U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report
October 2001, NCJ 184735

Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000
By Timothy A. Hughes
Doris James Wilson
and Allen J. Beck, Ph.D.
BJS Statisticians
By the end of 2000, 16 States had
abolished discretionary release from
prison by a parole board for all offenders. Another four States had abolished
discretionary parole for certain violent
offenses or other crimes against a
person. As a result of the movement
away from release by parole boards
(discretionary parole), release determined by statute (mandatory parole)
became the most common method of
release from State prison. After 1990
mandatory parole increased from 29%
of releases to 41% in 1999, while
discretionary parole decreased from
39% to 24%.
Despite changes in release policies,
652,199 adults were under State parole
supervision at yearend 2000, more
than a 3-fold increase since 1980,
when 196,786 adults were on parole.
About 312 adults per 100,000 adult
U.S. residents were under parole
supervision in 2000, compared to 121
in 1980 and 271 in 1990. While the
average annual rate of growth in State
parole from 1980 to 2000 was 6.2%,
the largest increase occurred between
1980 and 1992, when the number of
adults on parole grew 10% annually.
After 1992 growth in the number of
adults on State parole slowed, increasing at an average annual rate of 0.7%.
This report focuses on trends in the
State parole population after 1990, the
effect of sentencing policies on
community release, and the implications for success or failure of offenders
under community supervision.

Highlights
State parole population has remained stable since 1992
• After more than a decade of rapid
growth, the number of adults under
State parole supervision has nearly
stabilized — increasing by 33,510
(0.7% per year) since 1992.

Number of parolees
700,000
Yearend
600,000
population
500,000
400,000
300,000

Annual entries

200,000
100,000
0
1980

1985

1990

1995

• During the 1980’s, entries to State
parole supervision tripled, growing
from around 113,000 to 349,000 in
1990. During the 1990’s, parole entries continued to rise (up 2.4% per
2000 year), but were offset by an increase
in parole discharges (up 4.6% a year).

Since 1990 mandatory parole releases have increased,
while discretionary releases have decreased
• Between 1990 and 1999, the
number of discretionary parole
releases from prison dropped (from
159,731 to 128,708), while the number
of mandatory parole releases nearly
doubled (from 116,857 to 223,342).

Percent of releases from State prison
60%
50%
40%

Discretionary parole

30%
20%

Mandatory parole

10%

Expiration of sentence
0%
1980
1985
1990

1995

• In 1999 nearly 100,000 inmates
released from State prisons served
their entire prison term (18%), up
1999 from 51,288 (13%) in 1990.

42% of parole discharges in 1999 successfully completed supervision
• Among State parole discharges
in 1999, over half of discretionary
parolees successfully completed their
term of supervision, compared to a
third of mandatory parolees.

Percent of parole discharges successfully
completing supervision
70%
Discretionary parolees
60%
50%

All parolees

40%
30%
Mandatory
parolees

20%
10%
0%
1983 1985

1990

1995

1999

• Success rates were higher among
parole discharges who were first prison releases (63%), age 55 or older
(54%), and female (48%), than among
those who were re-releases (21%),
under age 25 (36%), and male (39%).

Table 1. Number of persons in State prison and on parole,
yearend 1980, 1985, and 1990-2000

Year

State prisonersa
Percent
Number
change

State paroleesb
Percent
Number
change

1980

305,458

196,786

1985

462,284

283,139

1990

708,393

1991
1992
1993
1994
1995

753,951
802,241
879,714
959,668
1,025,624

6.4%
6.4
9.7
9.1
6.9

568,887
618,689
620,390
628,941
627,960

13.3%
8.8
0.3
1.4
-0.2

1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

1,076,375
1,127,686
1,176,055
1,228,455
1,236,476

4.9
4.8
4.3
4.5
0.7

620,498
631,275
629,216
643,452
652,199

-1.2
1.7
-0.3
2.3
1.4

Percent change,
1980-90
1990-2000
Average annual change,
1980-90
1990-2000

502,134

131.9%
74.5%

155.2%
29.9%

8.8%
5.7%

9.8%
2.6%

Note: Counts are for December 31 of each year and may have been
revised based on the most recently reported counts.
a
Based on prisoners under the jurisdiction of State correctional authorities.
b
Adult State parolees only.

States have reduced the discretion of parole boards
in determining prison release
From 1990 to 2000, the State parole population grew
at a slower rate than the State prison population.
During this period, parolees increased 30%, compared
to a 75% increase for State prisoners (table 1). On
average, the parole population increased 2.6% per
year, while the prison population rose 5.7% per year.
The low rate of growth in parole supervision reflects
changes in sentencing and parole release policies that
have resulted in increasing lengths of stay in prison and
declining prison release rates. (See Prisoners in 1999,
August 2000, NCJ 183476.)
Historically, most State inmates were released to parole
supervision after serving a portion of an indeterminate
sentence based on a parole board decision. (See box
on this page for definitions.) In 1977, 69% of offenders
released from State prison were released by a parole
board. In 44 States and the District of Columbia, parole
boards were responsible for the majority of prison
releases. In other States most inmates were released
through expiration of sentence (Louisiana, Missouri,
and Wyoming), to probation (Idaho), or to mandatory
parole (Alaska and Arizona).

Discretionary parole 
 parole boards have discretionary
authority to conditionally release prisoners based on a statutory or administrative determination of eligibility.

States began moving away from discretionary release
policies in the 1980’s in favor of determinate sentences
and mandatory supervised release. By 1989 eight
States had abolished discretionary parole. In 20 States
the majority of prison releases were through expiration
of sentence or mandatory parole release. As a percentage of all State prison releases, discretionary parole
releases decreased from 55% in 1980 to 38% in 1989,
while mandatory parole releases increased from 19%
to 30%.

Data sources

Continuing the shift away from release by a parole
board, an additional eight States abolished discretionary
parole in the 1990’s. Most of the remaining States
further restricted parole by setting specific standards
offenders must meet to be eligible for release.

Parole defined

Parole 
 a period of conditional supervised release following
a prison term. Prisoners may be released to parole either by
a parole board decision (discretionary parole) or according
to provisions of a statute (mandatory parole).

Mandatory parole 
 generally occurs in jurisdictions using
determinate sentencing statutes. Inmates are conditionally
released from prison after serving a portion of their original
sentence minus any good time earned.

National Corrections Reporting Program (NCRP) 
 collects
individual inmate records for prison admissions and releases
and parole admissions and discharges.

Annual Parole Survey (APS) 
 provides a count of the total
number of persons under parole supervision on January 1
and December 31, and a count of the number entering and
leaving supervision during each year.
National Prisoner Statistics (NPS-1) 
 provides yearend
jurisdiction-level data on the number of prisoners in State
and Federal correctional facilities and the number of parole
violators returned to prison during each year.

Survey of Inmates in State Adult Correctional Facilities 

provides self-reported data on individual characteristics of
State inmates admitted to prison while under parole supervision and on characteristics of soon to be released inmates.

2 Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

States that have abolished discretionary parole, 2000
All offenders
Arizona
Californiaa
Delaware
Floridab
Illinois
Indiana
Kansasc
Maine
a

Minnesota
Mississippi
North Carolina
Ohiod
Oregon
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin

Certain violent offenders
Alaska
Louisiana
New York
Tennessee

In 1976 the Uniform Determinate Sentencing Act abolished
discretionary parole for all offenses except some violent crimes
with a long sentence or a sentence to life.
b
In 1995 parole eligibility was abolished for offenses
with a life sentence and a 25-year mandatory term.
c
Excludes a few offenses, primarily 1st-degree murder
and intentional 2nd-degree murder.
d
Excludes murder and aggravated murder.

By yearend 2000, 29 States and the
District of Columbia had adopted the
Federal truth-in-sentencing standard
that requires Part 1 violent offenders to
serve not less than 85% of their
sentence in prison before becoming
eligible for release (table 2). Part 1
violent offenses, as defined by the
Federal Bureau of Investigation’s
Uniform Crime Reports, include
murder, nonnegligent manslaughter,
rape, robbery, and aggravated assault.
By adopting this standard, States could
receive truth-in-sentencing funds under
the Violent Offender Incarceration and
Truth-in-Sentencing (VOITIS) incentive
grant program as established by the
1994 Crime Act. VOITIS grants can
be used by States to build or expand
prison capacity.
Five States (Delaware, Minnesota,
Tennessee, Utah, and Washington)
enacted truth-in-sentencing laws prior
to passage of the Crime Act. The
remaining States passed truth-insentencing laws after 1994. (See
Truth in Sentencing in State Prisons,
January 1999, NCJ 170032.)
At yearend 2000 nearly three-quarters
of the parole population was in the
District of Columbia and the 29 States
that met the Federal 85%-standard.
Nine of the ten States with the largest
parole populations in 2000 met the
Federal truth-in-sentencing standard
for violent offenders. Texas, with the
second largest parole population,
required violent offenders to serve
50% of their sentence.
Overall, 11 States more than doubled
their parole populations from 1990 to
2000; 6 of the 11 were Federal truthin-sentencing States. In absolute
numbers, 6 Federal truth-in-sentencing
States (California, Illinois, Louisiana,
New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania)
had an increase of 11,000 or more
parolees. Thirteen States (9 of which
were Federal truth-in-sentencing
States) experienced a decline of at
least 10% during this period.

Table 2. Number of adults on parole, by State, yearend 1990, 1995, and 2000
Parole populationa
1990
1995
2000
All States
Truth-in-sentencing Statesc
Arizona
California
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Illinois
Iowa
Kansas
Louisiana
Maine
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Tennessee
Utah
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin
Other Statesd
Alabama
Alaska
Arkansas
Colorado
Hawaii
Idaho
Indiana
Kentucky
Maryland
Massachusetts
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
Oklahoma
Rhode Island
South Dakota
Texas
Vermont
West Virginia
Wyoming

Number
Percent change per 100,000
adultsb
1990-2000

502,134

641,038

652,199

29.9%

312

2,474
68,120
416
1,002
5,157
5,237
20,406
18,882
1,991
5,647
9,754
18
11,083
1,701
3,321
8,939
23,172
1,283
42,360
10,409
130
6,601
7,972
57,298
3,770
10,221
1,543
8,671
9,114
4,111

4,109
91,807
1,233
1,033
6,340
11,197
19,434
29,541
2,340
6,094
19,028
55
13,862
2,117
1,510
13,001
37,867
1,366
55,568
18,501
114
7,432
15,019
73,234
5,545
8,851
2,700
10,188
875
7,548

3,474
117,647
1,868
579
5,684
6,046
21,556
30,199
2,763
3,829
22,860
28
15,753
3,072
1,596
12,357
14,899
1,670
57,858
3,352
116
18,248
17,832
82,002
4,240
8,094
3,266
5,148
160
9,430

40.4%
72.7
349.6
-42.2
10.2
15.5
5.6
59.9
38.8
-32.2
134.4
55.6
42.1
80.7
-51.9
38.2
-35.7
30.2
36.6
-67.8
-10.8
176.4
123.7
43.1
12.5
-20.8
111.7
-40.6
-98.2
129.4

92
478
73
98
1,244
49
358
329
126
194
704
3
215
85
77
297
235
127
405
55
24
216
693
876
141
189
216
96
4
236

6,291
551
3,559
2,140
1,383
318
3,291
3,239
11,106
4,816
685
596
2,702
527
2,752
369
681
104,693
297
991
358

7,793
459
4,685
3,024
1,689
619
3,200
4,257
15,748
5,256
744
661
2,863
785
2,356
591
688
103,089
618
923
403

5,494
507
9,453
5,500
2,504
1,443
4,917
4,909
14,143
3,703
621
473
4,056
944
1,825
353
1,481
111,719
902
1,112
514

-12.7%
-7.9
165.6
157.0
81.1
354.5
49.4
51.6
27.3
-23.1
-9.3
-20.6
50.1
79.3
-33.7
-4.3
117.6
6.7
204.2
12.3
43.8

165
116
474
172
273
156
109
161
359
76
92
38
273
102
71
44
268
747
196
79
141

a

Based on the Annual Parole Survey.
Parolees per 100,000 adult U.S. residents based on State populations for April 1, 2000.
c
States met Federal truth-in-sentencing standards under the Violent Offender Incarceration
and Truth-in-Sentencing incentive grants program in fiscal year 2000.
d
Some States may have truth in sentencing but did not meet the Federal standard.
See Truth in Sentencing in State Prisons, NCJ 170032.
b

Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

3

Four States accounted for nearly
two-thirds of the growth in parole
during the 1990’s
Four States (California, New York,
Pennsylvania, and Texas) supervised
over half of all State parolees at
yearend 2000. Together, these States
accounted for 64% of the growth
in State parole from 1990 to 2000.

In the 1980’s discretionary parole was
the primary method of release from
State prison (table 3). Between 1985
and 1990 discretionary parole releases
increased from 88,069 to 159,731.
The number released by State parole
boards peaked in 1992 (at 170,095)
and declined each year thereafter,
dropping to 128,708 in 1999.

Consistent with the adoption of truth
in sentencing and other mandatory
release statutes, mandatory parole
releases have steadily increased,
from 26,735 in 1980 to 116,857 in
1990. By 1995 the number of mandatory releases exceeded the number
of discretionary releases. In 1999,
223,342 State prisoners were released
At yearend 2000 nearly 1 in every 320
by mandatory parole, a 91%-increase
adults were under State parole supervi- from 1990.
sion. Overall, there were 312 parolees
per 100,000 adult U.S. residents in
2000, up from 271 per 100,000
Releases from State prison,
residents in 1990.
by method of release, 1980-99

Sixteen States experienced a decline
in their parole populations. Washington State (down 98%), followed by
North Carolina (down 68%) and Mississippi (down 52%), had the largest
declines, as the result of abolishing
discretionary parole.

Among States, Pennsylvania (with 876
parolees per 100,000 State residents),
Texas (with 747), and Louisiana (with
704) had the highest rates of parole
supervision. Excluding Maine and
Washington, which abolished parole
in 1975 and 1984, respectively, North
Dakota had the lowest rate of parole
supervision (24 per 100,000 State
residents), followed by Nebraska
(with 38), Rhode Island (with 44),
and Florida (with 49).
Since 1990 discretionary releases
have declined; mandatory parole
and expiration of sentence releases
have increased
Regardless of their method of release,
nearly all State prisoners (at least 95%)
will be released from prison at some
point; nearly 80% will be released to
parole supervision. (See Prisoners in
1998, August 1999, NCJ 175687.)
As a percentage of all releases,
mandatory parole releases increased
from 29% in 1990 to 41% in 1999
(figure 1). Discretionary parole
releases dropped from 39% to 24%,
while releases due to expiration of
sentence rose from 13% to 18%.

4 Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

Percent of releases
60%

30%

Discretionary parole

Mandatory parole

0%
1980

As a percentage of all releases from
prison, violent offenders have
remained stable, while property
Releases from State prison,
by most serious offense, 1985-99

20%

20%
10%

Overall, the number of prison releases
rose from 405,374 in 1990 to 542,950
in 1999. Based on the most serious
offense for which prisoners had served
time, drug offenders comprised an
increasing percentage of prison
releases. Nearly 33% of State prison
releases in 1999 were drug offenders
(up from 26% in 1990 and 11% in
1985) (figure 2). The number of drug
offenders released rose from 23,000 in
1985 to 105,800 in 1990. After 1990
the number of drug offenders continued to go up, reaching 177,000 in
1999.

Percent of releases
50%
Property
40%
Violent
30%

50%
40%

Growth in prison releases linked to
drug offenders

Drug

10%
Expiration of sentence
1985

1990

Public-order
1995

1999

Figure 1

0%
1985

1990

1995

Figure 2

Table 3. Method of release from State prison, for selected years, 1980-99

Year

All
releases*

Discretionary
parole

Mandatory
parole

Other
conditional

Expiration of
sentence

1980

143,543

78,602

26,735

9,363

20,460

1985

206,988

88,069

62,851

15,371

34,489
51,288

1990

405,374

159,731

116,857

62,851

1992

430,198

170,095

126,836

60,800

48,971

1995

455,140

147,139

177,402

46,195

66,017

1999

542,950

128,708

223,342

66,337

98,218

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year who were released from
State prison. Counts are for December 31 for each year.
*Includes releases to probation, commutations, and other unspecified releases and
excludes escapees, AWOL’s, and transfers.

1999

offenders have dropped sharply.
Nearly 25% of releases were violent
offenders in 1999 (down from 26% in
1990), and 31% were property offenders (down from 39%).
Between 1990 and 1999, annual
releases from State prison to parole
supervision grew by an estimated
78,900 inmates (table 4). Drug offenders accounted for 61% of the increase,
followed by violent offenders (23%),
and public-order offenders (15%). The
number of property offenders released
to parole declined from 1990 to 1999.
About 98,000 State prisoners were
released unconditionally through an
expiration of their sentence in 1999, up

from 48,971 released in 1990. These
inmates were released without any
parole supervision. Of those released
in 1999, 32% were violent offenders,
32% property offenders, 24% drug
offenders, and 12% public-order
offenders.
Prison releases have served more
time and a greater portion of their
sentence before release
Among all State inmates released from
prison for their first time on their
current offense (“first releases”), the
average time served in prison
increased from 22 months in 1990 to
29 months in 1999 (table 5). Released
inmates had also served an average

Table 4. Partitioning the growth in method of release from State prison,
by offense, 1990-99
Most serious
offense
All offenses
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order

Parole supervision*
Change,
Percent
1990-99
of total

Expiration of sentence
Change,
Percent
1990-99
of total

78,900

100.0%

46,900

100.0%

19,800
-1,100
52,100
13,000

23.3

15,500
9,100
14,900
7,600

33.0
19.3
31.7
16.1

61.4
15.3

of 5 months in local jails prior to their
admission to prison. Overall, released
inmates had served a total of 34
months in 1999 C 6 months longer
than released inmates in 1990.
Murderers released in 1999 served on
average 14 months longer than those
released in 1990 (106 months versus
92 months). Rape offenders served 17
months longer (79 months compared
to 62 months). Drug offenders served
27 months in 1999, compared to 20
months in 1990.
Reflecting statutory and policy changes
that required offenders to serve a
larger portion of their sentence before
release, all offenders released for the
first time in 1999 served on average
49% of their sentence, up from 38%
in 1990.
Of the four major offense categories,
violent offenders served the highest
percentage (55%) in 1999, followed by
public-order (51%), property (46%),
and drug offenders (43%). Offenders
convicted of assault served the highest
percentage of their sentence (about
59%), followed by offenders convicted
of rape (58%).

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year who were released
from State prison. Counts are for December 31 for each year.
*Includes all releases to parole, probation, and other conditional supervision.

Table 5. Sentence length and time served for first releases from State prison, 1990 and 1999
Mean
sentence lengtha
1990
1999

Mean time served in C
Jailb
Prison
1990
1999
1990
1999

Total time servedc
1990
1999

69 mo

65 mo

6 mo

5 mo

22 mo

29 mo

28 mo

34 mo

38.0%

48.7%

99 mo
209
88
128
77
104
64

87 mo
192
102
124
76
97
62

7 mo
9
5
7
5
7
6

6 mo
10
6
6
6
6
6

39 mo
83
31
55
30
41
23

45 mo
96
49
73
42
48
33

46 mo
92
37
62
36
48
30

51 mo
106
56
79
47
55
39

43.8%
43.1
41.0
45.5
43.8
42.8
43.9

55.0%
53.1
52.5
58.3
57.0
51.6
58.7

Property offenses
Burglary
Larceny/theft
Motor vehicle theft
Fraud

65 mo
79
52
56
56

58 mo
73
45
44
49

6 mo
6
6
7
6

5 mo
5
4
5
4

18 mo
22
14
13
14

25 mo
31
19
20
19

24 mo
29
20
20
20

29 mo
36
24
25
23

34.4%
33.9
35.5
33.1
33.2

45.6%
44.3
46.9
52.5
41.7

Drug offenses
Possession
Trafficking

57 mo
61
60

59 mo
56
64

6 mo
6
6

5 mo
5
5

14 mo
12
16

22 mo
20
24

20 mo
18
22

27 mo
25
29

32.9%
29.0
34.8

42.8%
42.4
42.0

Public-order offenses

40 mo

42 mo.

5 mo

4 mo

14 mo

19 mo

18 mo

23 mo

42.6%

51.1%

All offenses
Violent offenses
Murdere
Manslaughter
Rape
Other sexual assault
Robbery
Assault

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year who were
released for the first time on the current sentence. Excludes prisoners
released from prison by escape, death, transfer, appeal, or detainer.
a
Maximum sentence length for the most serious offense. Excludes
sentences of life, life without parole, life plus additional years, and death.

Percent of
sentence servedd
1990
1999

b

Time served in jail and credited toward the current sentence.
Based on time served in jail and in prison. Detail may not add to total
because of rounding.
d
Based on total sentence length (not shown) for all consecutive sentences.
e
Includes nonnegligent manslaughter.
c

Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

5

Table 6. Time served, maximum sentence, and percent of sentence served
for Part 1 violent offenders, by State, 1993, 1996, and 1999
Mean maximum sentencea
1993
1996
1999
All States

Mean time served
1993
1996
1999

Percent of sentence servedb
1993
1996
1999

108 mo

99 mo

103 mo

46 mo

50 mo

53 mo

46%

52%

56%

Truth-in-sentencing Statesc
Arizona
California
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Illinois
Iowa
Kansas
Louisiana
Maine
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Tennessee
Utah
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin

89 mo
69
58
71
-74
150
91
192
-104
-43
50
106
96
121
70
94
136
47
237
111
117
100
130
121
107
41
84

88 mo
71
63
74
-84
134
99
135
-98
-50
56
118
98
108
67
96
121
60
226
65
119
90
121
90
97
47
82

93 mo
60
60
80
-91
117
107
146
-96
-52
60
128
99
120
77
98
120
38
165
62
140
104
131
100
113
49
80

41 mo
43
33
38
42
31
63
40
39
29
67
43
46
34
45
74
47
38
50
33
31
61
43
54
44
48
43
41
31
41

46 mo
48
36
49
42
45
67
45
48
33
68
44
53
37
58
78
46
37
53
44
47
71
37
61
44
58
36
50
34
43

50 mo
49
37
64
46
53
76
48
58
41
45
39
59
39
57
85
53
57
66
52
29
64
42
80
46
65
35
62
38
51

50%
62
57
54
-42
42
44
20
-64
-/
68
43
77
39
54
53
24
66
26
39
46
44
37
36
38
76
49

54%
68
57
65
-54
50
45
36
-69
-/
67
49
80
43
56
56
36
78
32
58
51
48
48
40
51
72
52

58%
81
61
80
-58
65
45
40
-48
-/
65
44
86
44
74
68
44
76
39
67
57
44
50
36
55
78
64

Other Statesd
Alabama
Alaska
Arkansas
Colorado
Hawaii
Idaho
Indiana
Kentucky
Maryland
Massachusetts
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
Oklahoma
Rhode Island
South Dakota
Texas
Vermont
West Virginia
Wyoming

129 mo
-115
131
98
138
104
108
242
118
123
89
118
-98
104
80
101
157
100
171
140

113 mo
-124
109
89
124
90
111
156
106
110
119
123
86
89
110
80
78
123
113
108
123

104 mo
-88
157
96
125
98
102
196
99
98
-140
107
100
111
68
72
97
121
139
137

53 mo
-65
35
39
64
59
54
77
63
51
61
55
-36
34
44
36
48
29
76
69

54 mo
-71
37
40
57
80
56
71
59
61
54
49
34
39
42
50
37
57
56
50
69

55 mo
-63
56
50
59
36
46
/
57
61
60
61
41
48
47
46
29
59
54
62
55

42%
-57
27
40
47
57
50
32
53
42
69
47
-37
33
55
35
31
29
44
49

48%
-57
34
45
46
89
51
45
56
55
46
40
40
44
38
63
48
46
50
46
56

54%
-72
36
52
47
37
45
/
58
63
-44
39
48
42
67
40
61
45
45
40

Note: Data were obtained from the Violent Offender Incarceration and Truth-in-Sentencing (VOITIS) Incentive Grant
Program. Includes only offenders with a sentence of more than
1 year released for the first time on the current sentence.
Excludes persons released from prison by escape, death,
transfer, appeal or detainer. Part 1 violent crimes include
murder/nonnegligent manslaughter, rape, robbery, and
aggravated assault.
--Not reported.

6 Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

/Not calculated.
a
Excludes sentences of life or death.
b
Based on States that reported both mean maximum sentence
and mean time served.
c
States met the Federal 85% requirement for VOITIS grants
in fiscal year 2000 based on 1999 data. Excludes the District
of Columbia.
d
Requirement for percent of sentence served may vary
by State and by type of offender.

Time served by released Part 1
violent offenders increased in 33
States between 1993 and 1999
Through the VOITIS program, 33
States reported an increase in average
time served by released Part 1 violent
prisoners between 1993 and 1999
(table 6). Overall, time served by
released Part 1 violent offenders rose
from 46 months to 53 months. The
average time served for violent offenders released in 1999 ranged from 29
months in North Dakota to 85 months
in Missouri.
The percent of the total sentence
served increased from 46% in 1993 to
56% in 1999. Part 1 violent offenders
in Missouri (86%), Arizona (81%), and
Connecticut (80%) served the highest
percent of their sentences before
release. Violent offenders in Utah and
Arkansas served the lowest percent of
their sentences before release (36%).

On average, in 1999 released violent
offenders in Federal truth-in-sentencing
States served 50 months (or 58% of
the average maximum sentence), while
violent offenders in other States served
55 months (54% of the maximum
sentence). Between 1993 and 1999,
the percent of sentence served by
released violent inmates rose in 21 of
the 25 truth-in-sentencing States that
reported data and in 12 of the 21
States not meeting the 85%-standard.
Inmates released by parole boards
served longer than those released
by mandatory parole
In 1999 prisoners released by discretionary parole for the first time on the
current sentence had served an
average of 35 months in prison and jail,
while those released through mandatory parole had served 33 months
(table 7). Among discretionary

Table 7. Sentence length and time served for first releases from State prison,
by method of release, 1990 and 1999

Type of release
and offense

Mean
sentence
lengtha

1990
Mean
total time
servedb

Percent of
sentence
servedc

Mean
sentence
lengtha

1999
Mean
total time
servedb

Percent of
sentence
servedc

82 mo
118
77
70
44

29 mo
49
25
20
18

34%
40
31
29
37

89 mo
126
83
80
49

35 mo
59
31
28
21

37%
44
34
33
39

Mandatory release
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order

42 mo
64
38
33
27

27 mo
41
23
20
19

55%
59
52
50
61

48 mo
66
43
40
38

33 mo
47
30
27
25

61%
63
59
59
61

Expiration of sentence
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order

56 mo
81
50
35
43

31 mo
44
27
21
28

53%
53
52
57
62

49 mo
69
41
41
35

36 mo
52
30
29
25

67%
68
65
65
66

Discretionary release
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year. Excludes persons
released from prison by escape, death, transfer, appeal, or detainer.
a
Excludes sentences of life without parole, life plus additional years, life and death.
b
Includes time served in prison and jail.
c
Based on total sentence length (not shown) for all consecutive sentences.

releases, time served rose for all types
of offenders during the 1990’s. In 1999
violent offenders released by discretionary parole served 10 months longer
than violent offenders released in
1990; property offenders served 6
months longer; drug offenders, 8
months; and public-order offenders,
3 months.
Among mandatory parole releases,
time served also increased for all types
of offenses C violent and public-order
offenders served 6 months longer in
1999 than in 1990, while property and
drug offenders served 7 months
longer.
Although the average time served by
discretionary releases exceeded the
time served by mandatory parole
releases in both years, discretionary
releases served a smaller percentage
of their prison sentences before
release. In 1999 discretionary releases
served 37% of their total prison
sentence (up from 34% in 1990);
mandatory releases served 61%
of their sentence (up from 55%).
Prisoners released due to expiration
of sentence had served longer in 1999
(36 months) than in 1990 (31 months).
Violent offenders released through
expiration of sentence had the largest
increase (8 months) in time served
in prison. In 1999 violent offenders
released through expiration of
sentence served, on average, 68%
of their total maximum sentence, up
from 53% in 1990.
Among discretionary and mandatory
parole releases, black offenders
served longer than whites
Time served by prisoners released for
the first time on their current sentence
in 1999 varied among white, black, and
Hispanic prisoners. Overall, black
non-Hispanic offenders released by

Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

7

Table 8. Mean time served in prison for first releases to State parole, by method of release, 1999
Most serious offense

Male

Discretionary parole releases
Female
Whitea
Blacka

Hispanic

Male

Mandatory parole releases
Blacka
Female
Whitea

Hispanic

36 mo

26 mo

34 mo

37 mo

33 mo

34 mo

24 mo

31 mo

38 mo

30 mo

60 mo
122
58
93
52
61
46

45 mo
91
52
-41
40
34

58 mo
126
52
80
52
62
43

62 mo
116
67
122
54
61
48

47 mo
113
39
54
40
45
41

48 mo
104
50
86
46
51
32

36 mo
87
42
-44
33
27

47 mo
112
46
82
49
52
30

53 mo
105
53
98
43
56
36

41 mo
97
52
71
42
39
29

Property offenses
Burglary
Larceny/theft
Motor vehicle theft
Fraud

32 mo
39
25
26
26

21 mo
27
19
21
20

30 mo
37
24
26
24

32 mo
41
23
26
25

30 mo
36
22
27
26

31 mo
37
26
24
27

22 mo
24
20
19
22

29 mo
35
25
23
25

33 mo
41
27
28
27

29 mo
34
24
24
23

Drug offenses
Possession
Trafficking

29 mo
27
29

24 mo
23
24

27 mo
24
28

28 mo
26
28

31 mo
34
29

27 mo
27
31

21 mo
20
26

22 mo.
20
25

31 mo
34
36

26 mo
27
29

Public-order offenses

21 mo

19 mo

19 mo

22 mo

22 mo

26 mo

21 mo

24 mo

29 mo

24 mo

All offenses
Violent offenses
Murderb
Manslaughter
Rape
Other sexual assault
Robbery
Assault

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year. Excludes prisoners
released from prison by escape, death, transfer, appeal, or detainer. Includes time
served in prison and jail.

discretionary parole in 1999 served 37
months; white non-Hispanics served 34
months; and Hispanics 33 months
(table 8). Black offenders released by
mandatory parole served 7 months
longer than whites (38 months
compared to 31 months). Hispanics
served 30 months.
Among released violent offenders,
blacks served 4 months longer than
whites before a discretionary parole
release (62 months compared to 58
months) and 6 months longer before
a mandatory parole (53 months
compared to 47 months). Hispanic
prisoners served the shortest amount
of time for violent offenses before
release (47 months before a discretionary parole release and 41 months
before a mandatory release).
In 1999 Hispanics served longer than
other groups for drug offenses before a
discretionary parole release (31
months versus 27 for whites and 28 for
blacks). Black drug offenders served
more time before a mandatory release
(31 months), than whites (22 months)
and Hispanics (26 months).
Women released in 1999 served less
time in State prison than men, regardless of the method of release. On
average, women released by discretionary parole served 26 months, and

8 Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

--Not calculated.
a
Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.
b
Includes nonnegligent manslaughter.

men served 36 months. Women
Over half of prison releases had a
released by mandatory parole served
prior incarceration; more than a
24 months and men served 34 months. quarter were parole violators
For violent offenses, women served 45
months prior to discretionary release
compared to 36 months among women
who received a mandatory parole.
Women in prison for drug offenses
served 24 months before a discretionary release and 21 months before a
mandatory release.
Table 9. Characteristics of State
prisoners expected to be released
by yearend 1999
Characteristic

Percent of
expected
releases

Most serious offense
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order
Other

33.2%
26.6
26.7
13.3
0.2

Number of prior incarcerations
0
1
2
3 to 5
6 or more

44.0%
20.6
9.9
15.3
10.2

Criminal justice status at time of arrest
None
46.4%
On probation
26.2
On parole
26.7
Escape
0.7
Note: Based on data from the Survey of
Inmates in State Adult Correctional Facilities,
1997.

A majority of released State prisoners
had been in prison before and were
returned to prison for new offenses or
parole violations. According to inmates
in State prison in 1997, 56% of those
who expected to be released to the
community by yearend 1999 had one
or more prior incarcerations, and 25%
had 3 or more prior incarcerations
(table 9). Among those expecting to
Table 10. Substance abuse, mental
illness, and homelessness among
State prisoners expected to be
released by yearend 1999

Characteristic

Percent of
expected
releases

Alcohol or drug involved
at time of offense

83.9%

Alcohol abuse
Alcohol use at time of offense
Alcohol dependent

41.5%
24.9

Drug use
In month before offense
At time of offense
Intravenous use in the past
Committed offense for money
for drugs

58.8%
45.3
24.8
20.9

Mentally ill

14.3%

Homeless at time of arrest

11.6%

Note: Based on data from the Survey of
Inmates in State Adult Correctional Facilities,
1997.

Table 11. State parole entries and
discharges, 1980 and 1990-2000
Year
1980

Entries
113,383

Discharges
105,215

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

349,030
355,748
362,466
372,823
382,999

274,697
300,084
325,470
366,038
374,183

1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000

381,878
390,537
396,651
409,922
423,850
441,605

368,746
372,875
389,074
402,946
410,613
432,183

Note: Based on the Annual Parole Survey,
1980-2000. Counts are for entries and
discharges between January 1 and December
31 of each year.

return to the community by 1999, 27%
had been on parole and 26% on probation at the time of arrest for their
current incarceration.
These criminal records were
compounded by histories of drug and
alcohol abuse, mental illness, and
homelessness (table 10). Among
prisoners expected to be released to
the community by yearend 1999, 84%
reported being involved in drugs or
alcohol at the time of the offense.
Nearly 25% were determined to be
alcohol dependent, and 21% had
committed the offense to obtain money
for drugs. Fourteen percent were
determined to be mentally ill, and 12%
reported being homeless at the time
of arrest.
State parole entries and discharges
rose during the 1990’s
During 2000 there were 441,605
entries to State parole, a 27% increase
over the number that entered parole in
1990 (table 11). The number of
discharges from State parole rose from
274,697 in 1990 to 432,183 in 2000, an
increase of 57%. During the 1990’s,
State parole entries increased an
average of 2.4% per year, while parole
discharges increased an average of
4.6% per year.

Discharges include parolees who are
successful as well as those who are
unsuccessful (including revocations,
returns to prison or jail, and absconders). Discharges also include parolees transferred to other jurisdictions
and those who die while under
supervision.
Re-releases an increasing portion
of State parole entries
Among parole entries, the percentage
who had been re-released rose
between 1990 and 1999. Re-releases
are persons leaving prison after having
served time either for a violation of
parole or other conditional release or
for a new offense committed while
under parole supervision. In 1990,
27% of entries to parole were
re-releases; in 1999, 45% were rereleases (figure 3). During 1999 an
estimated 192,400 re-releases entered
parole, an increase of 103% over the
94,900 re-releases in 1990.
Table 12. Criminal justice
characteristics of State parole entries,
1990 and 1999
Characteristic

Percent of entries
1990
1999

Most serious offense
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order
Other

24.8%
38.7
27.2
7.4
2.0

24.4%
30.8
35.3
9.0
0.5

Method of release
Discretionary parole
Mandatory parole

59.8%
40.2

41.7%
58.3

Type of release
First release
Re-release
Other

72.4%
27.2
0.5

54.2%
45.4
0.4

Time served in State prison
First releases
Less than 12 mos.
47.0%
12-23
25.2
24-59
20.3
60 or more
7.5

34.0%
27.7
26.1
12.3

Mean time served

22 mo

29 mo

Re-releases
Less than 12 mos.
12-23
24-59
60 or more

74.2%
15.8
8.1
1.9

72.3%
13.7
10.3
3.7

Mean time served

11 mo

13 mo

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence of
more than 1 year who were released from
State prison. Data are from the National
Corrections Reporting Program.

Entries to State parole,
by type of prison release, 1985-99
Percent of parole entries
80%
60%

First releases

40%
Re-releases

20%
0%
1985

1990

1995

1999

Figure 3

After having been returned to prison
for a parole or conditional release
violation, re-releases served on
average 13 months in prison in 1999
(table 12). From 1990 to 1999 their
average time served in prison following re-admission increased by 2
months. In both years about 7 in 10
re-releases had served less than 12
months in prison.
Table 13. Demographic
characteristics of State parole entries,
1990 and 1999
Characteristic

Percent of entries
1990
1999

Gender
Male
Female

92.1%
7.9

90.1%
9.9

Race/Hispanic origin
White non-Hispanic
Black non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Other

34.2%
48.8
16.3
0.7

35.4%
47.3
16.1
1.2

Age at prison release
17 or younger
18-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-54
55 or older

0.2%
23.4
26.6
22.2
13.9
7.3
4.9
1.5

0.1%
16.3
19.0
19.7
19.2
13.5
10.2
2.1

Mean age
Education
8th grade or less
Some high school
High school graduate
Some college or more

31 yrs
16.8%
45.4
29.6
8.2

34 yrs
11.0%
39.8
42.2
7.0

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence
of more than 1 year who were released
from State prison. Data are from the
National Corrections Reporting Program.

Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

9

An increasing percentage of women
entering parole had served time for
drug offenses (table 14). In 1990, 36%
The average age of prisoners released of female parole entries were drug
offenders; by 1999, 42% were drug
to parole increased from 31 years in
offenders. Women first released to
1990 to 34 years in 1999 (table 13).
parole were less likely to be property
In 1999 an estimated 109,300 State
prisoners age 40 or older were paroled, offenders in 1999 (35%) than in 1990
C 26% of all entries to parole. This
(42%). As a percentage of women
entering parole, violent offenders
was more than double the 47,800
remained unchanged (16%).
prisoners age 40 or older who entered
parole in 1990.
Among parole entries, the racial and
ethnic distributions remained nearly
The number of parole entries among
inmates under age 35 declined over
stable during the 1990’s. In 1999, 35%
the period. In 1999, 233,500 State
of parole entries were white, 47% were
prisoners under age 35 entered parole, black, and 16% were Hispanic. Violent
down from 252,700. The largest
offenders accounted for approximately
decline was among inmates age 25
a quarter of first releases among
whites, blacks, and Hispanics in both
to 29. In 1990 they represented 27%
1990 and 1999.
of all parole entries; in 1999, 19%.
State parole entries older in 1999
than in 1990

Female entries to parole increased
during the 1990’s
In 1999, 10% of entries to State parole
were female, up from 8% in 1990. The
number of women who entered parole
increased from an estimated 27,600 in
1990 to 42,000 in 1999. Although the
52% increase in the number of female
parole entries outpaced that of males
(up 19%), there were 381,900 male
entries in 1999.

Drug offenders represented an
increasing percentage of parole
entries, among all groups. In 1999
drug offenders comprised 39% of black
parole entries (up from 31% in 1990);
43% of Hispanic entries (up from 41%);
and 21% of white entries (up from
18%).

Parole success rates unchanged
since 1990
Of the 410,613 discharges from State
parole in 1999, 42% successfully
completed their term of supervision,
43% were returned to prison or jail, and
10% absconded. In 1990, 45% of
State parole discharges were successful. Between 1990 and 1999 the
percent successful among State parole
discharges has ranged from 42% to
49%, without any distinct trend.
States differed in their rate of success
among parole discharges (table 15).
States with the highest rates of
success in 1999 were Massachusetts
and Mississippi (at 83% each),
followed by North Carolina (80%) and
North Dakota (79%). Utah (18%) and
California (21%) had the lowest rates
of success in 1999.
When comparing State success rates
for parole discharges, differences may
be due to variations in parole populations, such as age at prison release,
criminal history, and most serious
offense. Success rates may also differ
based on the intensity of supervision
and the parole agency policies related
to revocation of technical violators.

Table 14. Most serious offense of first releases to State parole, 1990 and 1999

Most serious offense

Male

First releases to State parole in 1990
Female
Whitea
Blacka
Hispanic

Male

First releases to State parole in 1999
Female
Whitea
Blacka
Hispanic

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

Violent offenses
Murderb
Manslaughter
Rape
Other sexual assault
Robbery
Assault

26.1%
1.8
1.0
2.1
2.9
11.1
6.1

15.9%
2.2
1.6
0.1
0.4
6.4
4.3

23.7%
1.7
1.4
2.3
4.5
6.8
5.5

27.0%
2.0
0.9
1.7
1.4
14.0
6.3

22.4%
1.9
0.7
1.7
2.0
9.9
5.4

28.7%
1.4
1.1
1.8
3.8
9.5
9.4

15.9%
1.3
1.2
0.2
0.4
4.9
6.2

25.9%
1.0
1.3
2.3
5.6
5.5
8.1

28.4%
1.6
0.9
1.2
1.7
12.2
9.3

26.7%
1.6
0.9
1.3
3.5
8.0
9.6

Property offenses
Burglary
Larceny/theft
Motor vehicle theft
Fraud

37.6%
18.4
9.2
2.7
3.9

41.5%
6.1
17.3
0.9
14.8

44.9%
20.6
10.7
2.8
6.7

35.3%
15.0
10.5
2.3
4.2

28.3%
16.3
5.9
2.7
1.6

28.7%
13.4
6.5
2.2
3.3

35.3%
6.4
12.8
1.2
12.4

38.6%
16.7
8.8
2.3
6.3

24.9%
10.3
6.9
1.7
3.5

20.4%
10.6
3.7
2.5
1.3

Drug offenses
Possession
Trafficking

26.6%
7.9
14.0

36.2%
11.0
17.7

18.4%
6.0
8.2

30.6%
10.2
15.5

40.5%
7.7
26.8

31.3%
8.5
17.4

41.7%
12.0
20.0

20.9%
7.4
9.2

38.7%
10.1
21.9

42.6%
9.4
26.6

8.5%

5.1%

11.2%

6.1%

7.3%

10.9%

6.5%

14.2%

7.6%

9.8%

All offenses

Public-order offenses

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year who were released for the first time
on the current sentence. Excludes prisoners released from prison by escape, death, transfer, appeal,
or detainer. Detail may not add to total because of rounding and exclusion of other/unspecified offenses.
a
Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.
b
Includes nonnegligent manslaughter.

10 Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

Table 15. Percent successful among
State parole discharges, by State,
1990, 1995, and 1999
Region and
jurisdiction
All States

Percent successful of
all parole discharges
1990
1995
1999
44.6% 44.3% 41.9%

Northeast
Connecticut
Maine
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Vermont

55.0%
/
75.8
60.1
61.3
48.9
79.2
62.6
38.2

55.3%
/
71.3
67.3
43.1
51.9
70.3
64.8
48.6

57.7%
/
82.9
-55.1
54.9
/
65.9
65.8

Midwest
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Nebraska
North Dakota
Ohio
South Dakota
Wisconsin

47.0%
73.0
69.8
11.5
52.7
73.3
52.5
68.2
76.6
52.4
66.8
72.6

66.3%
74.6
68.0
37.4
60.0
66.6
66.4
57.3
75.7
50.0
70.6
59.1

62.9%
63.0
60.9
32.3
51.9
55.7
40.4
62.9
79.1
43.6
62.6
63.4

South
Alabama
Arkansas
Delaware
Dist. of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maryland
Mississippi
North Carolina
Oklahoma
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
West Virginia

28.8%
68.1
82.8
40.1
61.2
62.2
22.6
61.5
67.2
62.6
78.8
69.2
54.7
35.9
35.1
68.0
48.2

/
40.1
-48.8
40.9
60.2
31.6
47.8
64.6
78.2
68.4
67.0
55.9
25.8
41.0
57.8
46.0

72.1%
39.6
/
-56.5
63.4
33.7
46.9
47.0
82.7
79.8
75.4
65.3
42.3
54.9
63.2
65.2

West
Alaska
Arizona
California
Colorado
Hawaii
Idaho
Montana
Nevada
New Mexico
Oregon
Utah
Washington
Wyoming

44.0%
62.3
19.4
58.2
13.1
61.5
55.3
70.4
37.8
27.9
21.8
47.9
66.1

39.5%
48.9
20.9
48.9
40.5
26.0
-74.6
28.9
39.6
23.7
29.4
48.5

33.7%
61.9
21.3
36.3
32.4
46.4
59.9
66.8
28.5
50.6
18.5
/
59.6

Note: Based on the Annual Parole Survey.
Counts are for discharges between January 1
and December 31 of each year.
--Not reported.
/Not calculated.

Success rates highest among first
releases and discretionary parole
releases
In every year during the 1990’s, first
releases to State parole were more
likely to have been successful than
re-releases. Among State parole
discharges in 1990, 56% of first
releases successfully completed their
supervision, compared to 15% of
re-releases. Of all those exiting parole
in 1999, 63% of first releases were
successful, compared to 21% of
re-releases (table 16).

discharges in 1999, 54% of discretionary parolees were successful
compared to 33% of those who had
received mandatory parole. Between
1990 and 1999 the percent successful
among discretionary parolees varied
between 50% and 56%, while the
percent successful among mandatory
parolees varied between 24% and
33%.

Among parole discharges in 1999 who
had been released from prison for the
first time on their current offense,
mandatory parolees had a higher
success rate (79%) than discretionary
Success rates also varied by method of parolees (61%) (table 17). Discretionary parolees in 1999 who had been
release. In every year between 1990
re-released from prison were more
and 1999, State prisoners released by
likely to be successful (37%) than
a parole board had higher success
rates than those released through
mandatory parolees (17%).
mandatory parole. Among parole
Table 16. Percent successful among State parole discharges,
by method of release from prison, 1990-99
Type of releaseb
Year

a
b

All dischargesa

First
release

Re-release

Method of releaseb
Discretionary
Mandatory
parole
parole

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

44.6%
46.8
48.6
46.9
44.3

56.4%
60.7
57.4
65.4
56.7

14.6%
17.1
22.5
23.0
19.1

51.6%
52.6
50.7
54.8
52.2

23.8%
24.9
29.8
33.5
30.4

1995
1996
1997
1998
1999

44.3
45.2
43.4
43.8
41.9

63.4
67.4
63.4
62.9
63.5

18.0
19.4
18.7
20.5
21.1

54.3
55.9
55.8
55.3
54.1

28.0
30.2
30.8
32.2
33.1

Data are from the Annual Parole Survey.
Data are from the National Corrections Reporting Program.

Table 17. Percent successful among State parole discharges,
by type and method of release, 1990-99
Year

First release
Discretionary
Mandatory

Re-release
Discretionary
Mandatory

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994

59.6%
58.5
49.4
58.8
53.2

51.5%
51.9
59.8
88.8
81.6

26.7%
33.5
43.3
41.8
43.9

11.7%
13.7
16.6
17.4
13.7

1995
1996
1997
1998
1999

57.8
60.2
60.9
61.7
61.4

81.5
84.3
78.9
78.6
78.6

40.4
42.7
39.2
38.1
36.7

12.7
14.0
13.5
16.2
16.6

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence of more than 1 year who were released
from State prison. Data are from the National Corrections Reporting Program.

Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

11

Among parole discharges, success
rates rose for blacks and Hispanics;
dropped for whites

Hispanic parolees, who had the lowest
rate of success in 1990, had the
highest rate in 1999.

Between 1990 and 1999 the success
rates among State parole discharges
increased from 33% to 39% among
blacks and increased from 31% to 51%
among Hispanics, but dropped from
44% to 41% among whites (table 18).
The 11 percentage-point difference in
success rates between white and black
parole discharges in 1990 narrowed to
less than 2 percentage points in 1999.

For female parole discharges, the rate
of success rose over 10 percentage
points (from 37% in 1990 to 48% in
1999). The success rate among male
parole discharges increased from 36%
to 39%.

Table 18. Percent successful among
State parole discharges, by selected
characteristics, 1990 and 1999
Characteristic

Percent successful
1990
1999

Gender
Male
Female

35.9%
37.1

39.3%
47.7

Race/Hispanic origin
White non-Hispanic
Black non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Other

44.1%
33.2
31.0
33.6

40.9%
39.0
50.6
42.2

Age at parole discharge
17 or younger
18-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-54
55 or older

26.2%
33.4
34.8
34.1
36.8
38.4
46.2
56.6

42.9%
36.3
42.6
39.0
38.3
39.5
43.1
54.5

Method of release
Discretionary parole
Mandatory parole

51.6%
23.8

54.1%
33.1

Type of release
First release
Re-release

56.4%
14.6

63.5%
21.1

Most serious offense
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order

39.1%
33.8
33.7
46.1

41.0%
36.5
40.9
47.1

Time served in prison*
Less than 12 months
12-23 months
24-59 months
60 months or more

74.6%
67.7
59.1
49.5

74.0%
68.7
62.7
62.0

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence of
more than 1 year who were released from
State prison. Data are from the National
Corrections Reporting Program.
*First releases only.

12 Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

Older parole discharges had the
highest rates of success in both years.
Accounting for 2.1% of discharges in
1999, parolees age 55 or older had the
highest rate of successful completion
(55%). Among parole discharges in
other age groups, success rates fluctuated between 36% and 43%.
Success rates highest among first
releases serving less than 12
months in prison
Among parole discharges, 74% of first
releases who had served less than 12
months in prison successfully
completed parole, the highest success
rate among paroled first releases. As
the length of time served in prison
increased for first releases, the
success rate declined, with offenders
with the longest time served (5 years or
more) having the lowest success rate
(62%). The rate of success for this
group still exceeded the overall
success rate of 42% for all parolees.

In 1999 parole discharges served
an average of 26 months under
supervision, up from 23 months
in 1990
Among first releases from prison,
successful parole board releases
served, on average, 34 months in
1999; while successful mandatory
parole releases served 21 months.
Unsuccessful parole discharges
released by a parole board served an
average 26 months, while those
released by mandatory parole served
19 months. Overall, successful parole
discharges in 1999 served an average
of 27 months under parole supervision
and unsuccessful discharges served
24 months.
Regardless of outcome, State parole
discharges who had been released by
a parole board served longer under
supervision in 1999 than in 1990.
Average time served
on parole*
1990
1999
23 mo
26 mo

Method of
release
All releases
Successful releases
Discretionary
Mandatory

25 mo
27
21

27 mo
34
21

Unsuccessful releases
Discretionary
Mandatory

21 mo
19
22

24 mo
26
19

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence
of more than 1 year who were released
from State prison.
*First releases only.

Rates of successful termination higher when California is excluded
The size and make-up of California’s When California data are excluded,
parole population, combined with the the success rate for all parole
low percent of successful terminadischarges rises to 53% (from 42%),
and the rate for mandatory parolees
tions (25% in 1999), affect the
increases to 64% (from 33%) in 1999.
national rate of success for parole
discharges. If data from California
are removed from the analysis, the
Percent successful among parole discharges
in California and all other States, 1995-99
comparative rates of success for
discretionary and mandatory parole
California
Parole in all other States
change dramatically.
All
Manda- DiscreOverall, California accounted
for nearly 30% of all State parole
discharges during 1999. Discretionary parole, though available as a
method of release, is rarely used in
California. In 1999 more than 99%
of California’s parole discharges
had received mandatory parole.

Year

parole

All

1995
1996
1997
1998
1999

22.7%
23.8
22.8
24.3
25.2

52.8%
56.6
55.9
54.5
53.3

tory
64.0%
71.6
67.2
65.7
63.9

tionary
54.2%
55.8
55.8
55.2
53.9

Note: Based on prisoners with a sentence
of more than 1 year who were released
from State prison.

Revised 2/14/03, th

Table 19. Percent parole violators
among admissions to State prison,
1990 and 1999
Region and
jurisdiction

Percent of admissions
that were parole violators
1990
1999
28.8%

34.8%

Northeast
Connecticut
Maine
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Vermont

43.4%
21.3
31.4
19.3
20.8
18.1
26.1
24.9
14.5

17.4%
40.9
22.7
31.6
35.5
31.5
36.1
19.0
17.0

Midwest
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
Nebraska
North Dakota
Ohio
South Dakota
Wisconsin

25.4%
5.3
26.7
35.0
23.2
23.1
26.2
16.3
13.8
12.9
17.7
19.2

27.3%
9.6
19.3
38.2
36.8
32.1
38.8
16.1
18.7
17.6
20.7
31.2

South
Alabama
Arkansas
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maryland
Mississippi
North Carolina
Oklahoma
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
West Virginia

25.9%
22.4
6.2
5.3
21.1
27.5
14.7
13.8
13.9
13.0
3.4
22.8
32.9
37.1
10.2
13.0

9.3%
25.3
25.3
6.9
20.5
31.9
53.1
32.6
9.7
12.8
14.1
24.1
36.2
21.0
11.1
9.7

West
Alaska
Arizona
California
Colorado
Hawaii
Idaho
Montanab
Nevada
New Mexico
Oregon
Utah
Washington
Wyoming

14.0%
14.0
58.1
20.9
27.7
20.4
19.9
18.6
28.4
48.0
51.0
13.0
6.4

44.2%
23.0
67.2
37.1
49.1
32.2
-17.7
35.7
25.1
55.3
10.5
34.5

All Statesa

Note: Based on data from the National
Prisoners Statistics (NPS-1 ) series.
--Not reported.
a
Excludes the District of Columbia.
b
Parole violators comprised 9.5% of admissions in 1999; however, data on other persons
returned after post-custody supervision were
not available.

Number of parole violators returned
to prison continued to rise during
the 1990’s
In 1999, 197,606 parole violators were
returned to State prison, up from
27,177 in 1980 and 131,502 in 1990.
As a percentage of all admissions to
State prison, parole violators more than
doubled from 17% in 1980 to 35% in
1999 (figure 4).
Between 1990 and 1999 the number of
parole violators rose 50%, while the
number of new court commitments
rose 7%. On average, the number of
parole violators grew 4% per year,
while the number of new court commitments rose 0.8% per year.
In 1999 parole violators accounted for
more than 50% of State prison admission in California (67%), Utah (55%),
and Louisiana (53%) (table 19). In five
States C Florida (7%), Alabama (9%),
Indiana (10%), Mississippi (10%) and
West Virginia (10%) C parole violators
comprised 10% or less of all
admissions.
In 35 States parole violators increased
as a percentage of admissions
between 1990 and 1999. As a
percentage of all admissions, parole
violators rose the most in Louisiana
(from 15% in 1990 to 53% in 1999).
Nearly a quarter of State prisoners
in 1997 were parole violators
Based on personal interviews of State
inmates, an estimated 24% of prisoners in 1997 said they were on parole at
the time of the offense for which they
were serving time in prison (up from
22% in 1991). Of the 1,129,180
inmates under the jurisdiction of State
prison authorities at yearend 1997,
approximately 271,000 were parole
violators.
Parole violators in prison in 1997 were
older and more likely to have committed a public order or drug offense than
parole violators in 1991 (table 20). In
1997 about 25% of parole violators in
prison were age 40 or older, compared
to 17% in 1991. In 1997 an estimated

Admissions to State prison,
by type of admission, 1980-99
Percent of admissions
100%
80%
60%

New court
commitments

40%
Parole violators

20%
0%
1980

1985

1990

1995

1999

Figure 4

34% were serving time for a violent
offense and 23% for a drug offense. In
1991, 36% of parole violators were in
prison for a violent offense; 19% for a
drug offense. In both years, more than
42% of parole violators reported having
been incarcerated 3 or more times in
the past.
Table 20. Characteristics of parole
violators in State prison,
1991 and 1997

Characteristic

Percent of
parole violators
1991
1997

Gender
Male
Female

96.0%
4.0

95.3%
4.7

Race/Hispanic origin
White non-Hispanic
Black non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Other

31.2%
48.4
17.9
2.5

27.5%
51.8
18.3
2.4

Age at prison release
17 or younger
18-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-54
55 or older

0.2%
15.1
26.1
25.9
16.0
9.0
5.9
1.9

0.1%
9.4
20.8
24.1
20.3
13.9
9.3
2.0

Most serious offense
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order
Other

35.9%
35.8
19.3
8.7
0.3

33.7%
30.1
23.1
12.9
0.2

Number of prior incarcerations
1
37.8%
2
19.4
3 to 5
26.8
6 or more
16.0

42.3%
14.0
26.3
17.3

Note: Data are from the Survey of Inmates
in State Adult Correctional Facilities, 1991
and 1997.

Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000 13

of an arrest or conviction for a new
offense; 22% said they had absconded
or otherwise failed to report to a parole
officer; 16% said they had a drugAmong parole violators in State prison
in 1997, 215,964 (85%) reported that
related violation; and 18% reported
their parole had been revoked or taken other reasons such as possession of a
away for violating the conditions of their gun, maintaining contact with known
release. Of that number, 70% said that felons, or failure to maintain employtheir parole had been revoked because ment (table 21).
70% of parole violators in prison in
1997 returned for a new offense

Table 21. Reasons for revocation among parole violators in State prison,
for all States, California, New York, and Texas, 1997
Reason for revocation

All States

California

New York

Texas

Arrest/conviction for new offense

69.9%

60.3%

87.1%

78.8%

Drug related violations
Positive test for drug use
Possession of drug(s)
Failure to report for drug testing
Failure to report for alcohol or drug treatment

16.1%
7.9
6.6
2.3
1.7

23.1%
12.2
8.9
4.6
1.1

11.4%
5.6
5.6
1.3
1.9

10.7%
4.3
5.6
1.3
1.2

Absconders
Failure to report/absconded
Left jurisdiction without permission

22.3%
18.6
5.6

26.6%
24.7
3.9

18.4%
17.2
2.5

19.7%
17.2
4.0

Other reasons
Failure to report for counseling
Failure to maintain employment
Failure to meet financial obligations
Maintained contact with known offenders
Possession of gun(s)

17.8%
2.4
1.2
2.3
1.2
3.5

20.7%
1.2
0.7
0.2
1.6
3.8

10.6%
2.0
0.6
0.0
0.4
1.9

13.8%
1.9
0.9
2.7
0.8
2.3

Note: Data are from the Survey of Inmates in State Adult Correctional Facilities, 1997.
Excludes 37,440 parole violators who reported that their parole had not been revoked. Detail
adds to more than 100% because some inmates may have had more than 1 violation of parole.

Table 22. Characteristics of parole violators in State prison for all States,
California, New York, and Texas, 1997
Characteristic
Gender
Male
Female

All States

California

New York

Texas

95.3%
4.7

92.9%
7.1

96.7%
3.3

94.6%
5.4

Race/Hispanic origin
White non-Hispanic
Black non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Other

27.5%
51.8
18.3
2.4

30.8%
33.4
31.9
3.9

11.1%
54.2
33.1
1.6

23.1%
50.3
26.0
0.6

Age at prison release
17 or younger
18-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-54
55 or older

0.1%
9.4
20.8
24.1
20.3
13.9
9.3
2.0

0.2%
8.8
19.8
25.5
22.9
12.8
8.0
2.0

0.0%
8.6
19.8
26.0
20.3
13.3
10.2
1.8

0.0%
6.1
19.1
23.3
21.1
15.5
12.3
2.5

Most serious offense*
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order

33.7%
30.1
23.1
12.9

24.4%
25.3
27.1
22.9

40.9%
15.6
33.6
9.4

33.3%
36.8
21.3
8.6

Number of prior incarcerations
1
2
3 to 5
6 or more

42.3%
14.0
26.3
17.3

28.9%
12.6
27.7
30.7

52.9%
12.6
26.7
7.8

44.1%
14.1
28.4
13.5

Note: Data are from the Survey of Inmates in State Adult Correctional Facilities, 1997.
*Excludes other/unspecified offenses.

14 Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

Half of parole violators incarcerated
in 3 States
The three largest State prison systems
(California, Texas, and New York) held
over half of all parole violators in prison
in 1997. California held 22% of all
parole violators in prison, Texas, 21%,
and New York, 8%. Within each of
these States, the percentage of prisoners who were parole violators was
higher than the national level: 39%
in Texas, 38% in California, and 28%
in New York, compared to 24%
nationally.
Among parole violators returned to
prison, those held in California (60%)
were the least likely to have been
arrested or convicted for a new
offense and the most likely to have
been returned for a drug violation
(23%). About 11% of parole violators
in New York and Texas reported a
drug violation as a reason for their
return to prison.
Characteristics of parole violators
varied among the 3 largest States
A higher percentage of parole violators
in California (7.1%) were women than
in Texas (5.4%) and New York (3.3%)
(table 22). Nationally, 4.7% of parole
violators in State prison in 1997 were
women.
New York had the highest percentage
of parole violators in prison who were
black (54%), followed by Texas (50%)
and California (33%). In New York,
11% of parole violators were white;
in Texas, 23%; in California, 31%.
The percent Hispanic among parole
violators ranged from 26% to 33%
in the three States.
New York had the highest percentage
of parole violators convicted of a
violent offense (41%), compared to
33% in Texas and 24% in California.
New York also had the highest
percentage of parole violators returned
for a drug offense (34%), compared to
27% in California and 21% in Texas.

Among the three largest States, parole
violators in California had the longest
criminal histories. More than 58% of
parole violators in California had been
incarcerated at least 3 times in the
past, compared to 42% in Texas and
35% in New York. Nationwide, 44%
of parole violators reported three or
more prior incarcerations.
Methodology
National Corrections Reporting
Program (NCRP)
The National Corrections Reporting
Program collects individual level data
for persons admitted to and released
from State prisons and offenders
exiting parole supervision, in each
year. NCRP is the only national collection that provides data on offense,
sentence length, and time served for
State prisoners and parole discharges.
While NCRP collects data on all
offenders, this report includes data on
prisoners with a total sentence of more
than a year.
In 1999 release data were reported by
37 States and the California Youth
Authority: Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas,
California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia,
Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Michigan,
Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri,
Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New York, North Carolina,
North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina,
South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas,
Virginia, Washington, West Virginia,
and Wisconsin.

In 1999, 27 States and the California
Youth Authority reported data on parole
discharges: Alabama, Arkansas,
California, Colorado, Illinois, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts,
Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri,
Nebraska, New Jersey, New York,
North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio,
Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina,
South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas,
Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
These 27 States reported 335,646
parole discharges in the 1999 Annual
Parole Survey, which represented 86%
of all State parole discharges in that
year. From 1990 to 1999, 27 to 31
States submitted data on parole
discharges. States that reported only
successful discharges or only unsuccessful discharges were excluded from
calculations of success rates.
Annual Parole Survey
The Annual Parole Survey provides a
count of the total number of persons
supervised in the community on
January 1 and December 31, and a
count of the number entering and
leaving supervision during the collection year. The survey covered all 50
States, the District of Columbia, and
the Federal System, for all years from
1980-2000.

NPS-1 also collects comparable data
on prison admissions and releases with
a sentence of more than 1 year.
Admission counts include data on new
court commitments, parole violators
returned to prison, and other types of
admission. Data on method of release
from State prison include counts for
mandatory parole, discretionary parole,
other conditional releases, and unconditional releases from prison. Transfers, AWOL’s and escapees are
excluded from the release data in this
report.
Surveys of Inmates in State and
Federal Correctional Facilities, 1991
and 1997
The Surveys of Inmates in State and
Federal Correctional Facilities,
conducted every 5 to 6 years, provide
detailed data on individual characteristics of prison inmates. Based on scientifically selected samples of facilities
and of inmates held in them, these
surveys provide detailed information
unavailable from any other source.

To determine characteristics of
inmates to be released by yearend
1999 C including gender, age,
race/Hispanic origin, offense, criminal
history, substance abuse, mental
illness and homelessness C information was drawn for this report from the
The 2000 parole survey was sent to 54 1997 survey. Comparisons of parole
violators and reasons for revocation in
respondents, including 52 central
reporters, the California Youth AuthorCalifornia, New York, and Texas (selfity, and one municipal agency. States
representing States in the sample)
with multiple reporters were Alabama
were also based on data from the 1997
(2) and California (2). The 2000 survey survey.
had a 100% response rate.
For descriptions of the 1991 and 1997
These 37 States reported a total of
National Prisoners Statistics (NPS-1)
surveys and information on the sample
499,886 releases from prison in the
designs and accuracy of the estimates,
see Comparing Federal and State
National Prisoner Statistics series,
The National Prisoners Statistics
Prison Inmates, 1991, September
which represented 91% of all releases (NPS-1) series obtains yearend and
1994, NCJ 145864, and Substance
in 1999. Between 35 and 39 States
midyear counts of prisoners from
Abuse and Treatment of State and
provided data on releases from 1990 to departments of correction in each of
1999. Data were reported on
the 50 States, the District of Columbia, Federal Prisoners, 1997, January
1999, NCJ 172871.
maximum sentence length for 93% of
and the Federal Bureau of Prisons.
227,100 first releases reported to the
Excluded from NPS-1 counts are
NCRP in 1990 and 93% of the 243,055 persons confined in locally adminisfirst releases reported in 1999. Data
tered confinement facilities who are
were reported on time served in jail for under the jurisdiction of local
77% in 1990 and 85% in 1999 and time authorities.
served in prison for 95% in 1990 and
99% in 1999.

Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000

15

The Bureau of Justice Statistics
is the statistical agency of the
U.S. Department of Justice.
Lawrence A. Greenfeld is
acting director.
BJS Special Reports address a
specific topic in depth from one or
more datasets that cover many
topics.

To keep current on criminal justice
statistics, at no cost...
Subscribe to e-mail notification of the
latest statistical releases from BJS,
the FBI, and the Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention
through JUSTSTATS. To learn how
to subscribe, see
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/juststats.htm

Timothy A. Hughes, Doris James
Wilson, and Allen J. Beck wrote this
report. Paige Harrison provided
statistical review and verification.
Ellen Goldberg and Tom Hester
edited and produced the report.
Jayne E. Robinson administered
final production.

This report and others from the
Bureau of Justice Statistics are
available through the Internet 

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/
The data from the National Corrections Reporting Program, 19831998, are available from the
National Archive of Criminal Justice
Data, maintained by the Institute
for Social Research at the University
of Michigan, 1-800-999-0960. The
archive may also be accessed
through the BJS Internet site.

October 2001, NCJ 184735

U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
Bureau of Justice Statistics
Washington, DC 20531

Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300

PRESORTED STANDARD
POSTAGE & FEES PAID
DOJ/BJS
Permit No. G-91