

DOCCS policy officially sanctions the denial of basic necessities. DOCCS regulations permit “deprivation
orders” stripping prisoners in the SHU of any “specific item, privilege, or service … when it is determined that
a threat to the safety or security of staff, inmates, or State property exists.”116 No “item, privilege, or service” is
exempt from a deprivation order, including “minimum
standard items,” such as showers, recreation, clothing,
bedding and paper (including toilet paper).117
Consistent with DOCCS’ overall disciplinary
philosophy, which permits corrections officials
to punish a wide range of offenses with extreme
isolation, DOCCS grants corrections officials
comparably wide discretion to impose deprivation
orders. Deprivation orders must be reviewed daily
and renewed every day after seven days. However,
DOCCS regulations do not cap the total amount of
time such orders may ultimately span.

No “item, privilege, or service” is
exempt from a deprivation order,
including “minimum standard
items,” such as showers, recreation,
clothing, bedding and paper
(including toilet paper).

At Southport, where prisoners are escorted from their
cells for shower and recreation, deprivation orders stripping prisoners of these privileges are not uncommon. But
Southport returns privileges one at a time, a week at a time. For example, Adrian was denied showers, recreation,
cell-cleaning supplies and haircuts after a tier III misbehavior report for altering state property (his state-issued
trousers) and having a weapon (the trousers’ “sharpened zipper”). After one week, Adrian received cell-cleaning
supplies; after two weeks, haircuts; after three weeks, showers; after four weeks, recreation. All in all, Adrian

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Recreation Restraints
For their first 30 days in the facility, prisoners at Southport must wear handcuffs secured to a waist
chain during recreation. After a minimum of 30 days without a disciplinary infraction, they may attend
recreation without restraints. But if they incur an additional disciplinary infraction, they lose this privilege
until they have again accumulated 30 days without a disciplinary infraction.123
Not surprisingly, restraints make it almost impossible to engage in even the small modicum of exercise
that the recreation pen permits. Tevin observed, “only thing I could do is stand up in the cage. There is
no way of working out period.” Stephan similarly noted, “The only thing we could do during that hour
is walk back and forth in the cage so I am not able to exercise.” Restraints make recreation particularly
onerous in the winter. Being “force to stand out there handcuff around the waist with cuffs on my wrist,”
Stephan explained, “I can’t put my hands in my pockets to warm up.”

observed, “the entire process last for roughly 28 to 30 days.”
Daniel received a deprivation order stripping him of clothing (save what he was wearing), bedding and towels
after receiving a tier III misbehavior report for having property in an unauthorized area, refusing a direct order and
obstructing visibility. Daniel had covered the window of his cell door with his shirt, in his words, “for the purpose
of getting the area supervisor to appear.” After Daniel removed his shirt from the window, corrections staff entered
his cell where they discovered towels hanging on a line from the end of his bed. Daniel’s deprivation order lasted
approximately a week.
“The only thing Upstate works for is losing weight. It’s a starving diet.” – Kevin
DOCCS also authorizes the deprivation of nourishing, edible food as a form of punishment. Prisoners in the SHU
who commit certain disciplinary infractions may be punished with a “restricted diet,” or what is commonly known as
“the loaf.”118 The loaf is a “football-sized” brick of baked bread-and-vegetable matter, which the prisoner receives,
with a wedge of raw cabbage and water, for every meal over the course of the punishment. Na’im, who received “the
loaf” for one week, described it as a “hard, big piece of bread” that “you have to break … with your hands.” Donell
described it as “something you’d feed a bird or dog.”
Samuel, who has received the loaf at Upstate, does in fact, “feed it to the birds outside,” from his recreation pen. But
he doesn’t actually eat it. He and others choose to fast because they say eating the loaf results in painful constipation.
Tevin, who has received the loaf several times, said that after eating it once, he “never touched it again,” living only
on “water! literally for 7 days all 3 meals.”
DOCCS regulations acknowledge the serious dangers of food deprivation by requiring that prisoners on the loaf
receive a medical examination “within 24 hours of the commencement of the restriction and daily thereafter during
the period of restriction.”119 Yet several prisoners reported that these
examinations did not occur. Tevin, for example, observed: “There is
rules before being placed on the loaf, I’m suppose to see the nurse, so
DOCCS also authorizes
she could check my vitals, weight, to make sure I’m healthy enough for
the loaf. None of that took place on my behalf.”
the deprivation of

nourishing, edible food
as a form of punishment.

Just as minor misconduct can result in SHU time, minor misconduct in
the SHU can result in the loaf. Prisoners in the SHU may receive the
loaf as punishment for throwing food, committing “unhygienic acts”
or refusing to return a food tray. Prisoners may also receive the loaf
as punishment for “refusing to obey a direct order at the time of meal
distribution,” covering virtually any misbehavior even if unrelated to food or hygiene. Finally, prisoners may receive
the loaf for any infraction if they have already been sentenced to the SHU for the remainder of their prison sentence.120

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A person who receives a tier III misbehavior report in one of the circumstances above may also receive the loaf
for up to seven consecutive days prior to the disciplinary hearing (“pre-hearing restricted diet”). Thus, the mere
allegation that a prisoner has committed a particular infraction can trigger punishment even before he has been found
guilty at the disciplinary hearing.121
For refusing to return a Styrofoam cup, Tevin was put on the loaf for seven days prior to his disciplinary hearing.
In Tevin’s words: “I refused to give it up, so I could have a cup to eat my oatmeal out of or my cold cereal,
or drink water out of.” At the hearing, Tevin received an additional two days of the loaf – and two months of
additional SHU time.
The denial of food also occurs as a matter of unwritten policy. Many prisoners experience the informal
deprivation of food when a CO distributing food trays passes their cell without delivering their meal, an
unwritten practice universally known as a “drive-by.” (More subtly, some COs deliver covered trays – visible
on security cameras – that carry no food under the cover.) Hector described an extreme experience, where COs
deprived him of food for several days:
Sometimes if the guard it is angry with the inmate do not give it the eat and put him under starvation. I
personally already suffered those kind of violations and mistreatments. One time some of those guards
did not feed me for four days and after a sergeant take care of that matter and made them to feed me
those guards depriving me of food two more days.
Many men also consistently reported that COs deprive them of their opportunity for “recreation.” These deprivations
occur both as a matter of official policy (as the subject of a deprivation order) as well as unofficial sanction.
“There is no rec. You just go from one cage to another.” – Daryl
Some prisoners refuse to participate in recreation because of the harsh environment of the recreation pens, which
prisoners and COs alike describe as “human kennels.”122 Inside the pen, prisoners are surrounded by concrete
walls or heavy metal grating, obstructing an open view of the sky. They are empty, barren spaces, smaller than
the SHU cell itself.
Prisoners describe recreation as frustrating – there is little to do but pace – and terrifying. Marcus said that whenever
he set foot in the recreation pen, he was assaulted by a cacophony of “guys screaming like crazy people.” Na’im
described recreation pens filled with men “yelling and screaming about nothing,” which he concluded was “a product
of the SHU.”
Even as they experience the deprivation of basic necessities, prisoners in extreme isolation may also face threats
to their physical safety. Prisoners at Southport reported that incidents of staff-on-prisoner violence were common.
Many incidents occurred while prisoners were being escorted to shower or recreation, the primary points of contact
between staff and prisoners at Southport. Adrian witnessed COs assault his neighbor as they returned him to his cell:

“ Use Butter ”
DOCCS restrictions on prisoners’ possessions in extreme isolation force some men to request medical
assistance for simple personal care. For example, several prisoners reported requesting ointment for dry
skin, a minor but pervasive problem, particularly in the winter. Na’im requested ointment for his lips,
which he described as “cracked to the point of bleeding.” He recalls the nurse responding, “We don’t give
... ointment here,” and recommending he drink water. “They’re basically saying because I’m in SHU I
can’t receive ... ointment,” he said. Na’im resorted to “us[ing] margarine we get with our meals” as an
emollient. Chris suffered a similar problem with his nose, which he described as “really dried out” with
“open sores.” When he requested ointment during sick call, the nurse recommended he drink water. Chris
persisted and asked to see a doctor. The doctor’s response: “Use butter.”

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[S]till cuffed and chained being pushed into his cell from behind by officer [redacted] and followed by
officer [redacted]. At which point they started to beat him up. A number of other officers came and the
beating continued for a number of minutes. Finally a few sergeants arrived all action stopped.
Some Southport prisoners forgo recreation entirely in order to limit the potential for conflict with staff that could
escalate into violence.124 Na’im explained why he chose not to participate in recreation:
I have not been outside since my arrival and I have no intention of going to rec before my SHU release
date. I’ve seen to many individuals get jumped by staff and receive extra SHU time just because. To
avoid that I stay in so I can stay out of their way and leave when I’m supposed to.
The combined effects of extreme isolation and deprivation prompted many prisoners to express a desire for mental
health counseling and treatment. In the SHU, however, meaningful treatment, like so much else, is elusive, if not
altogether absent.

Denied When Needed Most: Medical and Mental Health Care
Studies have documented the culture of medical and mental health neglect that often pervades correctional
environments of extreme isolation.125 The provision of meaningful medical and mental health care in extreme
isolation is made more difficult by barriers to confidentiality.126 Prisoners recounted these realities to the NYCLU and
detailed some of the consequences.
Prisoners in extreme isolation who have a medical problem, whether minor or serious, may not leave their cells to
meet with medical staff. Instead, they must alert staff by submitting a “sick call slip” or, in an emergency, notifying
a corrections officer. They must then wait until a member of the medical staff, accompanied by a CO, comes to their
cell door. Once medical staff arrives, the prisoner must explain his problem through the locked cell door, sometimes
huddling or crouching at the food slot and speaking loudly or shouting. Samuel described the situation as, “all
medical care thru a door yelling back and forth.”
“You got the correction officers standing in front of the cell listening to you speak to the nurse
about your medical concerns.” – Justin
Prisoners have described staff passing by their cells even when they have submitted a sick call slip. Donell wrote this
grievance, which was denied, describing this experience:
On March 14, 2012, I filled out a sick call for March 15th morning sick call rounds. The description of
the sick call I stated ‘I’ve been having a lot of sharp chest pains, I’ve been trying to deal with it but it
seems like its getting worst & sometimes its hard for me to breath.’ When RN [redacted ] … did sick
call rounds she stoped at my neighbor cell to give him his meds & kept walking. I tried telling her I
signed up for sick call & she totally ignored & didn’t acknowledge my statement.
Several people reported that unless they stand right at the cell door when the nurse arrives, the nurse will pass,
without speaking to them.
Neglect is also the dominant theme of prisoner accounts of mental health care in extreme isolation. Some prisoners
arrive in extreme isolation with pre-existing mental health diagnoses for which they must continue to receive
counseling and treatment. Many others seek counseling and treatment while confined in the SHU. Whether receiving
or seeking mental health care, prisoners consistently described the prevailing sensation of being “brushed off” by
mental health staff.
Prisoners with mental illness who are on the “mental health caseload” go on regular and confidential “call-outs” to
meet with a social worker and a psychiatrist. Even these prisoners, however, describe serious difficulty receiving
appropriate attention.

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At Southport, several people described their interviews with the social worker as “short conversations.” Trevor, who
suffers from depression and paranoia, sees a social worker every two to three weeks. Trevor said the conversations
consist of little more than two questions: “How are you?” and “Are you thinking of suicide?” He observed, “Short of
attempting suicide one has to flip out and go to an outside source to get anything done.” Trevor did attempt suicide
during a prior bid at Southport after he failed to receive the mental health care he felt he needed. For his suicide
attempt, he received a misbehavior report and two additional months in extreme isolation at Southport. Reflecting on
the suicide attempt, Trevor said: “It’s as though I am being forced to act out before they get up to anything – then they
ask stupid questions like ‘why did you do that?’ This place is not built for [mental health] and we should not be here.”
Stephan, who also suffers from depression and paranoia, sees a
social worker every six weeks. He described the conversation as
lasting a “maximum of 15 minutes.” He noted that every time
he attempts to discuss his mental health problems, the response
is a “brush off.” In March 2012, Stephan attempted suicide. He
explained that his paranoia was getting increasingly worse; it
seemed as if “the chains getting tighter for rec, more shit-talking
from COs, COs using racist slurs, playing with my food.” He
concluded, “They are going to kill me anyway, might as well do it
myself.” Stephan was placed on suicide watch at another facility
for a few days before he was transferred back to Southport.

At Southport, prisoners
meet with a psychiatrist via
teleconference – commonly
referred to as “doc in a box.”

Interviews with a psychiatrist occur even less often than with social workers. At Southport, prisoners meet with a
psychiatrist via teleconference – commonly referred to as “doc in a box” – which further attenuates the relationship
between mental health professional and patient. Na’im, who suffers from depression and has attempted suicide,
“sees” the psychiatrist once every three months. He observed that it was “hard to open up to a TV screen.” Trevor,
who sees the psychiatrist every 90 days, similarly observed, “Video-conferences are non-personal and allow OMH
doctor’s (and [OMH] as a whole) to dismiss inmates at any point and there is nothing the inmate can do about it.”
Aside from the roughly 600 prisoners in the SHU who are on the mental health caseload,127 prisoners who are not
on the caseload, but who experience a mental health problem while in the SHU, must submit a written request or
flag down a staff member on rounds. As in the medical context, confidentiality is nil: The prisoner must discuss his
mental health problem within earshot of COs and other prisoners, provided there is an opportunity to speak with
mental health staff at all. A number of prisoners at Upstate described long delays, sometimes of a month or more,
before a request to speak with mental health staff was answered.
Several prisoners said that even when they caught the attention of a staff member, the ensuing exchanges were
unproductive. Marcus tried several times to describe his feelings of anxiety, frustration and anger to mental
health staff. He said that he found staff “don’t look you in the eyes” or “roll their eyes, look down the hall,
act like they’re not listening.” He had hoped to have a “one-on-one conversation with someone where I could
express my feelings” and receive “help finding different ways to deal with things.” He eventually gave up trying
to receive help.
Daryl’s story, which documents sustained efforts to access mental health treatment in the SHU, is also typical of what
others report. Two weeks after arriving at Upstate in November 2010, Daryl wrote a letter to OMH requesting mental
health services. He described his feelings as “either wanting to explode for no reason or lay down and cry.” He could
not concentrate and felt he was deteriorating daily.
In mid-December, Daryl’s first meeting with a mental health staff member went poorly. Daryl described having to
yell through the door, his words reverberating around his cell. He explained that he had a history of mental health
issues, including ADHD, and wanted to be able to focus, particularly on his studies. He felt the staff member was
“evasive” and “mocking” and that “OMH was trying to talk me out of thinking I needed treatment.”
From December 2010 to March 2011, Daryl repeatedly wrote to OMH requesting assistance. He received no response.
He continued feeling like a “nervous wreck” and that his life had “no substance, nothing to grasp onto.” On March 17,

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2011, he flagged down a mental health staff member. He asked to see a doctor and to be placed on medication. Daryl
recalled the staff member responding, “There is nothing wrong with you, get away from the door.”
Following this meeting, Daryl began writing many letters, to the Upstate OMH unit chief, to DOCCS officials and to
prisoners’ rights advocates, explaining his desire to receive mental health services. On May 31, 2011, Daryl wrote to
the Upstate OMH unit chief:
I ... am asking you once ‘again’ for your help in aiding me to
receive mental help. My conditions is getting wors as time gos by
& I have no way to ‘help myself’ with this matter. All im asking
“I[t] seems like we’re
for is a chance to be heard & receive treatment for my mental
all just caged animals
ailments. On top of the fact that I have ADHD. I also have a
learning disability. How am I suposed to make any progress? If
to these people & if we
somebody in your unit would actually listen to me I would have a
suffer, so what.”
chance to get better. My agitation & depresion at [OMH] failure
to help me in anyway have already driven me over the edge
twice now & I’ve now been in two fist fights. I have not been this
adgitated or been in any fist fights prior to comming to this facility & the longer I go without help the
wors I get. Please help me.
On June 21, 2011, Daryl’s cellmate wrote to the Upstate OMH unit:
I am not a doctor but I do know for a fact because he is my bunkie that not only do we discuss alarming
incidences in his past, it is more than obvious that Daryl needs help right now. You even motioned to me
through the locked cell door that Daryl is not quite right, and I nodded back in agreement.
What I really do not understand is that he (Daryl) most definitely seems to ‘want and need’
psychological help and you also apparently agree however, ‘no’ help is being afforded or offered to him
(Daryl) by Upstate CF or DOCCS.
On August 23, 2011, in a letter to an attorney who had been assisting him in trying to obtain mental health services at
Upstate, Daryl stated:
All I know is what im feeling & all I can do is relay that to the people who are supposed to be
professionals. But the vibe im getting is that they just don’t give a fuck. I[t] seems like we’re all just
caged animals to these people & if we suffer, so what. I am an emotional & passionate person & im in
physical & emotional pain 24 hours a day. So how do you think I take being treated like a dog? I live
this insanity every day. Theres empty promises of help just around a corner that never comes into view.
Well im telling you now that I am a defeated man. The prison system has won. They broke me. I’m
broken & defeated & all I want to do now is go to sleep. No pain, no insanity ... just blissful eternal rest.
A few days later, Daryl attempted suicide. n

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V.

THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOX

New York has become trapped inside a Box of its own design.
Over the past two decades, New York has spent hundreds of millions of taxpayer dollars building and operating a
vast network of extreme isolation cells – without a comprehensive accounting of the impact of extreme isolation on
prison safety, its effects on incarcerated people and corrections staff, or the costs when prisoners held in extreme
isolation return to the general prison population or to their home communities.
New York’s abuse of extreme isolation represents a catastrophic distortion of an essentially acceptable practice.
Separating violent or vulnerable prisoners from the general prison population is an important last-resort option for
corrections officials. In New York, however, two decades of using extreme isolation as a one-size-fits-all disciplinary
response has corrupted the legitimate use of prisoner separation
beyond all recognition. New York’s use of extreme isolation as
punishment is inhumane, regressive and counter-productive. It
Corrections officials in other
harms prisoners and corrections staff, while undermining, rather
than promoting, prison and community safety.
states have dramatically

reformed their use of extreme
New York’s decades-long use of extreme isolation makes
ending the practice appear difficult or impossible. But there
isolation while maintaining
is ample guidance to help New York move towards humane
and improving prison safety.
and effective evidence-based corrections practice: Corrections
officials in other states have dramatically reformed their use
of extreme isolation while maintaining and improving prison
safety. In addition, international human rights bodies and legal scholars are reaching the consensus that extreme
isolation inflicts grave and potentially irreparable harm, and that its use is no longer legally defensible. Reflecting
this consensus, groups like the American Bar Association have recommended the abolition of extreme isolation and
promulgated standards properly constraining the use of prisoner separation.

With these guideposts in mind, New York must take immediate steps to end its use of extreme isolation: New York
must (1) Adopt stringent criteria, procedures and safeguards for separating prisoners; and (2) Audit the population of
prisoners in extreme isolation.

Findings
Finding No. 1: New York’s Use of Extreme Isolation is Arbitrary and Unjustified.
The NYCLU found that extreme isolation is too frequently used as a disciplinary tool of first resort. Corrections
officials have wide discretion to impose lengthy periods of extreme isolation as a disciplinary sanction for a wide
range of misbehavior, including minor and non-violent disciplinary infractions. The substantial discretion afforded to
corrections officials means the SHU sweeps in many prisoners, including individuals – such as juveniles, the elderly,
and people with mental health issues and substance abuse problems – uniquely vulnerable to conditions of extreme
isolation. Such discretion also permits bias to corrupt the process for determining who receives extreme isolation as
punishment, as suggested by the disproportionate number of black prisoners in the SHU.

Finding No. 2:  Extreme Isolation Harms Prisoners and Corrections Staff.
The NYCLU’s study confirms what New York discovered nearly two centuries ago and what numerous scientific
studies have concluded since: Extreme isolation causes grave harm.

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Prisoners who communicated with the NYCLU reported experiencing some combination of apathy, lethargy, anxiety,
depression, despair, rage and uncontrollable impulses. These anecdotal reports are consistent with the robust body
of scientific evidence demonstrating that in otherwise healthy individuals, isolation causes measurable cognitive and
emotional impairments, even over short and defined periods of time. These impairments inflict serious emotional and
psychological pain on prisoners. Prisoners who are double-celled face the added, constant pressure of co-existing in
confinement with a total stranger, violating norms of personal privacy and basic human dignity.
The NYCLU also found that the emotional and psychological harm experienced by prisoners in extreme isolation
was compounded by the formal and informal deprivation of basic necessities, including food, exercise and basic
hygiene. At the same time, the NYLCU found that prisoners buckling under the emotional and psychological weight
of isolation and deprivation often lacked access to
adequate medical and mental health care.

Prisoners buckling under the
emotional and psychological weight
of isolation and deprivation often
lacked access to adequate medical
and mental health care. Over the
course of the NYCLU’s study,
several prisoners attempted
suicide or seriously contemplated
taking their lives.

Vulnerable prisoners, particularly those with mental
illness, reported greater harm. Over the course of the
NYCLU’s study, several prisoners attempted suicide
or seriously contemplated taking their lives. Several
others had previously attempted suicide or engaged in
self-harm while confined to extreme isolation. Again,
these accounts are consistent with scientific literature
documenting the deterioration of prisoners with mental
illness in conditions of extreme isolation.

For corrections staff, working in extreme isolation had
lasting negative consequences, including persistent
discord and stress that permeated their lives even outside
the workplace. Staff reported that the SHU relegates
them to performing menial functions, undermining
their ability to maintain authority and increasing the
likelihood of conflict. Moreover, gaps in basic education and training hamper the ability of staff to respond effectively
to prisoners living in the difficult environment of extreme isolation. An atmosphere of distrust in the SHU creates a
parallel culture of isolation among corrections staff, who fear retribution by isolated prisoners and potential exposure
by peers. This distrust discourages staff from seeking help for their own mental health and emotional concerns and
from intervening on behalf of prisoners.

Finding No. 3: Extreme Isolation Decreases Prison and Community Safety.
The NYCLU found that extreme isolation negatively impacted safety within the SHU. Consistent with the scientific
literature, prisoners described how the psychological effects of extreme isolation resulted in uncontrollable outbursts
of anger, rage and aggression against other prisoners and corrections staff. In particular, the practice of double-celling
prisoners – some of whom were ostensibly separated from the general prison population for violent behavior –
increased the risk of additional violent behavior between cellmates.
Vulnerable prisoners also reported that extreme isolation caused particular harms that led to decreased safety inside
the SHU. Prisoners with mental illness reported severe emotional and psychological consequences, including selfharm and attempted suicide. Prisoners, including those with substance abuse problems, reported access to illegal and
pharmaceutical drugs in the SHU, even as they were denied access to substance abuse therapy or treatment. Several
prisoners noted that their personal drug use, particularly marijuana, increased while in extreme isolation in an effort
to ease the intense emotional and psychological toll of living in the SHU.
The NYCLU also found that many of the negative effects of extreme isolation persisted when prisoners returned
to the general prison population. After long periods in extreme isolation, prisoners reported that social interactions
were difficult and challenging. They further found it difficult to control their emotions, reacting aggressively and
violently to situations that would not previously have provoked such a response. Corrections staff similarly noted that

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prisoners returning from the SHU to general population often struggled to respond appropriately to minor stresses or
avoidable confrontations.
Finally, the NYCLU found that extreme isolation increased the potential for negative outcomes when prisoners return
to the community. Extreme isolation results in the complete cessation of any rehabilitative activity. Many prisoners in
the SHU reported progress in educational or vocational programming in the general prison population, but found those
gains abruptly halted by their transfer to extreme isolation. Prisoners who were going to be released to the community
directly from the SHU reported that their inability to access any programming – including transitional services that
prepare prisoners for re-entry – left them feeling less equipped to return home and significantly increased their fear of
reverting to behavior that resulted in their incarceration.128

Alternatives: Reconsidering Extreme Isolation Across the United States
New York is not alone in its unjustifiable use of extreme isolation. Across the United States, prisons and jails abuse
extreme isolation. Several states, however, have recently undertaken a critical analysis of their use of extreme isolation,
resulting in dramatic reductions in the number of prisoners held in these conditions without jeopardizing prison safety
and security. These reforms provide a clear road map for rethinking the use of extreme isolation in New York.
The recent experience of three states is instructive. Mississippi,
following a successful American Civil Liberties Union lawsuit,
formed a task force in 2006 to evaluate the population in
extreme isolation and the rationale for their placement there.129
In Maine, a grassroots political campaign urging reform of the
state’s use of extreme isolation resulted in a year-long study
commissioned by the state Legislature in 2010.130 In 2011, the
Colorado Legislature similarly ordered an independent review
of the state’s use of extreme isolation.131
Each of these states came to the conclusion that they were
grossly overusing extreme isolation. Each responded by
dramatically reducing the number of people confined in such
conditions. In Mississippi, Deputy Commissioner Emmitt
Sparkman explained:

Many of the negative effects
of extreme isolation persisted
when prisoners returned to
the general prison population.
Extreme isolation increased
the potential for negative
outcomes when prisoners
return to the community.

If you had talked to me before we started our project to reduce the use of segregation, I’d have told
you that the majority of offenders in our long-term segregation were dangerous and a threat to staff and
offender safety. But when we looked at their cases, we saw that many of the people we were holding
in segregation were not a threat. They started with minor violations, were put in segregation, and
continued with disruptive – but not violently disruptive – behavior.132
Mississippi ultimately transferred roughly 85 percent of people in extreme isolation back to the general prison
population.133
In Maine, the legislature-sponsored study recommended sweeping reforms to the state’s use of extreme isolation,
including dramatically reducing the number of men subjected to these conditions.134 Commissioner Joe Ponte,
appointed in 2011, supported the study’s recommendations. Within his first few months as commissioner, Ponte
reduced the population in extreme isolation by 70 percent.135
In Colorado, the legislature-sponsored study also reached the conclusion that the state was overusing extreme
isolation. In particular, the study noted that only about 25 percent of prisoners had been placed in extreme isolation
for injuring other prisoners or staff.136 As a result of the study, the Colorado Department of Corrections began
reducing the population in extreme isolation. It has currently transferred more than 30 percent of the prisoners in
extreme isolation back to the general prison population.137

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Each state reformed its use of extreme isolation without adverse safety and security consequences. In Mississippi,
Deputy Commissioner Sparkman noted, “when we started moving people to lower security levels, we found that
there was no increase in violence.” Moreover, for those individuals who remained in isolation, the Department of
Corrections “gave them more freedoms” and saw, as a consequence, “a huge decrease in violence.”138

In Maine, limiting the use of
“segregation to the more violent
offenders [had positive results;]…
all of our data show us that the
situation actually has improved
and not gotten worse.”

Sparkman also observed that reducing the use of
extreme isolation had “positive effects on staff too,” by
“improv[ing] their work conditions.” He noted that in
extreme isolation, “you typically have two-on-one escorts
and use restraints, and there are continuous searches –
and that’s a drain on staff.” With fewer men in extreme
isolation, Sparkman concluded, “there’s much less stress
on staff.”139
Maine also experienced a decrease in violence, both in
the general prison population and among the people who
remained in isolation, as Commissioner Ponte observed:

We had to measure the outcomes. Did we increase inmate violence? And every measure we’ve had,
first in segregation – the acting out, the use of chemicals, the use of force, use of restraint chair –
those numbers have dropped significantly, so segregation is a better place. And then we took those
measurements and looked at them in population – inmate assaults, staff assaults, use of force – did they
increase after we limited the use of segregation to the more violent offenders? All of our data show us
that the situation actually has improved and not gotten worse.140
Similarly, Colorado has not reported any increase in violence or other disruptive activity.141
The finding that reducing the population in extreme isolation has a neutral or positive effect on levels of prison
violence is supported by experiences in other corrections systems. An inquiry by the Commission on Safety and
Abuse in America’s Prisons, a bipartisan committee of experts, concluded that the increasing use of extreme isolation
“is counter-productive, often causing violence inside facilities.”142 The Commission cited to evidence suggesting
“diminishing returns in safety,” including a study of corrections systems in Arizona, Illinois and Minnesota, which
concluded that extreme isolation had little to no effect on
lowering overall violence.143 The Commission also cited to a
study that suggested that corrections officers who work in extreme
isolation “are more likely to be assaulted.”144 The Commission
Mississippi, Maine and
noted that while “[i]t may be that segregated prisoners ... pose a
Colorado have also
greater threat to officers ... it may also be true that harsh living
conditions in segregation only exacerbate those tendencies.” It
experienced significant
concluded that extreme isolation “is not the only option” and that
economic savings as a result
“dangerous prisoners can be safely managed without isolating
them in locked cells 23 hours a day.”145
of reducing their use of

extreme isolation.
Mississippi, Maine and Colorado have also experienced
significant economic savings as a result of reducing their use of
extreme isolation. In Mississippi, the dramatic reduction in the
number of prisoners in extreme isolation allowed the state to
completely shutter its dedicated extreme isolation facility, saving roughly $5.6 million a year.146 Colorado’s reforms
will allow the state to close one dedicated extreme isolation facility, saving Colorado taxpayers $4.5 million in fiscal
year 2012-13 and $13.7 million in fiscal year 2013-14.147

Maine also anticipates savings from the state’s reforms. Because prisoners in extreme isolation require additional
supervision, reducing that population enables the state to use staff more efficiently, lowering overtime costs. Whereas
overtime costs were between $1,800 and $2,000 per two-week pay period per officer before the reforms, Commissioner
Ponte stated: “Now they’re running between $400 to 500 in a pay period. It’s a substantial reduction.”148

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I nter n ati o n a l H u m a n R i g hts a n d Extr em e Iso lati o n i n th e U n ited States
Treaties ratified by the United States are binding under the Supremacy Clause of the U.S. Constitution: “[A]ll treaties
made ... under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state
shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding.”153 The
following is a summary of the key treaties containing provisions governing the treatment of prisoners and the human
rights bodies that monitor their implementation:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR): The ICCPR is an international human rights treaty
that provides a range of protections for civil and political rights. Together with the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the ICCPR is part of the
International Bill of Human Rights. The ICCPR obligates state parties to respect the civil and political rights of
individuals, including the right to life and human dignity; equality before the law; freedom of speech, assembly and
association; freedom of religion; freedom from torture; and due process and fair trial. The United States ratified the
ICCPR in 1992; 167 countries have ratified the ICCPR to date.
Human Rights Committee (HRC): The HRC is a body of independent experts responsible for issuing interpretive
guidance on the ICCPR and monitoring its implementation by ratifying countries. The HRC publishes its
interpretation of ICCPR provisions in the form of “general comments.” State parties are obligated to report to the
HRC every four years; the HRC examines each report and addresses its concerns and recommendations in the form of
“concluding observations.”
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT): CAT is an
international human rights treaty that obligates state parties to prohibit and prevent torture and cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment or punishment. The United States ratified CAT in 1994; 151 countries have ratified CAT to date.
Committee Against Torture: The Committee Against Torture is a body of independent experts responsible for issuing
interpretive guidance on CAT and monitoring its implementation by ratifying countries. State parties are obligated
to report to the Committee every four years; the Committee examines each report and addresses its concerns and
recommendations in the form of “concluding observations.”

The Vera Institute of Justice, an independent non-profit that conducts research and analysis of criminal justice
systems, has similarly concluded that reducing the use of extreme isolation can benefit states. Through its
Segregation Reduction Project, Vera is working to demonstrate “that it is possible for states to save money and
achieve better outcomes by significantly reducing the numbers of prisoners held in segregation without jeopardizing
institutional safety, and to create a model that can be adapted for use in many other U.S. jurisdictions.”149 Vera is
currently working with state corrections agencies in Illinois, Maryland, New Mexico and Washington to assess and
reduce their use of extreme isolation.

Extreme Isolation is Legally Indefensible
Even as a growing number of states are undertaking a long-overdue, evidence-based analysis of their use
of extreme isolation, international human rights bodies and legal scholars are reaching the consensus that
the separation of violent or vulnerable prisoners should be used sparingly and under stringent controls and
safeguards. Guidance from these sources makes clear that New York must radically reform how and when it
separates prisoners.
New York is subject to international human rights standards contained in treaties ratified by the United States.
The United States is a party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), which
contain provisions specifically applicable to the treatment of prisoners.150 Both treaties prohibit torture and
cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.151 In addition, the ICCPR further requires state parties to
treat prisoners “with humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the human person” and to establish
rehabilitation as the “essential aim” of incarceration.152

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The Human Rights Committee (HRC) has found that conditions of solitary confinement may amount to cruel, inhuman
or degrading treatment or punishment, in violation of ICCPR Article 7.154 The HRC has specifically observed that
solitary confinement in the U.S. may violate the terms of Article 10, by incarcerating prisoners “in general conditions
of strict regimentation in a depersonalized environment.”155 The Committee Against Torture has similarly noted that
the practice of extreme isolation in U.S. prisons may violate that treaty by constituting “cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment or punishment.”156

International human rights
authorities are unanimous that
solitary confinement should be
an exceptional measure imposed
as a last resort, for as brief a
period as possible.

The United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture, an
independent human rights expert, recently concluded that:
Given its severe adverse health effects, the use
of solitary confinement itself can amount to acts
prohibited by article 7 of the International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights, torture as defined in
article 1 of the Convention against Torture or cruel,
inhuman or degrading punishment as defined in
article 16 of the Convention [against Torture].157

International human rights authorities are unanimous that
solitary confinement should be an exceptional measure
imposed as a last resort, for as brief a period as possible. International human rights authorities have also called for
the blanket prohibition against solitary confinement for particular vulnerable populations, including juveniles and
those suffering from mental disabilities.158
These conclusions are echoed by mainstream legal scholars in the United States, including the largest association of
American lawyers, the American Bar Association (ABA). In its Standards for the Treatment of Prisoners, the ABA
recognized that:
Some dangerous prisoners pose a threat to others unless they are physically separated. But such
separation does not necessitate the social and sensory isolation that has become routine. Extreme
isolation is not about the physical protection of prisoners from each other. It is a method of deterrence
and control – and as currently practiced it is a failure.159
The ABA’s standards call for a complete abolition of conditions of extreme isolation.160 The standards also
include a strict set of safeguards and protocols to ensure that prisoners are only separated when absolutely
necessary, based on a demonstrable need for separation,161 and that separation is “for the briefest term and
under the least restrictive conditions practicable.”162 The standards acknowledge that special care must be taken
whenever separating juveniles and prisoners with mental illness,163 and that no prisoner with a serious mental
health illness should ever be separated for longer than 30 days.164 These basic principles and protections mirror
those recommended by other legal scholars and experts, including the Commission on Safety and Abuse in
America’s Prisons165 and the ACLU’s National Prison Project.166
International human rights bodies, legal scholars and corrections officials in other states have concluded that the
separation of violent or vulnerable prisoners should occur sparingly and under tight controls. To date, federal
courts applying U.S. constitutional standards have accorded state corrections officials using extreme isolation an
extraordinary amount of deference – deference that has contributed to the harmful use of extreme isolation across the
United States. Courts must re-examine these conclusions, especially in light of the growing body of scientific and
academic scholarship demonstrating that extreme isolation inflicts grave harm upon all prisoners and has a potentially
detrimental effect on prison safety and security. New York’s systemic misuse of extreme isolation cannot indefinitely
elude judicial review. New York should take immediate action to implement humane, effective and sweeping reforms.

Recommendations

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Violent and vulnerable prisoners can be separated from the general prison population without extreme isolation. In
New York, however, extreme isolation and prisoner separation have become inextricably intertwined. Under New
York’s current regime, separating a prisoner – for reasons capricious or substantial – entails subjecting that prisoner
to punishing physical and psychological deprivation.
New York must end its use of extreme isolation. This goal can be achieved by two practical steps: (1) adopting
stringent criteria, procedures and safeguards for prisoner separation and (2) auditing the current population of
prisoners in extreme isolation.

Recommendation No. 1: Adopt Stringent Criteria, Procedures and
Safeguards for Prisoner Separation.
New York must adopt clear and objective standards to ensure that prisoners are separated only in limited and legitimate
circumstances, for the briefest period and under the least restrictive conditions practicable. To achieve this objective,
New York standards must incorporate the following major principles drawn from the ABA, ACLU’s National Prison
Project, Commission on Safety and Abuse in America’s Prisons and international human rights standards:
Use clear and objective criteria consistent with the limited and legitimate uses of separation: New
York must adopt standards and procedural protections that ensure that a prisoner is separated only when
officials have proven through specific and demonstrable evidence that the prisoner: (1) is chronically
violent or assaultive, (2) presents a serious escape risk or (3) otherwise poses a serious ongoing threat to
prison safety and security or whose personal safety is at risk, while in the general prison population.167
Create individualized plans for separated prisoners and conduct periodic reviews of prisoner
separation: Whenever a prisoner is separated, an individualized plan should be developed, which
includes an assessment of the prisoner’s needs, a strategy for correctional officials to assist the prisoner
in meeting those needs, and a statement of expectations for the prisoner to progress toward fewer
restrictions and eventually return to the general prison population based on the prisoner’s behavior.
A prisoner’s separation must be periodically reviewed to evaluate the prisoner’s progress under the
individualized plan and to determine whether the prisoner continues to meet the criteria for separation.
This review must include an ongoing evaluation of any harm the prisoner is experiencing as a result
of the separation. If at any point it is determined that separation is no longer necessary or threatens the
physical or mental health of the prisoner, it should be immediately terminated.
Account for prisoners’ vulnerability when deciding whether separation is appropriate: When
determining whether separation is appropriate, the particular characteristics of the prisoner and the
potential effects of separation on that prisoner must be taken into account. DOCCS must give special
attention to vulnerable populations, such as juveniles, the elderly, prisoners with mental illness or
developmental disabilities, prisoners with substance abuse problems, monolingual non-English
speakers, and prisoners with mobility, visual and hearing disabilities. It may never be proper to separate
particular types of vulnerable prisoners. Certainly it is true that, as separation is currently practiced in
New York, juveniles and persons with mental illness should be categorically barred from the SHU.
Establish a centralized, high-level and multidisciplinary body to review prisoner separation: The
decision to separate a prisoner according to the criteria above should be reviewed by a centralized body,
appointed by the commissioner, which includes qualified mental health professionals, counselors and
community supervision staff.
Ensure that conditions of separation are the least restrictive possible: When prisoners are separated,
the conditions of confinement should be the least restrictive possible. Meaningful human interaction
and mental stimuli should not be stripped away. Pre-existing mental health treatment, substance abuse
treatment, educational and vocational classes, and other rehabilitative programming should be continued
whenever possible. Prisoners’ rights to adequate and confidential medical and mental health services
should never be compromised. The practice of punishing prisoners with the deprivation of basic human
necessities – food, recreation, hygiene – should be abolished. Double-celling should never be used in
situations where a prisoner has been separated from the general prison population for violent behavior

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or potential vulnerability.
Provide for transition when separation is discontinued: When separation is no longer deemed
necessary, the prisoner should transition back to the general prison population in a manner that best
prepares the prisoner to successfully reintegrate. If a prisoner will still be separated at the date of release
from prison, the prisoner must receive transitional programming and be transferred to a less restrictive
setting well in advance of release.

Recommendation No. 2: Audit the Population of Prisoners in
Extreme Isolation.
Adopting stringent criteria, procedures and safeguards for prisoner separation will ensure that DOCCS’ future
use of separation is appropriately constrained. But a significant number of prisoners currently in the SHU should
never have been separated in the first place. Even in those limited cases where a pre-existing SHU sentence may
have been initially appropriate under the criteria outlined above, the need for separation may have long since
passed. Thus, New York should conduct a comprehensive, transparent audit of the current SHU population,
including the following steps:
Establish an independent audit committee: New York should appoint an independent multidisciplinary committee to audit DOCCS’ entire SHU population. This audit should identify which
prisoners in extreme isolation do not qualify for separation consistent with the criteria outlined in
Recommendation No. 1. DOCCS should transition these prisoners back to the general prison population
and reduce the number of SHU beds accordingly.
Ensure that audit process and results are transparent: New York’s use of extreme isolation has
been facilitated, in part, by the dearth of publicly available information about its use. The audit process
and its results should be made publicly available. In addition, DOCCS should collect and publish data
on a quarterly basis reflecting statistical and demographic information on the prisoners who have been
separated from the general prison population, for what reasons and for how long.168
Reinvest financial savings back into DOCCS: New York has asked DOCCS to accomplish critically
important public services – maintaining safe prisons and ensuring positive outcomes when prisoners
return to the community – with far too few resources for far too long. DOCCS should retain control
over any financial savings that accrue from reforming New York’s use of extreme isolation so that it can
reinvest those funds in programming and staff. n

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EPILOGUE
New York’s use of extreme isolation exemplifies the costly mistakes that have afflicted other aspects of American
criminal justice policy over the last few decades: Laws based on rhetoric and assumptions instead of evidence and
analysis; policies hyper-focused on punishment at the expense of rehabilitation, to the point of compromising public
safety; politics that discredit the humanity of those who commit crimes, sanctioning treatment that conflicts with our
fundamental values and essential human rights.
Prisons are institutions remote from public view, rendering prisoners particularly vulnerable to mistreatment and
abuse. They are “persons who most of us would rather not think about ... [b]anished” to a “shadow world that only
dimly enters our awareness.”169 If prisons are opaque, the SHUs are virtual black boxes. It is no surprise, then, that
the confluence of misguided approaches to criminal justice has manifested itself most demonstrably in the SHUs.
The mistakes we have made in subjecting so many to extreme isolation now offer us a critical opportunity. The
NYCLU hopes this report, documenting the complex human experience in New York’s SHUs, will engender
serious debate and ultimately lead to reform of extreme isolation. If we can bring light into the Box and fix the
darkest corners of our prisons, we can surely replicate that success – using humane and effective evidence-based
approaches – in other parts of our criminal justice system. n

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ENDNOTES
1	

“DOCCS Daily Population Capacity Report – 06/11/12,” obtained through the New York Freedom of Information Law
(FOIL) and on file with the NYCLU (reporting 55,969 prisoners under DOCCS custody). The NYCLU’s original FOIL
request and documents produced by DOCCS are available online at www.nyclu.org/boxedin.

2	

Paul Guerino, Paige M. Harrison and William J. Sabol, Prisoners in 2010 (Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, 2011)
24 (reporting 25,481 prisoners released from New York state prisons in 2009 and 25,365 prisoners released in 2010).

3	

The Price of Prisons: What Incarceration Costs Taxpayers, Vera Institute of Justice, Jan. 2012: 8, 10.

4	

“DOCCS Daily Population Capacity Report – 06/11/12,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.

5	

DOCCS operating costs broken down by facility as of March 3, 2011, obtained through the New York State Assembly
Committee on Correction and on file with the NYCLU.

6	

“DOCCS Dispositions with SHU Sentences – 01/01/2007-12/31/2011: Number of SHU Sentences by Year and Original
Length of Sentence,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.

7	

“DOCCS Dispositions with SHU Sentences – 01/01/2007-12/31/2011: Length of SHU Sentence by Incident Year,”
obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.

8	

“DOCCS Summary of Inmates Released 01/01/2008-12/31/2011 Statewide from SHU,” obtained through FOIL and on file
with the NYCLU.

9	

See, e.g., Jeanmarie Evelly, “Solitary Confinement on the Rise at Rikers,” City Limits, 27 Mar. 2012.

10 	 See, e.g., Custody and Control: Conditions of Confinement in New York’s Juvenile Prisons for Girls, American Civil
Liberties Union and Human Rights Watch, Sept. 2006: 105-113 (discussing the “isolated confinement” of girls in two New
York juvenile facilities).
11 	 Nina Bernstein, “Move Across Hudson Further Isolates Immigration Detainees,” New York Times, 16 Mar. 2010 (noting
that New York immigration detainees held in New Jersey’s Hudson County Correctional Center were “punished with
isolation”).
12 	 Men make up roughly 99% of the total number of prisoners in extreme isolation. “DOCCS Daily Population Capacity
Report – 06/11/12,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU. But the NYCLU recognizes that women are also
held in extreme isolation in New York prisons and that their experiences, while equally harrowing, may be distinct to that
of men.
13 	 The NYCLU submitted a FOIL request for DOCCS records on December 9, 2011. The request sought comprehensive and
detailed information on how DOCCS uses extreme isolation, including information regarding the number of prisoners
placed in extreme isolation, the reasons for their placement, and the length of their isolated confinement. On April 2, 2012,
the NYCLU submitted an administrative appeal to DOCCS challenging its failure to produce a substantive response to
the majority of the request. On May 10, 2012, after failing to receive a response to the administrative appeal, the NYCLU
communicated to DOCCS that it would seek court-ordered document production. From May to July 2012, DOCCS
produced records partially responsive to the FOIL request. At the time this report went to print, the NYCLU was still
waiting for DOCCS to produce records responsive to several items in the original FOIL request.
14 	 “DOCCS Daily Population Capacity Report – 06/11/12,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
15 	 Harry Elmer Barnes, “The Historical Origin of the Prison System in America,” Journal of the American Institute of
Criminal Law & Criminology 12 (1921): 53.
16 	 Gustave de Beaumont and Alexis de Tocqueville, On the Penitentiary System in the United States and Its Application in
France, trans. Francis Lieber (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1833) 5-6.
17 	 Pennsylvania constructed one of the first U.S. prisons – the Eastern Penitentiary – dedicated to housing prisoners in
extreme isolation. Charles Dickens famously toured the Penitentiary in 1842 and concluded: “The system here, is rigid,
strict, and hopeless solitary confinement. I believe it, in its effects, to be cruel and wrong.” Based on interviews with

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several prisoners, Dickens described those effects as a “slow and daily tampering with the mysteries of the brain ...
immeasurably worse than any torture of the body.” He further disputed the Penitentiary’s rehabilitative purpose, observing
that “independent of the mental anguish it occasions – an anguish so acute and so tremendous, that all imagination of it
must fall far short of the reality – it wears the mind into a morbid state, which renders it unfit for the rough contact and
busy action of the world.” Charles Dickens, American Notes for General Circulation (New York: D. Appleton & Co.,
1868) 43-48. Pennsylvania abandoned extreme isolation in the post-Civil War period. Harry Elmer Barnes tracked the
adoption and abandonment of extreme isolation across half a dozen other states as follows:
STATE

ADOPTED

ABANDONED

Maine

1824

1827

Maryland

1809

1838

Massachusetts

1811

1829

New Jersey

1820

1828

Reintroduced in 1833

1858

Rhode Island

1838

1844

Virginia

1824

1833

	Barnes, supra note 15, at 56 n. 54.
18 	 In re Medley, 134 U.S. 160, 168 (1890).
19 	 See Craig Haney and Mona Lynch, “Regulating Prisons of the Future: A Psychological Analysis of Supermax and
Solitary Confinement,” N.Y.U. Review of Law & Social Change 23 (1997) 485-88 (discussing the general trend towards
circumscribing the use of extreme isolation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries).
20 	 Stephen C. Richards, “USP Marion: The First Federal Supermax,” The Prison Journal 88 (2008) 10. In 2007 the federal
government converted USP Marion into a medium-security prison, ending its permanent lockdown status. Id. at 18.
21 	 Prison Conditions in the United States, Human Rights Watch, 1991: 3. See also Russ Immarigeon, “The Marionization of
American Prisons,” National Prison Project Journal (Fall 1992) 1. Marion emulated the model established by Alcatraz,
a federal correctional facility opened in 1934, where the “most troublesome prisoners” were concentrated “in a place of
draconian isolation.” Haney and Lynch, “Regulating Prisons of the Future,” supra note 19, at 488. The federal government
shuttered Alcatraz in 1963 after years of controversy. David A. Ward and Allan F. Breed, The United States Penitentiary,
Marion, Illinois: A Report to the Judiciary Committee, U.S. House of Representatives, 98th Cong., 2nd Sess., 1984: 1
(“Alcatraz, it was charged, was America’s Devil’s Island, it was ‘Hellcatraz’ – a place where convicts slowly went insane
from the tedium and hopelessness of endless years on ‘the Rock.’”).
22 	 Prison Conditions in the United States, supra note 21, at 4. Some dispute exists as to the precise number of states that
were constructing or repurposing facilities entirely dedicated to extreme isolation in the 1980s and 1990s. In a 1996 survey
conducted by the National Institute of Corrections, 32 states reported having such facilities. U.S. Department of Justice,
National Institute of Corrections, Supermax Housing: A Survey of Current Practice (Washington: U.S. Department of
Justice, 1997) 7. The accuracy of that figure is in serious doubt. New York, for example, reported having no such facilities
despite its operation of prisons with “the design characteristics and many of the operating procedures of what other states
defined as supermax.” Roy D. King, “The Rise and Rise of Supermax,” Punishment and Society 1 (1999) 173.
23 	 Daniel P. Mears, Evaluating the Effectiveness of Supermax Prisons, Urban Institute Justice Policy Center, Mar. 2006: 4.
24 	 Rachael Kamel and Bonnie Kerness, The Prison Inside the Prison: Control Units, Supermax Prisons, and Devices of
Torture, American Friends Service Committee, 2003: 2.
25	 John J. Gibbons and Nicholas de B. Katzenbach, Confronting Confinement: A Report of the Commission on Safety and
Abuse in America’s Prisons, Vera Institute of Justice, June 2006: 52, citing James J. Stephan and Jennifer C. Karberg,
Census of State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 2000 (Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, 2003).
26 	 Tracy L. Snell, Correctional Populations in the United States, 1993 (Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, 1995)
iii; Patrick A. Langan et al., Historical Statistics on Prisoners in State and Federal Institutions, Yearend 1925-1986
(Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, 1988) 15. The prison population continued to increase, hitting a peak of roughly
1.52 million in 2009, and declining slightly since then. Lauren E. Glaze, Correctional Population in the United States, 2010
(Washington: U.S. Department of Justice, 2011) 3. These figures exclude the number of individuals incarcerated in jails.

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27 	 Chase Riveland, Supermax Prisons: Overview and General Considerations (Washington: U.S. Department of Justice,
1999) 5 (“As correctional populations have escalated in recent years, prison crowding has become the norm in most
jurisdictions. Most prisons across the country have been operating at well over 100% of design capacity. This crowding
aggravated by the increase in street gang members, drug offenders, mentally ill, and youthful offenders has stressed the
prisons and corrections systems. ... One response on the part of prison officials in many jurisdictions, in attempting to
maintain control, has been the introduction of supermax units or facilities.”).
28 	 Leena Kurki and Norval Morris, “The Purposes, Practices, and Problems of Supermax Prisons,” Crime & Justice 28
(2001) 390; Jesenia M. Pizarro, Vanja M. K. Stenius and Travis C. Pratt, “Supermax Prisons: Myths, Realities, and the
Politics of Punishment in American Society,” Criminal Justice Policy Review 17 (2006) 8-9.
29 	 Riveland, supra note 27, at 5.
30 	 Kurki and Morris, supra note 28, at 391.
31 	 Timothy Hughes and Dora James Wilson, Reentry Trends in the United States: Inmates Returning to the Community After
Serving Time in Prison (Washington: U.S. Department of Justice 2004) 1.
32 	 “Trying to Economize, New York Creates Its Own Alcatraz,” New York Times 20 Feb. 1991: B1.
33 	 The section of the New York Codes, Rules and Regulations, which compiles state agency rules and regulations, addressing
the operation of SHUs was first adopted in 1970. N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7, ch. 6 (“Special Housing Units”).
New York prison litigation in the 1970s and 1980s featured complaints about the conditions in various SHUs. See, e.g.,
Sostre v. McGinnis, 442 F.2d 178 (2d Cir. 1971) (discussing conditions in the SHU at Green Haven Correctional Facility);
Frazier v. Ward, 426 F.Supp. 1354 (N.D.N.Y. 1977) (discussing conditions in the SHU at Clinton Correctional Facility).
34 	 Lockdown New York: Disciplinary Confinement in New York State Prisons, Correctional Association of New York, 2003:
9-10. The Correctional Association refers to the SHU 200s as “S-Blocks.”
35 	 The medium-security correctional facilities are Cayuga, Collins, Fishkill, Gouverneur, Greene, Lakeview, Marcy, MidState, and Orleans. Id. In 2008 the SHU 200 at Marcy was converted from an extreme isolation facility to a “Residential
Mental Health Unit,” providing heightened mental health services to prisoners subject to disciplinary lockdown. The
conversion was one of the settlement terms achieved in a lawsuit by prisoners’ rights advocates against DOCCS and OMH
challenging the inadequate provision of mental health care. Marcy Correctional Facility, Correctional Association of New
York, April 2008: 1.
36 	 Upstate was originally designed to house all prisoners in extreme isolation in double cells. In December 2001, 160 of the
cells were reclassified as single cells, giving Upstate the capacity to house 1,040 men – 880 in double cells and 160 in
single cells. “New Concept in Disciplinary Housing: Upstate,” DOCS Today, Apr. 2003, 15.
37 	 Inmates Under Custody at End of Calendar Year: New York State Department of Correctional Services 1950-2003,
Correctional Association of New York, Mar. 2012.
38 	 Judith Greene and Marc Mauer, Downscaling Prisons: Lessons from Four States, The Sentencing Project, 2010: 6.
39 	 Trends in New York State Prison Commitments, Correctional Association of New York, 2009.
40 	 Kevin Sack, “Agreement on Revisions in Sentencing,” New York Times 25 May 1995: B1.
41 	 Raymond Hernandez, “Assembly Passes Pataki’s Measure to Limit Parole,” New York Times 30 July 1998: A1.
42 	 Sarah Metzgar, “A Future Crowded with Fears: ‘We’re Jamming People In – People Who Have Nothing Left to Lose.
That’s Tinder for an Explosion.’,” Albany Times Union 10 Sept. 1996: A1.
43 	 Paula M. Ditton and Doris James Wilson, Special Report: Truth in Sentencing in State Prisons (Washington: U.S.
Department of Justice, 1999) 1; Lockdown New York, supra note 34, at 13.
44 	 U.S. General Accounting Office, Truth in Sentencing: Availability of Federal Grants Influenced Laws in Some States
(Washington: United States General Accounting Office, 1998) 6.
45 	 Lockdown New York, supra note 34, at 13-14.
46 	 Stuart Grassian, “Psychopathological Effects of Solitary Confinement,” American Journal of Psychiatry 140 (1983) 1450.

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47 	 E.g., S.L. Brodsky & F.R. Scogin, “Inmates in Protective Custody: First Data on Emotional Effects,” Forensic Reports
1 (1988); Stuart Grassian, “Psychiatric Effects of Solitary Confinement,” Washington University Journal of Law &
Policy 22 (2006); Craig Haney, “Mental Health Issues in Long-Term Solitary and ‘Supermax’ Confinement,” Crime and
Delinquency 49 (2003); Haney and Lynch, “Regulating Prisons of the Future,” supra note 19; Holly A. Miller and Glenn
R. Young, “Prison Segregation: Administrative Detention Remedy or Mental Health Problem?,” Criminal Behavior and
Mental Health 7 (1997); Peter Scharff Smith, “The Effects of Solitary Confinement on Prison Inmates: A Brief History and
Review of the Literature,” Crime and Justice 34 (2006).
48 	 E.g., Sasha Abramsky and Jamie Fellner, Ill-Equipped: U.S. Prisons and Offenders with Mental Illness, Human Rights
Watch, 2003: 145-68; Kristin G. Cloyes et al., “Assessment of Psychosocial Impairment in a Supermaximum Security Unit
Sample, Criminal Justice and Behavior 33 (2006) 760, 773-74; Grassian, “Psychiatric Effects of Solitary Confinement,”
supra note 47, at 332, 348; Haney, “Mental Health Issues in Long-Term Solitary and ‘Supermax’ Confinement,” supra
note 47.
49 	 Hutto v. Finney, 437 U.S. 678, 685 (1978).
50 	 In Turner v. Safly, 482 U.S. 78 (1987), the Supreme Court formally articulated a standard of deference, known as the
rational basis test. Under this standard, “when a prison regulation impinges on inmates’ constitutional rights, the regulation
is valid if it is reasonably related to legitimate penological interests.” Id. at 89. This standard has subsequently been
applied to uphold a wide range of prison restrictions affecting fundamental constitutional rights. See, Beard v. Banks, 548
U.S. 521 (2006) (access to publications); Overton v. Bazzetta, 539 U.S. 126 (2003) (visiting); Washington v. Harper, 494
U.S. 210 (1990) (administration of psychotropic medication); O’Lone v. Estate of Shabazz, 482 U.S. 342 (1987) (religious
exercise).
51 	 A prisoner challenging conditions of confinement must demonstrate both a “sufficiently serious” deprivation (i.e. objective
standard) and that officials acted with a “sufficiently culpable state of mind” (i.e. subjective standard). Wilson v. Seiter,
501 U.S. 294, 298 (1991).
52 	 Pub. L. No. 104-134, 110 Stat. 1321 (1996) (codified as amended at 18 U.S.C. §3626, 28 U.S.C. §1915, 28 U.S.C. §1346,
42 U.S.C. §1997e, and other scattered sections). The Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) requires prisoners, inter alia,
to exhaust administrative remedies and demonstrate physical injury. For more information on the harmful consequences
of the Prison Litigation Reform Act and the reasons it should be significantly amended, see SAVE Coalition, Prison
Litigation Reform Act (PLRA): Myths and Facts, http://www.savecoalition.org/myths.html.
53 	 See, Jones‘El v. Berge, 164 F. Supp. 2d 1096, 1116-1126 (W.D. Wis. 2001); Ruiz v. Johnson, 37 F. Supp. 2d 855, 915 (S.D.
Tex. 1999), rev’d on other grounds, 243 F.3d 941 (5th Cir. 2001), adhered to on remand, 154 F. Supp. 2d 975 (S.D. Tex.
2001) (“Conditions in [extreme isolation] units clearly violate constitutional standards when imposed on the subgroup of
the plaintiffs’ class made up of mentally-ill prisoners”); Madrid v. Gomez, 889 F. Supp. 1146, 1265-66 (N.D. Cal. 1995).
Several of these same courts have also observed, in dicta, the toll that extreme isolation takes on all individuals, regardless
of their mental stability. See, Jones’El, 164 F. Supp. 2d at 1101 (“Confinement in a supermaximum security prison such
as Supermax is known to cause severe psychiatric morbidity, disability, suffering and mortality. Prisoners in segregated
housing units who have no history of serious mental illness and who are not prone to psychiatric decompensation
(breakdown) often develop a constellation of symptoms known as ‘SHU Syndrome.’”); Ruiz, 37 F. Supp. 2d at 907
(describing extreme isolation units as “virtual incubators of psychoses-seeding illness in otherwise healthy inmates”);
Madrid, 889 F. Supp. at 1235, 1267 (observing that “many, if not most inmates in [extreme isolation] experience some
degree of psychological trauma in reaction to their extreme social isolation and the severely restricted environmental
stimulation,” and that the regime “may press the outer bounds of what most humans can psychologically tolerate”).
Recently, a federal district court held that a New York state prisoner, who was placed in the SHU for over two years after
a cell search revealed papers prohibited under prison rules, stated a plausible claim under the Eighth Amendment. Peoples
v. Fischer, No. 11 Civ. 2694, 2012 WL 2402593, at *1 (S.D.N.Y. June 26, 2012) (“Leroy Peoples was housed in [the SHU]
for over two years, even though there was never any finding that he posed a threat to the safety of others or the security of
the prison. His placement in the SHU for such a time period was grossly disproportionate to the non-violent violation that
he was found to have committed. He has therefore stated a plausible claim that defendants violated his Eighth Amendment
right to be free from cruel and unusual punishment.”).
54 	 N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7, §§ 253.7, 254.7 (disciplinary segregation), 301.4 (administrative segregation), and
330.2 (protective custody). Prisoners in protective custody are generally permitted three hours per day of out-of-cell time,
including an hour for recreation, and may take two meals per day outside their cells. They are also permitted phone calls
and personal property. Id. §§ 330.4-330.5.
55 	 “DOCCS Summary of Inmates Newly Placed into SHU Cells – 01/01/07-12/31/11” and “DOCCS Dispositions with SHU
Sentences – 01/01/2007-12/31/2011: Number of SHU Sentences by Year and Original Length of Sentence,” obtained
through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.

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56 	 N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7, § 270.2.
57 	 Id.
58 	 Select disciplinary records for infractions discussed throughout the report are available at www.nyclu.org/boxedin.
59 	 N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. Tit. 7, §§ 251-1.6, 253.7, 254.7.
60 	 Id. § 253.7. According to DOCCS regulations governing “keeplock admission” to the SHU: “An inmate in a medium
or minimum correctional facility or Upstate Correctional Facility may be housed in a special housing unit for reasons
such as, but not limited to, the following: … (2) for confinement pursuant to a disposition of a disciplinary (Tier II) or
superintendent’s (Tier III) hearing.” Id. § 301.6.
61 	 “DOCCS Dispositions with Keeplock Sentences – 01/01/2007-12/31/2011,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the
NYCLU.
62 	 “Table 4-7: Selected Offender Populations in SHU – DOCCS Under Custody Pop. Jan. 1, 2012,” obtained through FOIL
and on file with the NYCLU.
63 	 N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7, § 251-3.1.
64 	 Id. § 251-1.5.
65 	 Id. § 251-3.1.
66 	 Id. § 251-2.2.
67 	 Id. § 253.7. See note 60 (discussing DOCCS regulations governing “keeplock admission” to the SHU).
68 	 Id. § 254.7.
69 	 DOCCS, Prison Safety in New York (Albany: Department of Correctional Services, 2006) 17 (emphasis added).
70 	 N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7, § 270.2.
71 	 Percentage calculated from “DOCCS Disciplinary Charge File Analysis – Incidents Occurring between 01/01/2007 and
12/31/2011,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
72 	 N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7, §§ 253.5-253.6, 254.5-254.6. The prisoner must be served with the misbehavior
report at least 24 hours in advance of the hearing. Tier III hearings have additional procedural safeguards for prisoners
whose “mental state or intellectual capacity is at issue.” In these circumstances, the hearing officer must investigate
evidence concerning the prisoner’s mental condition or intellectual capacity at the time of the incident. The hearing
officer may, on the basis of this evidence, adjourn the hearing or request an assistant for the prisoner. If the hearing officer
proceeds with the hearing and finds the accused prisoner guilty, the officer may, in light of the prisoner’s mental condition
or intellectual capacity, dismiss the charge.
73 	 Id. §§ 154.8, 253.8.
74 	 In the prison litigation context, claims of government misconduct and abuse often rest on the plaintiff prisoner’s
word against that of defendant corrections officers. In such cases, prisoners typically find their testimony viewed with
skepticism by both judges and juries. See Margo Schlanger, “Inmate Litigation,” Harvard Law Review 116 (2003) 1555,
1615 & n. 177 (observing that “both judges and juries tend to find convicted criminals unappealing and unbelievable
witnesses” and extrapolating from studies that “find that, all else equal, jurors are more likely to convict a defendant if
they know that he has a prior conviction”).
75 	 “Inmate Disciplinary System – Count of Tier 3 Hearings: 2007-2011,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the
NYCLU.
76 	 Id.
77 	 DOCCS, “Guidelines for Disciplinary Dispositions,” July 2005, obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
78 	 DOCCS, Prison Safety in New York, supra note 69, at 19.
79 	 Jean Casella and James Ridgeway, “New York’s Black Sites,” The Nation 30 July 2012.

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80 	 Percentages calculated from “Inmate Disciplinary System – Count of Tier 3 Hearings: 2007-2011,” obtained through FOIL
and on file with the NYCLU.
81 	 “DOCCS Dispositions with SHU Sentences – 01/01/2007-12/31/2011: Number of SHU Sentences by Year and Original
Length of Sentence,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU. DOCCS permits discretionary time cuts to
SHU sentences under its “Progressive Inmate Movement System” (PIMS), which is a three-level system of graduated
privileges in the SHU. Prisoners on Level I, which is the most restrictive, can graduate to Level II after a minimum of 30
days without a disciplinary infraction. Similarly, prisoners on Level II can graduate to Level III after a minimum of thirty
days without a disciplinary infraction. Prisoners on Levels II and III who commit a disciplinary infraction drop back to
Level I. These levels are pegged to potential SHU time cuts. A “Disciplinary Review Committee” (DRC) reviews the case
of each prisoner halfway between his date of arrival and date of release from the SHU. Level I and II prisoners are eligible
to receive a time cut of up to 1/2 the amount of SHU time remaining. Level III inmates are eligible to receive a time cut
of up to 2/3 the amount of SHU time remaining. The issuance of a time cut is up to the discretion of the DRC, just as
the determination of tier ratings and whether misbehavior warrants a SHU sentence is up to the discretion of corrections
officials.
82 	 For more information on DOCCS’ placement of substance abusers in extreme isolation, see Barred from Treatment:
Punishment of Drug Users in New York State Prisons, Human Rights Watch, Mar. 2009: 35-51. Drug-related rules
include 113.14 (“An inmate shall not possess outdated or unauthorized types of quantities of medication, nor shall an
inmate sell, exchange or provide any medication to anyone.); 113.24 (“An inmate shall not use or be under the influence
of any narcotics or controlled  substances unless prescribed by a health service provider and then only in the amount
prescribed.”); 113.25 (“An inmate shall not make, possess, sell or exchange any narcotic, narcotic paraphernalia,
controlled substance or marijuana. An inmate shall not conspire with any person to introduce such items into the
facility.”); 180.14 (“An inmate shall comply with and follow the guidelines and instructions given by staff regarding
urinalysis testing pursuant to the requirements of departmental Directive No. 4937 (N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7,
part 1020). This includes providing a urine sample when ordered to do so.”). N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7, § 270.2.
83 	 Percentages calculated from “Inmate Disciplinary System – Count of Tier 3 Hearings: 2007-2011,” obtained through FOIL
and on file with the NYCLU.
84 	 Percentages calculated from “DOCCS Disciplinary Charge File Analysis – Incidents Occurring between 01/01/2007 and
12/31/2011,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
85 	 Id.
86 	 DOCCS, “Guidelines for Disciplinary Dispositions,” supra note 77.
87 	 “DOCCS Disciplinary Charge File Analysis, Table 3 – Charge by Year of Incident by Facility,” obtained through FOIL and
on file with the NYCLU.
88 	 For a discussion of the unique dangers that extreme isolation poses for juveniles, see Amy Fettig, “Teenagers Too Often
End Up in Solitary,” New York Times, 5 June 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/06/05/when-to-punisha-young-offender-and-when-to-rehabilitate/the-dangers-of-juveniles-in-solitary-confinement; Human Rights Watch, “US:
Look Critically at Widespread Use of Solitary Confinement,” 18 June 2012, http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/06/18/us-lookcritically-widespread-use-solitary-confinement. For a discussion of the particular vulnerabilities of elderly prisoners in
extreme isolation, see James Ridgeway, “The Graying of America’s Prisons,” The Crime Report, 7 Dec. 2009, http://www.
thecrimereport.org/viewpoints/the-graying-of-americas-prisons.
89 	 See At America’s Expense: The Mass Incarceration of the Elderly, American Civil Liberties Union, June 2012: v (“There
is an overwhelming consensus among correctional experts, criminologists, and the National Institute of Corrections that
50 years of age is the appropriate point marking when a prisoner becomes ‘aging’ or ‘elderly.’ The lack of appropriate
healthcare and access to healthy living prior to incarceration, added to the heavy stresses of life behind bars, accelerates
the aging process of prisoners so that they are actually physically older than average individuals.”); Old Behind Bars:
The Aging Prison Population in the United States, Human Rights Watch, Jan. 2012: 17 (“In the community, age 50 or
55 would not be considered ‘older.’ But incarcerated men and women typically have physiological and mental health
conditions that are associated with people at least a decade older in the community. This accelerated aging process is
likely due to the high burden of disease common in people from poor backgrounds who comprise the majority of the
prison population, coupled with unhealthy lifestyles prior to and during incarceration. These factors are often further
exacerbated by substandard medical care either before or during incarceration. The violence, anxiety, and stress of prison
life, isolation from family and friends, and the possibility of spending most or all of the rest of one’s life behind bars can
also contribute to accelerated aging once incarcerated.”).

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90 	 “Table 3B and 3F: Age by Facility for Offenders Housed in SHU – DOCCS Under Custody Pop. Jan. 1, 2012,” obtained
through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
91 	 DOCCS, Identified Substance Abuse (Albany: Department of Correctional Services, 2007) i.
92 	 Percentages calculated from “Table 16D: Self-Report Substance Abuse for Southport CF, Upstate CF and SHU 200
Facilities – DOCCS Under Custody Pop. Jan. 1, 2012,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
93 	 Percentage calculated from “Active Mental Health Inmate-Patients Housed in Segregated Confinement, First Quarter
2012,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
94 	 Percentage calculated from “CNYPC Net Facility Caseload Census as of May 31, 2012,” obtained through FOIL and on
file with the NYCLU.
95 	 Percentage calculated from “Active Mental Health Inmate-Patients Housed in Segregated Confinement, First Quarter
2012,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU. For an explanation of mental health classifications, see New
York State Commission on Quality of Care and Advocacy for Persons with Disabilities, Review of Residential Crisis
Treatment Programs (RCTPs) (Schenectady: N.Y. State Commission on Quality of Care and Advocacy for Persons with
Disabilities, 2010) 1.
96 	 Prisoners designated as seriously mentally ill are those: (1) exhibiting nine types of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV
Axis I diagnoses – schizophrenia (all sub-types), delusional disorder, schizophreniform disorder, schizoaffective Disorder,
brief psychotic disorder, substance-induced psychotic disorder (excluding intoxication and withdrawal), psychotic disorder
not otherwise specified, major depressive disorders, bipolar disorder I and II; (2) “actively suicidal or [who have] engaged
in a recent, serious suicide attempt;” or (3) who commit acts of self-harm motivated by breaks or perceived breaks with
reality, or caused by an organic brain syndrome, psychosis or depression. N.Y. Correct. Law. § 137.6 (McKinney 2011).
97 	 As New York expanded its use of extreme isolation, reports of the startling number of prisoners with serious mental illness
held in these units began to surface. See Mary Beth Pfeiffer, “A Death in the Box,” New York Times 31 Oct. 2004: 48;
Jennifer Gonnerman, “Suicide in the Box,” Village Voice 23 Dec. 2003: 40. In 2003, 20 percent of prisoners in extreme
isolation were receiving mental health treatment. Roughly half of these prisoners were diagnosed with a major or serious
mental illness. One grim barometer of the number of seriously mentally ill prisoners in extreme isolation was the suicide
rate in the SHU. Between 1998 and 2004, 34 percent of prisoner suicides occurred among individuals in the SHU, while
comprising 7 percent of the total prison population. Mental Health in the House of Corrections: A Study of Mental Health
Care in New York State Prisons, Correctional Association of New York, June 2004: 48, 57.
98 	 Complaint at 12-13, Disability Advocates, Inc. v. New York State Office of Mental Health, No. 02-CV-4002 (S.D.N.Y. May
28, 2002) (“Inadequate mental health treatment in the prisons results in prisoners with mental illness suffering psychiatric
deterioration and engaging in symptomatic behaviors which ... violate DOCS rules for prisoner conduct. Prisoners with
mental illness are frequently sentenced to periods of isolated confinement for engaging in such symptomatic conduct. …
Once punished with confinement in a twenty-three hour isolated confinement housing area, many prisoners with mental
illness become even less able to conform to prison rules because their mental conditions worsen. As a result, many
prisoners with mental illness, who are suffering from their illnesses and who are serving time in isolated confinement,
become subject to additional disciplinary sanctions including additional consecutive periods of isolated confinement.”).
99 	 Private Settlement Agreement, DAI v. OMH, 02-CV-4002 (S.D.N.Y. Apr. 27, 2007), available at http://www.disabilityadvocates.org/complaints/DAIvOMHSettlement.pdf. A history of legal challenges to inadequate mental health treatment
in specific SHUs (resulting in settlements) preceded the DAI lawsuit. See Private Settlement Agreement, Anderson v.
Goord, No. 87-CV-141 (N.D.N.Y. Dec. 16, 2003); Stipulation, Eng v. Goord, No. 80-CV-385S (W.D.N.Y. June 12, 2000);
Stipulation, Langley v. Coughlin, No. 84-CV-5431 (S.D.N.Y. July 23, 1987).
100 	 SHU Exclusion Law of 2008, codified as amendments to N.Y. Mental Hyg. Law § 45 (McKinney 2011) and N.Y. Correct.
Law. §§ 2, 137.6, 401, 401-a (McKinney 2011).
101 	 N.Y. Correct. Law §§ 137.6(d), 2.21 (McKinney 2011). The law does, however, provide a loophole to diversion in two
“exceptional circumstances.” First, “when … removal would pose a substantial risk to the safety of the inmate or other
persons, or a substantial threat to the security of the facility.” Second, “when the mental health clinician determines that
such placement is in the inmate’s best interest based on his or her mental condition and that removing such inmate to a
residential mental health treatment unit would be detrimental to his or her mental condition.”
102 	 Percentages calculated from “DOCCS Ethnic Breakdown of Employees by Facility from Data as of 01/07/2012” and
“Table 3H: Race/Ethnic for Offenders Housed in SHU – DOCCS Under Custody Pop. Jan. 1, 2012,” obtained through
FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.

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103 	 See Section II, Building the Box.
104 	 See supra note 46-47.
105 	 See supra note 48.
106 	 See William D. Bales and Daniel P. Mears, “Inmate Social Ties and the Transition to Society: Does Visitation Reduce
Recidivism?,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 45 (2008) (studying the relationship between visitation and
recidivism in Florida and concluding that visitation reduces and delays recidivism); Creasie Finney Hairston, “Family
Ties During Imprisonment: Do They Influence Future Criminal Activity?,” Federal Probation 52 (1988) (discussing five
empirical studies indicating that maintenance of family and community ties is positively related to lower recidivism);
Norman Holt and Donald Miller, Explorations in Inmate-Family Relationships, Research Report No. 46 (Sacramento:
California Department of Corrections, 1972) (“The central finding of this research is the strong and consistent positive
relationship that exists between parole success and maintaining strong family ties while in prison.”); Minnesota
Department of Corrections, The Effects of Prison Visitation on Offender Recidivism (St. Paul: Minnesota Department
of Corrections, 2011) (“Using multiple measures of visitation … and recidivism, … the study found that visitation
significantly decreased the risk of recidivism ….”); Marta Nelson, Perry Deess, and Charlotte Allen, The First Month Out:
Post-Incarceration Experiences in New York City, Vera Institute of Justice, Sept. 1999 (reporting results of study tracking
prisoners returning from New York jails and prisons and concluding that prisoners with stronger familial support had
greater success reintegrating).
107 	 “DOCCS Daily Population Capacity Report – 06/11/12,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
108 	 DOCCS, Under Custody Report: Profile of Inmate Population Under Custody on January 1, 2011 (Albany: Department of
Corrections and Community Supervision, 2011) 4.
109 	 Reading is one of the few real activities available to prisoners in the SHU, despite DOCCS statistics that document low
literacy among a significant percentage of prisoners: One in three state prisoners (34 percent) read below the eighthgrade level, including roughly one in five (19 percent) who read below the sixth-grade level. Literacy appears to be lower
still in extreme isolation facilities: A quarter of prisoners housed at Upstate and Southport read below the sixth-grade
level. DOCCS, Hub System: Profile of Inmate Population Under Custody on January 1, 2008 (Albany: Department of
Correctional Services 2008) 45, 47.
110 	 See supra note 81 for a discussion of PIMS, a three-level system of graduated privileges in the SHU. At Southport, Level
I prisoners receive two showers per week and must remain in restraints during recreation and visits. They are permitted 5
books or magazines. Level II prisoners may exercise and conduct visits without restraints. They receive headphones and
a state-issued winter coat. They are permitted 5 additional books or magazines and have limited commissary privileges,
restricted primarily to writing materials and toiletries. Level III prisoners receive three showers per week. They are
permitted one pair of personal sneakers and shorts, and they may purchase candy from the commissary. PIMS operates
similarly at Upstate, although the physical design of the cells, which are directly connected to recreation pens, obviates
the need for restraints during recreation on Level I. Prisoners on Levels I and II receive three showers per week, whereas
prisoners on Level III receive four showers per week. “Southport Correctional Facility SHU Staff and Inmate Orientation
Manual” and “Upstate Correctional Facility SHU Inmate Orientation Manual,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the
NYCLU.
111 	 Prisoners must be on PIMS Levels II or III to obtain the GED packet and must be on Level III to obtain the substance
abuse or aggression management packets. Id.
112 	 “DOCCS Summary of Inmates Released 01/01/2008-12/31/2011 Statewide from SHU,” obtained through FOIL and on file
with the NYCLU.
113 	 N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7, § 270.2.
114 	 “DOCCS Daily Population Capacity Report – 06/11/12,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
115 	 See, e.g., Reassessing Solitary Confinement: The Human Rights, Fiscal, and Public Safety Consequences: Hearing Before
the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Human Rights of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 112th
Congress (2012) (statement of Craig Haney, Professor of Psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz) (“[Doublecelled prisoners] are ... simultaneously isolated and overcrowded. They … really can’t relate in any meaningful way
with whom they’re celled, and so they basically develop a kind of within cell isolation of their own. And it adds to the
tension, and the tensions then can get acted out on each other. It creates hazards for the people who are forced to live
that way. It creates hazards for the correctional officers who have to deal with prisoners who are living under those kinds
of pressures.”). In Madrid v. Gomez, a case examining conditions of extreme isolation at California’s Pelican Bay State

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prison where “[r]oughly two-thirds of the inmates [were] double celled,” the court cited testimony from Professor Haney
and Dr. Stuart Grassian in observing:
	

[Double-celling] does not compensate for the otherwise severe level of social isolation .... The combination of
being in extremely close proximity with one other person, while other avenues for normal social interaction are
virtually precluded, often makes any long-term normal relationship with the cellmate impossible. Instead, two
persons housed together in this type of forced, constant intimacy have an ‘enormously high risk of becoming
paranoid, hostile, and potentially violent towards each other.’ The existence of a cellmate is thus unlikely to
provide an opportunity for sustained positive or normal social contact.

889 F. Supp. 1146, 1229-30 (N.D. Cal. 1995) (internal citations omitted).
116 	 N.Y. Comp. Codes R. & Regs. tit. 7, § 305.2 (a).
117 	 Id. § 305.2(e).
118 	 Id. § 304.2(b).
119 	 Id. § 304.2(f).
120 	 Id. § 304.2(b).
121 	 Id. § 304.2(c).
122 	 In 2003 the Correctional Association surveyed 238 prisoners in the SHU, a significant number of whom reported “never
or rarely” attending recreation. Psychiatrists, who accompanied the Correctional Association on site visits to the SHUs,
“pointed out that refusing recreation often indicates clinical depression, over-medication and/or listlessness brought on by
social isolation and reduced stimulation.” Lockdown New York, supra note 34, at 19, 35-36.
123 	 “Southport Correctional Facility SHU Staff and Inmate Orientation Manual,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the
NYCLU.
124 	 The Correctional Association’s survey of prisoners in the SHU, see note 122, included 88 prisoners at Southport, nearly 40
percent of whom reported “never or rarely” attending recreation. The “most common reason cited was fear of harassment
by correction officers, around whom they feel particularly vulnerable while wearing mechanical restraints.” Lockdown
New York, supra note 34, at 36.
125 	 See Abramsky and Fellner, supra note 48, at 154-160; Jamie Fellner and Joanne Mariner, Cold Storage: Super-Maximum
Security Confinement in Indiana, Human Rights Watch, Oct. 1997: 115-120; Reassessing Solitary Confinement: Hearing
Before the Subcommittee, supra note 115 (statement of Physicians for Human Rights).
126 	 See Abramsky and Fellner, supra note 48, at 156; Fellner and Mariner, supra note 125, at 119; Sharon Shalev, A
Sourcebook on Solitary Confinement, Mannheim Centre for Criminology, London School of Economics and Political
Science, Oct. 2008: 63-64.
127 	 Percentage calculated from “Active Mental Health Inmate-Patients Housed in Segregated Confinement, First Quarter
2012,” obtained through FOIL and on file with the NYCLU.
128 	 There is evidence to suggest that placing prisoners in extreme isolation increases their risk of recidivism after release.
In Washington state, researchers tracked re-arrest rates among prisoners released over two years. The study found that
prisoners who had spent at least three continuous months in extreme isolation were somewhat more likely to commit
new felonies. Moreover, among those prisoners who experienced extreme isolation, those who were released directly
from extreme isolation had a higher rate of recidivism than those who had returned to the general prison population
prior to their release. David Lovell and Clark Johnson. “Felony and Violent Recidivism Among Supermax Prison
Inmates in Washington State: A Pilot Study” (2004), available at http://www.son.washington.edu/faculty/fac-page-files/
Lovell-SupermaxRecidivism-4-19-04.pdf. The Commission on Safety and Abuse in America’s Prisons has cited to these
findings as suggesting “a link between recidivism and the difficult living conditions in [extreme isolation], where good
rehabilitative and transitional programming are less available.” Gibbons and Katzenbach, supra note 25, at 55.
129 	 Terry A. Kupers, et al., “Beyond Supermax Administrative Segregation: Mississippi’s Experience Rethinking Prison
Classification and Creating Alternative Mental Health Programs,” 36 Criminal Justice and Behavior 1037, 1039-1041
(2009); Erica Goode, “Prisons Rethink Isolation, Saving Money, Lives and Sanity,” New York Times 10 Mar. 2012: A1.

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130 	 Final Report of Review of Due Process Procedures in Special Management Units at the Maine State Prison and the Maine
Correctional Center, March 2011, available at http://www.aclu.org/files/assets/maine_-_final_doc_report_on_smus.pdf
(last visited 31 Aug. 2012); Lance Tapley, “Reform Comes to the Supermax,” Portland Phoenix, 25 May 2011.
131 	 James Austin and Emmitt Sparkman, Colorado Department of Corrections Administrative Segregation and Classification
Review (National Institute of Corrections, Oct. 2011), available at http://www.ccjrc.org/pdf/2011_Solitary_Confinement_
Report.pdf (last visited 31 Aug. 2012).
132 	 Emmit Sparkman, “Mississippi DOC’s Emmitt Sparkman on Reducing the Use of Segregation in Prisons,” 31 Oct. 2011,
http://www.vera.org/blog/mississippi-docs-emmitt-sparkman-reducing-use-segregation-prisons.
133 	 Kupers, supra note 129, at 1041.
134 	 Final Report of Review of Due Process Procedures in Special Management Units at the Maine State Prison and the Maine
Correctional Center, supra note 130, at 4-6.
135 	 Lance Tapley, “Reducing Solitary Confinement,” Portland Phoenix 2 Nov. 2011.
136 	 Austin and Sparkman, supra note 131, at 17.
137 	 Percentage calculated from comparing id. at 4 (identifying 1,552 prisoners in extreme isolation in October 2011) and Kirk
Mitchell, “Colorado Prisons Turn Away from Heavy Use of Solitary Confinement,” Denver Post 4 June 2012 (stating that
as of April 2012 there were 1,012 prisoners in extreme isolation).
138 	 Sparkman, supra note 132.
139 	 Id.
140 	 Tapley, “Reducing Solitary Confinement,” supra note 135.
141 	 Denise Maes, “Victory in Colorado: Closing Solitary Confinement Unit Good for Budget and Public Safety,” ACLU Blog
of Rights, 21 Mar. 2012, http://www.aclu.org/blog/prisoners-rights/victory-colorado-closing-solitary-confinement-unitgood-budget-and-public.
142 	 Gibbons and Katzenbach, supra note 25, at 14.
143 	 Id. (citing Chad S. Briggs, Jody L. Sundt and Thomas C. Castellano, “The Effects of Supermaximum Security Prisons on
Aggregate Levels of Institutional Violence,” Criminology 41 (2003): 1341-76).
144 	 Id. (citing Peter C. Kratcoski, “The Implications of Research Explaining Prison Violence and Disruption,” Federal
Probation 52 (1988): 27-33).
145 	 Id.
146 	 Sparkman, supra note 132.
147 	 Rachel Alexander, “DOC Explains Closing CSP II,” Cañon City News 21 Mar. 2012.
148 	 Alex Barber, “Less Restriction Equals Less Violence at Maine State Prison,” Bangor Daily News 15 June 2012.
149 	 Vera Institute of Justice, Segregation Reduction Project, http://www.vera.org/project/segregation-reduction-project (last
visited 31 Aug. 2012).
150 	 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 16, 1966, S. Exec. Doc. E, 95-2, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 [hereinafter
ICCPR]; Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Dec. 10, 1984, S.
Treaty Doc. No. 100-20, 1465 U.N.T.S. 85 [hereinafter CAT].
151 	 See ICCPR, supra note 150, art. 7 (“No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.”); CAT, supra note 150, art. 2 (“Each State Party shall take effective legislative, administrative, judicial
or other measures to prevent acts of torture in any territory under its jurisdiction.”); id. art. 16 (“Each State Party
shall undertake to prevent in any territory under its jurisdiction other acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment which do not amount to torture ....”).

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152 	 ICCPR, art. 10.1, states, “All persons deprived of their liberty shall be treated with humanity and with respect for the
inherent dignity of the human person.” ICCPR, art. 10.3, states, “The penitentiary system shall comprise treatment of
prisoners the essential aim of which shall be their reformation and social rehabilitation.
153 	 U.S. Const. art. VI, cl. 2. The U.S. has signed and ratified both the ICCPR and CAT, but has placed significant restrictions
on their enforceability in U.S. courts. The ICCPR is non-enforceable in U.S. courts because the U.S. ratified the treaty
with an attached non-self-execution reservation. (A reservation is “a unilateral statement, however phrased or named,
made by a State, when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to a treaty, whereby it purports to exclude or to
modify the legal effect of certain provisions of the treaty in their application to that State.” Vienna Convention on the Law
of Treaties art. 2(1)(d), May 23, 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331, 8 I.L.M. 679) The non-self-execution reservation is a statement
to the effect that a treaty requires domestic implementing legislation to operate as binding domestic law; Congress has
yet to pass legislation implementing the ICCPR. Both the ICCPR and CAT are further limited by reservations restricting
the scope of their protection. The U.S. attached a reservation to article 7 of the ICCPR, binding it under that article only
to the extent that any “cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment” amounts to treatment prohibited by the Fifth, Eighth, and
Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution. International Convention on Civil and Political Rights: Hearing before the
Senate Comm. on Foreign Relations, 102d Cong., 1st Sess., 1991. The U.S. attached a similar reservation to article 16 of
CAT, clarifying that any prohibited treatment is only that which is “cruel, inhuman or degrading” as interpreted via the
Fifth, Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments. Convention Against Torture: Hearing Before the Senate Comm. on Foreign
Relations, 101st Cong. 2nd Sess., 1990.
154 	 U.N. Human Rights Comm., General Comment No. 20, ¶ 6 (Oct. 3, 1992).
155 	 U.N. Human Rights Comm., Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: United States of America, ¶ 32,
U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/USA/CO/3/Rev./ (Dec. 18, 2006).
156 	 U.N. Comm. Against Torture, Conclusions and Recommendations of the Committee Against Torture: United States of
America, ¶ 36, U.N. Doc. CAT/C/USA/CO/2 (July 25, 2006).
157 	 Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur of the Human Rights Council on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or
Degrading Punishment or Treatment, ¶ 70 U.N. Doc. A/66/268 (Aug. 5, 2011) [hereinafter 2011 Interim Report of Special
Rapporteur]; see also Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur of the Human Rights Council on Torture and Other Cruel,
Inhuman, or Degrading Punishment or Treatment, ¶¶ 77-85, U.N. Doc. A/63/175 (July 28, 2008) [hereinafter 2008 Interim
Report of Special Rapporteur].
158 	 2011 Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur, supra note 157, ¶¶ 77-78; 2008 Interim Report of the Special Rapporteur,
supra note 157, ¶¶ 80, 83 (citing to guidance from the Committee against Torture and the Committee on the Rights of the
Child, as well as the Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners).
159 	 ABA Standards for Criminal Justice: Treatment of Prisoners 3d ed. (Washington: American Bar Association, 2011)
Standard 23-1.2 Commentary.
160 	 Id. at Standard 23-3.8(b) “Segregated Housing” (“Conditions of extreme isolation should not be allowed regardless of the
reasons for a prisoner’s separation from the general population.”); Standard 23-4.3(a) (“[Disciplinary] sanctions should
never include: ... conditions of extreme isolation ....”).
161 	 Id. at Standard 23-2.7(b) “Rationales for Long-Term Segregated Housing.”
162 	 Id. at Standard 23-2.6(a) “Rationales for Segregated Housing.”
163 	 Id.
164 	 Id. at Standard 23-2.8 “Segregated Housing and Mental Health”. The Standards define “serious mental illness” as “a
substantial disorder of thought or mood that significantly impairs judgment, behavior, capacity to recognize reality or
cope with the ordinary demands of life within the prison environment and is manifested by substantial pain or disability.
It includes the status of being actively suicidal; severe cognitive disorders that result in significant functional impairment;
and severe personality disorders that result in significant functional impairment and are marked by frequent episodes of
psychosis, depression, or self-injurious behavior.” Id. at Standard 23-1.0(s) “Definitions”.
165 	 Gibbons and Katzenbach, supra note 25, at 52-60.
166 	 ACLU National Prison Project, Model Act: Improving Public Safety, Protecting Vulnerable Populations & Ensuring
Process in Imposing Long-Term Isolated Confinement, available at http://www.aclu.org/files/pdfs/prison/model_stop_
solitary_act_-_7-11.pdf (last visited 31 Aug. 2012).

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167 	 Separation under the third prong – where there is specific and demonstrable evidence that the prisoner “poses a serious
ongoing threat to prison safety and security” – can include separation for medical reasons, such as airborne contagion.
See, e.g., ABA Criminal Justice Standards on the Treatment of Prisoners, Standard 23.2.6(a) “Rationales for Segregated
Housing;” 23-2.7(a)(iii) “Rationales for Long-Term Segregated Housing.”
168 	 DOCCS should withhold personal identifying information of separated prisoners to protect individual privacy and safety.
169 	O’Lone v. Estate of Shabazz, 482 U.S. 342, 354 (1987) (Brennan, J., dissenting).

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NEW YORK CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION

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ABOUT THE NEW YORK CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION
The New York Civil Liberties Union (NYCLU) is one of the nation’s foremost defenders of civil liberties and civil rights.
Founded in 1951 as the New York affiliate of the American Civil Liberties Union, we are a not-for-profit, nonpartisan
organization with eight chapters and regional offices and nearly 50,000 members across the state. Our mission is to defend
and promote the fundamental principles and values embodied in the Bill of Rights, the U.S. Constitution, and the New York
Constitution, including freedom of speech and religion, and the right to privacy, equality and due process of law for all
New Yorkers. For more information about the NYCLU, please visit www.nyclu.org.

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NEW YORK CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION
125 Broad Street, 19th Floor
New York, NY 10004
www.nyclu.org

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