U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report

Incarcerated Parents
and Their Children
By Christopher J. Mumola
BJS Policy Analyst
In 1999 State and Federal prisons held
an estimated 721,500 parents of minor
children. A majority of State (55%) and
Federal (63%) prisoners reported
having a child under the age of 18.
Forty-six percent of the parents
reported living with their children prior
to admission. As a result, there were
an estimated 336,300 U.S. households
with minor children affected by the
imprisonment of a resident parent.

August 2000, NCJ 182335

Highlights
In 1999 an estimated 721,500 State and Federal prisoners were parents
to 1,498,800 children under age 18
Minor children

Percent of prisoners, 1997
State
Federal

Any
1
2
3 or more

55.4%
23.8
15.8
15.8

63.0%
24.0
18.5
20.5

None

44.6%

37.0%

Estimated
number of minor
children, 1999

1,324,900

173,900

ù Since 1991 the number of minor
children with a parent in State or
Federal prison rose by over 500,000;
from 936,500 to 1,498,800 in 1999.
ù The percentage of State and
Federal prisoners with minor children
(56%) changed little since 1991 (57%).
ù 22% of all minor children with a
parent in prison were under 5 years
old.

Parents held in U.S prisons had an
estimated 1,498,800 minor children in
1999, an increase of over 500,000
since 1991. Of the Nation’s 72 million
minor children, 2.1% had a parent in
State or Federal prison in 1999.

Prior to admission, less than half of the parents in State prison reported
living with their children — 44% of fathers, 64% of mothers

Lived with children
prior to admission

43.8%

64.3%

A majority of parents in State prison
were violent offenders (44%) or drug
traffickers (13%), and 77% had a prior
conviction. Nearly 60% of parents in
State prison reported using drugs in
the month before their offense, and
25% reported a history of alcohol
dependence. About 14% of parents
reported a mental illness, and 70% did
not have a high school diploma.

Current caregiver*
Child's other parent
Child's grandparent
Other relative
Foster home/agency
Friends/other

89.6%
13.3
4.9
1.8
4.9

25.7
9.6
10.4

This report is the latest in a series
based on the 1997 Survey of Inmates
in State and Federal Correctional
Facilities. Other BJS Special Reports
in this series have addressed substance abuse and treatment, mental
health, women and juvenile offenders,
and inmates’ military service.

Percent of State inmate
parents, 1997
Male
Female

ù About 46% of parents in prison lived
with their children prior to admission.

ù About 90% of fathers in State prison
said that at least one of their children
now lived with their mother; 28% of
28.0% mothers said the father was the child’s
52.9
current caregiver.

ù 10% of mothers and 2% of fathers
in State prison reported a child now
*Some prisoners had children in different homes. living in a foster home or agency.
Nearly 2 in 3 State prisoners reported at least monthly contact with their
children by phone, mail, or personal visits

Type of contact
Any
Phone
Mail
Visits

Percent of State inmate
parents reporting monthly
contact with their children,
1997
Male
Female
62.4%

78.4%

42.0%
49.9
21.0

53.6%
65.8
23.8

ù 40% of fathers and 60% of mothers
in State prison reported weekly contact
with their children.
ù A majority of both fathers (57%) and
mothers (54%) in State prison
reported never having a personal visit
with their children since admission.
ù Over 60% of parents in State prison
reported being held over 100 miles
from their last place of residence.

Twenty-two percent of all minor
children with a parent in prison were
under 5 years old. The majority (58%)
of the minor children reported by State
When interviewed during the 1997
and Federal inmates were less than 10
years old, and the average age of
Surveys of Inmates in State and
Federal Correctional Facilities, a major- these children was 8 years old.
ity of prisoners said that they were the
Percent of minor children
of parents in State
parent of at least one child under age
Age
or Federal prison, 1997
18 (table 1). Fifty-five percent of State
year
Less
than
1
2.1%
prisoners and 63% of Federal prison1-4 years
20.4
ers reported having a minor child.
5-9 years
35.1
Among State prisoners, women (65%) 10-14 years
28.0
15-17 years
14.5
were more likely than men (55%) to
have minor children. In Federal
Mean
8 years
prisons, similar percentages of men
State and Federal prisons held
(63%) and women (59%) had a minor
an estimated 721,500 parents
child.
of minor children in 1999
Thirty-two percent of all prisoners said
At yearend 1999 there were 1,284,894
that they had multiple minor children.
prisoners in the custody of State and
About 24% of both State and Federal
prisoners reported one minor child, but Federal prisons, including an estimated
721,500 parents with minor children
Federal inmates (39%) were more
(table
2). Imprisoned parents were
likely than State inmates (32%) to
male (93%) and held
predominantly
report multiple children. Among State
in State prisons (89%). In 1999 State
prisoners, 45% of women had multiple
and Federal prisons held an estimated
children compared to 31% of men.
Over half of both State and Federal
prisoners reported having a child
under age 18

Table 1. Percent of State and Federal prisoners with minor children,
by gender, 1997
Percent of prisoners, 1997
State
Federal
Male
Female
Total
Male

Total

1.5 million children in the U.S. had a
parent in prison in 1999 — up by
more than 500,000 since 1991
The number of children with a parent in
prison also rose dramatically during the
1990’s. In 1991, there were an
estimated 936,500 minor children with
a parent in State or Federal prison. By
yearend 1999, this number had risen
by more than a half-million to an
estimated 1,498,800 minor children.
Of the Nation’s 72.3 million minor
children in 1999, 2.1% had a parent in
State or Federal prison. Black children
(7.0%) were nearly 9 times more likely
to have a parent in prison than white
children (0.8%). Hispanic children
(2.6%) were 3 times as likely as white
children to have an inmate parent.
Minor children in the U.S.
resident population with a
parent in prison, 1999
Number
Percent
U.S. total*

44.6%
55.4

45.3%
54.7

34.7%
65.3

37.0%
63.0

36.6%
63.4

41.2%
58.8

Number of minor children
1
2
3
4
5
6 or more

23.8%
15.8
8.7
4.1
1.7
1.3

24.0%
15.6
8.4
3.9
1.6
1.3

20.5%
18.7
13.7
7.3
3.6
1.6

24.0%
18.5
11.1
5.0
2.3
2.1

24.0%
18.7
11.3
5.1
2.2
2.2

24.5%
17.1
9.7
4.1
2.7
0.7

Table 2. Estimated number of State and Federal prisoners with minor children,
by gender, 1999
Total

Number of minor children
1999
1991

Since 1991 the custody population of
State and Federal prisons grew by over
490,000 inmates, an increase of 62%.
As a result, the number of parents in
prison also grew sharply — by over
250,000 — from the 452,500 held in
State and Federal prison in 1991.

Female

Have minor children (under
age 18)
No
Yes

Number of parents
1999
1991

667,900 fathers and 53,600 mothers of
minor children.

State prisoners
Male
Female

642,300
413,100

Federal prisoners
Total
Male
Female

593,800
386,500

48,500
26,600

79,200
39,400

74,100
36,500

5,100
2,900

1,324,900 1,209,400
852,300 794,500

115,500
57,800

173,900
84,200

163,300
78,300

10,600
5,900

Note: Numbers are estimates based on responses to the 1991 and
1997 Surveys of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities,
and custody counts from the National Prisoners Statistics program.

2 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

1,498,800

2.1%

White
384,500
0.8%
Black
767,200
7.0
Hispanic
301,600
2.6
Note: Children were assumed to have the same
race/ethnicity as the incarcerated parent.
*Includes children of other races.

At yearend 1999 an estimated
1,372,700 minor children had a father
in State or Federal prison, while
another 126,100 children had a mother
in prison. Since 1990 the number of all
female prisoners has grown faster
(106%) than that of male prisoners
(75%). As a result, the number of
children with a mother in prison nearly
doubled (up 98%) since 1991, while the
number of children with a father in
prison grew by 58% during this period.

Nearly half of all imprisoned
parents were black;
about a quarter were white

parents in Federal prison said that they
had never been married, compared to
49% of the nonparents.

Among both State and Federal prisoners with minor children, blacks
comprised the largest racial/ethnic
group (table 3). In State prisons, 49%
of parents were black, 29% white, and
19% Hispanic. Among nonparent
State prisoners, the percentage of
blacks (43%) and Hispanics (15%)
were slightly lower, but the percentage
of whites was higher (39%).

A majority of parents in both State
(70%) and Federal (55%) prison
reported that they did not have a high
school diploma. Similar percentages
of parents in State (16%) and Federal
(20%) prison graduated high school,

Blacks (44%) were the largest racial/
ethnic group among parents in Federal
prison, followed by Hispanics (30%)
and whites (22%). The racial distribution was almost reversed among
Federal prisoners without minor
children. Whites made up 43% of
nonparent inmates, while blacks
accounted for 27% of nonparents.
Nonparents in Federal prison were also
less likely to be Hispanic (23%).
Parents in State prison were slightly
younger than those in Federal prison.
Parents in State prison (16%) were
about twice as likely as those in
Federal prison (8%) to be age 24 or
younger. Overall, the median age of
parents in State prison was 32 years
old, compared to 35 years old among
parents in Federal prison. In State
prison, the median age of nonparents
was similar (33 years) to that of
parents. In Federal prison, the median
age of nonparents (40 years) was 5
years greater than that of prisoners
with minor children.

but college attendance was nearly
twice as high among parents in Federal
prison (25% compared to 13% in State
prisons). About 12% of parents in both
State and Federal prison said that they
had not been educated past the eighth
grade. Overall, nonparents in both
State and Federal prison reported
similar levels of education as inmate
parents.

Table 3. Selected characteristics of State or Federal prisoners,
by whether the inmates were parents of minor children, 1997
Percent of prisoners, 1997
State
Federal
Parents Nonparents
Parents
Nonparents
Gender
Male
Female

92.6%
7.4

95.2%
4.8

93.2%
6.8

91.9%
8.1

Race/Hispanic origin
White non-Hispanic
Black non-Hispanic
Hispanic
Other

28.9%
49.4
18.9
2.8

38.9%
42.8
14.5
3.8

21.9%
44.0
30.0
4.0

43.4%
27.0
22.9
6.7

Age
24 or younger
25-34
35-44
45-54
55 or older

15.8%
44.9
32.1
6.6
0.6

25.0%
30.1
26.0
13.3
5.6

7.8%
41.8
35.1
12.8
2.5

11.3%
27.9
23.0
22.1
15.8

32 yr

33 yr

35 yr

40 yr

Marital status
Married
Widowed
Divorced
Separated
Never married

23.0%
1.6
20.5
7.2
47.7

8.7%
2.2
16.1
3.9
69.2

35.8%
1.6
19.0
6.0
37.6

21.2%
1.8
22.9
5.3
48.8

Education completed
8th grade or less
Some high school
GED
High school graduate
Some college or more

12.7%
27.1
30.6
16.1
13.4

15.5%
23.6
32.6
14.9
13.4

11.5%
16.7
27.0
19.8
25.0

11.9%
10.7
26.5
20.8
30.1

Median

Half of the parents in State prison
were never married
Of the parents in State prison, 23%
said that they were currently married,
28% were divorced or separated, and
48% said that they had never been
married. In comparison, nonparents in
State prison were less than half as
likely to be currently married (9%), and
69% said that they had never married.
While parents in Federal prison (36%)
were more likely than those in State
prison to be married, a similar percentage (25%) were either divorced or
separated. Thirty-eight percent of

Table 4. Percent of inmate parents in State or Federal prison who lived
with their minor children at time of admission, by gender, 1997

Total

Percent of inmate parents, 1997
State
Federal
Male Female
Total
Male Female

Lived with children at time of admission 45.3% 43.8% 64.3%

57.2% 55.2% 84.0%

Child's current caregivera
Other parent of child
Grandparent of child
Other relatives
Foster home or agency
Friends, othersb

87.6% 91.7% 30.7%
12.2
9.8
44.9
6.2
4.2
33.9
1.3
1.1
3.2
6.8
6.4
11.9

85.0% 89.6% 28.0%
16.3
13.3
52.9
6.4
4.9
25.7
2.4
1.8
9.6
5.3
4.9
10.4

a
Detail may add to more than 100% because some prisoners
had multiple children living with multiple caregivers.
b
Includes cases where parent reported that the child now lived alone.

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

3

Fewer than half of the parents in
State prison lived with their minor
children prior to incarceration
Prior to their admission, 46% of all
imprisoned parents lived with any of
their minor children (table 4). Among
parents in State prison, 45% said that
they lived with at least one of their
minor children compared to 57% of
parents in Federal prison.

Mothers and fathers in prison differed
sharply in their responses to questions
about their children’s current caregivers. Ninety percent of the fathers in
State prison reported that at least one
of their children was in the care of the
child’s mother, compared to 28% of
mothers who reported that one of their
children was in the care of the child’s
father.

One-third of mothers in prison had
been living alone with their children
in the month before arrest

In the month prior to their current
arrest, the households of most parents
in prison did not include their children
(table 5). Thirty-seven percent of
parents in State prison said that they
lived with any of their minor children in
the month before their arrest. The
Mothers in State prison most often
parents who had lived with their
identified the child’s grandparent (53%) children were split between those who
Mothers were more likely than fathers
or other relatives (26%) as the current
to report living with their children prior
had lived with both a spouse and the
to admission. About 64% of mothers in caregiver. The percentage of fathers
child (20%) and those who were the
in State prison who said that they had a only parent living with the child (18%).
State prison and 84% of those in
Among parents in Federal prison, a
Federal prison reported living with their minor child in the care of either grandparents (13%) or other relatives (5%)
minor children prior to admission,
higher percentage of parents (49%)
was much smaller. Mothers in State
reported living with their children in the
compared to 44% and 55% of fathers,
prison (10%) were also more likely
month before arrest, and a higher
respectively.
than fathers (2%) to report that their
percentage (32%) came from
children were in the care of a foster
Because most inmate parents did not
two-parent households.
home, agency, or institution.
live with their children prior to incarMothers in both State (58%) and
ceration, the number of households
Mothers and fathers in Federal prison
Federal (73%) prisons were more likely
with children affected by the imprisonthan fathers (36% and 47%, respecment of a resident parent is lower than also provided differing reports about
their children’s current caregivers.
tively) to report living with their children
the total number of parents in prison.
prior to arrest. Mothers (46% of State,
At yearend 1999 an estimated 336,300 Nearly all fathers in Federal prison
(92%) said that they had a minor child
U.S. households with minor children
51% of Federal) were also more likely
in the care of the child’s mother,
than fathers (15% and 14%, respechad a resident parent in State or
tively) to have been the only parent
Federal prison. A total of 300,900 U.S. compared to 31% of mothers who
reported the child’s father as the
living with the children in the month
households with minor children were
before their arrest. Thirty-one percent
missing a resident father in prison, and current caregiver. As with State
inmates, a greater share of mothers
resident mothers were missing from
of the mothers in prison had been living
than fathers in Federal prison said that alone with their children compared to
35,400 households.
a child was in the care of grandparents 4% of fathers.
Estimated households
(45% compared to 10%) or other
with minor children affected
relatives (34% compared to 4%).
by the imprisonment of a
resident parent, 1999

Total

336,300

State prison
Fathers
Mothers

291,000
259,900
31,100

Federal prison
Fathers
Mothers

45,300
41,000
4,300

Table 5. Households of inmate parents in State or Federal prison,
by gender, 1997

Total

Percent of inmate parents, 1997
State
Federal
Male
Female
Total
Male

37.3%

35.6%

58.5%

49.0%

47.2%

73.4%

In two-parent household
Parents and children only
With other relativesb
With non-relatives only

19.6%
18.2
1.2
0.2

20.2%
18.7
1.3
0.2

12.5%
11.7
0.7
0.1

32.2%
29.4
2.0
0.8

32.9%
30.1
2.1
0.7

22.1%
19.6
1.2
1.3

In single-parent household
Parent and children only
With other relativesb
With non-relatives only

17.7%
5.9
1.3
10.5

15.4%
3.9
1.0
10.5

46.0%
30.9
4.3
10.8

16.8%
6.3
0.7
9.8

14.3%
4.2
0.4
9.7

51.3%
34.8
4.9
11.6

62.7%

64.4%

41.5%

51.0%

52.8%

26.6%

Prisoner's household in
the month before arrest
Lived with their children
a

Fathers cite child’s mother as the
current caregiver; mothers cite
child’s grandparents, other relatives
When asked who is currently caring for
their minor children, over 80% of
inmate parents said that their child was
now living with the child’s other parent.
About 20% of parents cited grandparents and other relatives as caregivers,
and 2% had a child in a foster home,
agency, or institution.

Did not live with their children
a

Two-parent households are those in which the prisoner lived with both
their child(ren) and a spouse.
b
Includes the prisoners' step-parents, stepchildren, stepbrothers, and stepsisters.

4 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

Female

40% of fathers and 60% of mothers
in State prison had at least weekly
contact with their children
Most parents in both State (80%) and
Federal (93%) prison reported having
some contact with their children since
their admission, either by telephone,
mail, or personal visits (table 6).
Among State inmates, 69% reported
exchanging letters with their children,
58% had spoken with their children
over the telephone, and 43% had
received a personal visit since admission. Higher percentages of parents in
Federal prison reported all types of
contact, with telephone calls and letters
each reported by 84% of parents and
personal visits reported by 56% of
parents.
In State prisons, mothers consistently
reported more frequent contact with
their children than fathers. Mothers
(78%) were more likely than fathers
(62%) to report some type of monthly
contact with their children, and 60% of
mothers reported at least weekly
contact compared to 40% of fathers.
Nearly 40% of mothers in State prison

said that they spoke to their children by
telephone at least once a week, and
45% reported weekly mail contact with
their children. In comparison, fathers
reported weekly contact by telephone
(25%) or mail (27%) at lower rates.
However, the frequency of personal
visits did not vary by gender. Similar
percentages of both mothers (24%)
and fathers (21%) in State prison
reported at least monthly visits from
their children. A majority of both
mothers (54%) and fathers (57%) had
never been visited by their children
since entering prison.
Among Federal inmates, mothers and
fathers had more similar levels of
contact with their children. About 70%
of mothers and 60% of fathers had
some type of weekly contact with their
children. Among mothers in Federal
prison, 56% reported weekly telephone
calls and 45% reported weekly mail
contact, compared to 49% and 34% of
fathers, respectively. Similar percentages of mothers (20%) and fathers
(23%) reported monthly visits, and just
over 40% of both had never been
visited since admission.

Table 6. Frequency of telephone, mail, and personal contacts with children
by parents in State or Federal prison, 1997
Frequency and type
of contact with children

Total

Percent of inmate parents, 1997
State
Federal
Male
Female
Total
Male

Any type of contact
Daily or almost daily
At least once a week
At least once a month
Less than once a month
Never

10.1%
31.2
22.2
16.1
20.4

9.5%
30.3
22.6
16.6
21.1

17.8%
42.4
18.0
9.7
12.2

15.1%
43.7
23.8
10.0
7.5

14.6%
43.4
23.9
10.3
7.8

21.1%
48.5
22.0
5.0
3.3

Telephone
Daily or almost daily
At least once a week
At least once a month
Less than once a month
Never

6.6%
19.8
16.5
15.4
41.8

6.2%
19.2
16.6
15.5
42.5

11.3%
27.0
15.3
13.8
32.6

13.0%
36.3
23.2
11.3
16.2

12.8%
35.9
23.1
11.4
16.7

15.0%
41.2
24.9
9.2
9.7

Mail
Daily or almost daily
At least once a week
At least once a month
Less than once a month
Never

4.8%
23.2
23.1
18.2
30.8

4.4%
22.2
23.3
18.6
31.6

9.6%
35.6
20.6
13.2
21.0

4.3%
30.4
30.4
18.9
16.1

3.9%
30.0
30.5
19.2
16.4

9.5%
35.9
27.8
14.5
12.3

Personal visits
Daily or almost daily
At least once a week
At least once a month
Less than once a month
Never

0.8%
6.6
13.9
22.2
56.6

0.7%
6.5
13.8
22.2
56.8

1.1%
8.0
14.7
22.1
54.1

0.4%
7.1
15.1
33.4
44.1

0.3%
7.1
15.3
33.0
44.2

0.9%
6.6
12.0
38.5
42.0

Female

Over 60% of parents in State prison
were held more than 100 miles from
their last place of residence
A majority of parents in both State
(62%) and Federal (84%) prison were
held more than 100 miles from their
last place of residence. However,
parents in State prison (17%) were
twice as likely as those in Federal
prison (7%) to be housed within 50
miles of their last residence. Parents
in State facilities (11%) were also less
likely than those in Federal prison
(43%) to be held over 500 miles from
their last household.
Distance of prison from
last place of residence
Less than 50 miles
50-100 miles
101-500 miles
More than 500 miles

Percent of inmate
parents, 1997
State
Federal
17.4%
20.7
51.2
10.7

7.5%
8.5
40.7
43.3

A majority of parents in prison were
violent offenders or drug traffickers
In both State (57%) and Federal (61%)
prison, a majority of the parents were
sentenced for either violent offenses,
such as homicide, sexual assault, and
robbery, or drug trafficking activities
(table 7). Violent offenses (44%) were
the most common type of crime for
which parents were serving time in
State prison, while 67% of the parents
in Federal prison were drug offenders.
Among State prisoners, parents (44%)
were less likely than nonparents (51%)
to be violent offenders. Parents in
State prison were more likely to be
serving a sentence for drug offenses
(24%) than nonparents (17%).
Current
Percent of State prisoners, 1997
offense
Parents
Nonparents
Violent
43.9%
51.1%
Property
21.6
22.5
Drug
23.9
16.7
Public-order
10.3
9.3

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

5

Table 7. Current offense of inmate parents in State or Federal prison,
by gender, 1997

Current offense

Total

Percent of inmate parents, 1997
State
Federal
Male
Female
Total
Male

Violent offenses
Homicidea
Sexual assaultb
Robbery
Assault
Other violent

43.9%
10.9
8.3
13.2
9.7
1.8

45.4%
11.1
8.8
13.8
9.9
1.8

26.0%
8.6
1.7
6.4
7.2
2.1

11.9%
1.2
0.7
7.8
1.3
0.9

12.3%
1.2
0.8
8.1
1.3
0.9

6.5%
1.3
0.1
3.4
1.3
0.4

Property offenses
Burglary
Larceny
Motor vehicle theft
Fraud
Stolen property
Other property

21.6%
10.2
4.6
1.5
2.8
1.6
0.9

21.1%
10.6
4.3
1.6
2.1
1.7
0.9

28.3%
5.4
8.5
1.2
11.3
1.3
0.6

5.3%
0.3
0.4
0.2
3.7
0.4
0.3

4.9%
0.3
0.4
0.3
3.3
0.4
0.3

10.3%
0.1
0.3
0.0
8.9
0.6
0.3

Drug offenses
Possession
Trafficking
Other drug

23.9%
10.1
13.1
0.7

23.0%
9.7
12.7
0.6

35.1%
14.8
19.0
1.3

67.2%
12.9
48.9
5.4

66.7%
13.1
48.0
5.6

73.9%
9.7
61.0
3.2

Public-order offenses
Weapons
Other public-order

10.3%
2.7
7.6

10.3%
2.8
7.5

10.4%
0.9
9.5

14.6%
6.9
7.8

15.1%
7.3
7.9

7.9%
1.1
6.7

0.2%

0.2%

0.3%

1.0%

0.9%

1.5%

Other/unspecified
a
b

Female

Includes murder and manslaughter.
Includes rape and other sexual assaults.

Table 8. Maximum sentence length and time to be served until release of State
and Federal prisoners with minor children, by gender, 1997

Total
Maximum sentence length
Less than 12 months
12-35 months
36-59 months
60-119 months
120-179 months
180-239 months
240+ months
Life/death
Meana
Estimated total time to be
served on current sentenceb
Less than 24 months
24-47 months
48-71 months
72-119 months
120-179 months
180-239 months
240+ months
No release expected
Do not know
Meanc

3.1%
13.1
13.2
22.5
14.0
8.9
19.1
6.1

Percent of inmate parents, 1997
State
Federal
Male
Female
Total
Male
2.8%
12.5
12.7
22.4
14.3
9.1
19.9
6.3

146 mo. 150 mo.

19.3%
23.1
15.7
16.6
8.7
4.0
5.3
2.1
5.1
80 mo.

17.9%
22.9
15.9
17.2
9.1
4.2
5.6
2.2
5.0
82 mo.

a

7.3%
20.3
19.9
23.2
10.7
6.3
9.4
2.8
94 mo.

37.5%
24.9
14.0
8.9
3.6
1.5
2.1
1.0
6.5
49 mo.

Excludes sentences to life or death.
Based on time served when interviewed plus time to be served
until the expected date of release.
c
Excludes inmates who do not expect to be released.
b

6 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

2.3%
10.6
13.2
30.0
19.6
9.0
12.2
3.1

2.1%
9.5
13.0
30.6
19.7
9.2
12.7
3.3

121 mo. 124 mo.

8.5%
15.0
18.1
25.1
14.9
7.1
6.9
1.2
3.2

7.2%
14.5
18.1
25.6
15.4
7.4
7.3
1.3
3.3

103 mo. 105 mo.

Female
5.1%
26.3
16.2
22.4
18.1
5.2
5.8
0.7
83 mo.

26.2%
22.9
17.2
17.8
8.3
3.2
2.2
0.5
1.8
66 mo.

Mothers and fathers were serving time
in State prison for different types of
criminal offenses. Forty-five percent
of fathers in State prison were violent
offenders, compared to 26% of
mothers. Fathers in State prison (14%)
were more likely than mothers (6%) to
be convicted of robbery. Mothers were
more likely to be sentenced for drug
offenses (35% compared to 23% of
fathers) and fraud (11% and 2%).
The current offenses of mothers and
fathers in Federal prison were more
similar than those of State inmates.
Two-thirds of fathers and threequarters of mothers in Federal prison
were convicted of drug offenses. The
percentage of violent offenders among
both fathers (12%) and mothers (6%)
was much lower than in State prison,
while 5% of fathers and 10% of
mothers were property offenders.
On average, parents expected to
serve 80 months in State prison
and 103 months in Federal prison
Due to the large percentage convicted
of violent offenses and drug trafficking,
parents reported lengthy average
sentences — over 12 years (146
months) in State prison and 10 years
(121 months) in Federal prison (table
8). Over 40% of the parents in both
State (48%) and Federal (44%) prison
reported sentences of at least 10
years, including those sentenced to life
in prison or death (6% of State and 3%
of Federal).
Given their higher percentage of violent
offenders, fathers in State prison (150
months) reported sentences that
averaged almost 5 years longer than
those of mothers (94 months). Fortyeight percent of the mothers in State
prison reported sentences of less than
5 years compared to 15% of fathers.
Fathers in Federal facilities also
reported a longer average sentence
(124 months) than mothers (83
months). Mothers in Federal prison
(48%) were also about twice as likely
as fathers (25%) to report sentences
of less than 5 years.

On average parents in State prison
expected to serve a total of 80 months
prior to their release (55% of the mean
sentence length). Fathers (82 months)
expected to serve nearly 3 years more
than mothers (49 months). In State
prison 18% of parents said that they
expected to serve at least 10 years
before release. Two percent of
parents never expected to be released;
5% did not know their release date.
Despite reporting shorter sentences
than parents in State prison, parents in
Federal facilities expected to serve an
average total of 103 months (85% of
the mean sentence length). Fathers in
Federal prison (105 months) expected
to serve about 3 years longer than
mothers (66 months). About 30% of
parents in Federal prison expected to
serve at least 10 years. Less than 5%
of parents in Federal prison either
never expected to be released (1%) or
did not know their release date (3%).
Over 75% of parents in State prison
reported a prior conviction;
56% had been incarcerated
At the time of their current arrest, 49%
of the parents in State prison were on
some type of conditional release from
custody, such as probation or parole
supervision in the community (table 9).
Of the parents in State prison, 25%
were on parole and 24% were serving
a sentence to probation supervision at
the time of arrest.
Over three-quarters of parents in State
prison reported a prior sentence to
incarceration or probation, while the
remainder said that they were first-time
offenders. Almost half (46%) of
parents in State prison were violent
recidivists (repeat offenders with either
a current or past violent offense). Most
parents in State prison (60%) had
served multiple prior sentences.
Among State prison inmates the criminal histories of parents and nonparents
did not differ appreciably. At arrest for
their current offense, about 45% of the
nonparents had a criminal justice
status and 74% had a prior conviction.

Criminal history
Had a criminal justice
status at time of arrest

Percent of State
prisoners, 1997
Parents Nonparents
49.1%

45.1%

Had prior sentence to
probation or incarceration 77.2%

74.0%

Overall, fathers in State prison reported
more serious criminal histories than
mothers. Fathers (25%) were more
likely than mothers (19%) to have been
arrested while on parole release from a
prior prison term. First-time offenders
made up a smaller share of fathers in
State prison (22% compared to 35% of
mothers), and fathers (48%) were also
twice as likely as mothers (23%) to be
violent recidivists. In addition, 44% of
fathers reported at least three prior
convictions compared to 32% of
mothers.
Parents in Federal prison (27%) were
almost half as likely as those in State
prison (49%) to report a criminal justice
status at time of arrest, and less likely
to report a prior conviction (62%
compared to 77%). As in State prison,
fathers in Federal facilities (65%) were
more likely to be recidivists than
mothers (34%), particularly violent

recidivists (23% of fathers, 6% of
mothers). The percentage of fathers
(32%) reporting at least three prior
sentences was nearly triple that of
mothers (11%).
A majority of parents in State prison
used drugs in the month before
their offense
More than 4 in 5 parents (85%) in State
prison reported some type of past drug
use, and a majority (58%) said that
they were using drugs in the month
before their current offense (table 10).
Nonparents in State prison reported
slightly lower levels of prior drug use.
Percent of State
prisoners, 1997
Prior drug use
Parents Nonparents
Ever
85.4%
80.3%
In month before offense
58.1
54.9
At the time of the offense 33.6
31.5

Parents in State prison most commonly
reported using marijuana (39%) and
cocaine-based drugs (27%), including
crack, in the month before their crimes,
followed by heroin and other opiates
(10%), stimulants (9%), depressants
(5%), hallucinogens (3%), and
inhalants (1%).

Table 9. Criminal histories of State and Federal prisoners with minor children,
by gender, 1997

Total

Percent of inmate parents, 1997
State
Federal
Male
Female
Total
Male

.
Status at time of
current arrest
None
Status
On parole
On probation
Escaped from custody

50.9%
49.1
24.8
23.7
0.6

51.5%
48.5
25.2
22.6
0.7

44.0%
56.0
18.6
37.0
0.5

73.0%
27.0
12.7
14.2
0.2

72.2%
27.8
13.4
14.3
0.1

83.9%
16.1
2.8
12.5
0.8

Criminal history
None
Priors
Violent recidivistsa
Drug recidivists only
Other recidivistsb

22.8%
77.2
46.1
3.7
27.3

21.9%
78.1
48.0
3.6
26.6

34.7%
65.3
23.2
6.1
36.0

37.5%
62.5
22.2
11.4
28.8

35.4%
64.6
23.4
11.8
29.4

66.3%
33.7
5.6
6.6
21.3

Number of prior probation/
incarceration sentences
0
1
2
3-5
6-10
11 or more

22.8%
16.8
16.9
24.8
12.6
6.1

21.9%
16.7
17.0
25.2
13.0
6.3

34.7%
18.2
15.2
19.7
7.6
4.6

37.5%
18.1
13.6
20.9
7.6
2.2

35.4%
18.4
14.0
21.8
8.0
2.3

66.3%
14.7
8.3
8.2
2.1
0.3

a
b

Female

Recidivists with at least one current or past violent offense.
Includes recidivists with unknown offense types.

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

7

A third of the parents in State prison
reported committing their current
offense while under the influence of
drugs. Parents were most likely to
report the influence of cocaine-based
drugs (16%) and marijuana (15%)
while committing their crime. About
equal percentages of parents in State
prison reported the use of opiates (6%)
and stimulants (5%) at the time of their
offense, while 2% used depressants or
hallucinogens.
1 in 3 mothers in State prison
committed their crime to get
drugs or money for drugs
Mothers in State prison reported more
serious drug use histories than fathers.
Mothers in State prison (65%) were
more likely than fathers (58%) to report
drug use in the month before their
offense, particularly the use of cocaine
or crack (45% of mothers compared to
26% of fathers). Mothers (43%) were
also more likely than fathers (33%) to
report the influence of drugs in their
current offense. Mothers were about
twice as likely to have committed their
crimes while under the influence of

cocaine-based drugs (28%) or opiates
(11%) as fathers (15% and 5%,
respectively).

Over a third of parents in State
prison committed their offense
while under the influence of alcohol

In addition, 32% of mothers in State
prison reported committing their crime
to get drugs or money for drugs,
compared to 19% of fathers. Prior
intravenous drug use was also
reported more commonly by mothers
(29%) than fathers (19%).

Parents in State prison were more
likely to report being under the influence of alcohol (37%) than drugs
(34%) while committing their current
offense (table 11). According to the
CAGE diagnostic instrument, 25% of
the parents in State prison reported
experiences that are consistent with a
history of alcohol dependence (for
details on the CAGE instrument, see
Methodology). Overall, parents and
nonparents in State prison did not differ
in their reports of prior alcohol abuse.

Percent of inmate
parents in State
prison who reported —
Male
Female
Committing offense to
get money for drugs

18.5%

32.2%

Ever using
intravenous drugs

19.0%

29.2%
Prior alcohol abuse

Percent of State
prisoners, 1997
Parents Nonparents
25.1%
23.7%

While reports of prior drug use were
Alcohol dependent
lower among parents in Federal prison, Under influence of
3 in 4 had used drugs and nearly half
37.8%
alcohol at time of offense 36.7%
used drugs in the month before their
Parents in State prison also reported
offense. Twenty-three percent of
engaging in troubled behaviors associparents in Federal prison were under
the influence of drugs when committing ated with prior alcohol abuse. About
48% of parents said that they had
their offense. Aside from marijuana
driven drunk in the past, 42% reported
use (higher among fathers), mothers
arguments with family members and
and fathers in Federal prison reported
friends
while drinking, and 39% had
similar drug use histories.
alcohol-related physical fights.

Table 10. Drug use of inmate parents in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997

Ever using drugs
Total
Male
Female

Percent of inmate parents who reported —
Using drugs in the
month before the offense
Total
Male
Female

Using drugs at the
time of the offense
Total
Male
Female

State prisoners, 1997
Any druga
Marijuana/hashish
Cocaine/crack
Heroin/opiates
Depressantsb
Stimulantsc
Hallucinogensd
Inhalants

85.4%

85.4%

86.3%

58.1%

57.5%

65.3%

33.6%

32.9%

42.5%

79.0
53.3
25.3
23.9
28.6
28.5
14.2

79.8
52.2
24.8
23.7
28.4
28.6
14.2

69.4
67.2
31.3
25.9
30.7
26.6
13.1

39.3
27.1
9.7
5.1
9.2
3.4
0.7

40.3
25.7
9.2
4.9
9.1
3.5
0.7

27.5
44.6
16.0
7.1
10.5
2.1
1.3

15.2
16.0
5.6
1.8
4.6
1.6
--

15.7
15.0
5.2
1.8
4.6
1.6
--

8.8
28.3
10.7
2.3
5.3
1.1
--

17.9%

Federal prisoners, 1997
Any druga
Marijuana/hashish
Cocaine/crack
Heroin/opiates
Depressantsb
Stimulantsc
Hallucinogensd
Inhalants

75.2%

75.8%

66.4%

46.0%

46.6%

37.4%

22.6%

23.0%

66.8
45.7
14.7
14.8
18.3
17.1
6.7

67.5
46.3
14.9
14.9
18.2
17.4
6.9

57.2
36.9
12.2
13.2
18.9
13.0
4.6

31.7
20.7
4.7
2.9
6.7
1.7
0.5

32.6
21.0
4.6
2.9
6.6
1.7
0.5

20.1
17.1
4.7
3.7
8.1
0.9
0.0

11.3
9.7
2.7
0.9
3.4
0.8
--

11.7
10.0
2.6
1.0
3.3
0.8
--

Note: Detail adds to more than total because prisoners may have
used more than one type of drug.
-- Not reported.
a
Other unspecified drugs are included in the totals.

8 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

b

Includes barbiturates, tranquilizers, and Quaalude.
Includes amphetamine and methamphetamine.
d
Includes LSD and PCP.
c

6.0
5.8
3.4
0.5
5.0
0.4
--

While similar percentages of fathers
(25%) and mothers (23%) in State
prison met the criteria for alcohol
dependence, fathers were more likely
to report other indications of alcohol
abuse. A greater share of fathers
(37%) than mothers (29%) reported
committing their crime while drinking.
Fathers in State prison were also more
likely than mothers to report driving
drunk (49% compared to 36%) and
getting into physical fights while drinking (40% and 31%, respectively).
Compared to State prisoners, parents
in Federal prison were less likely to be
alcohol dependent (16%) or to report
committing their offense while drinking
(21%). Lower percentages of the
parents in Federal facilities also
reported alcohol-related fighting (22%)
and domestic disputes (30%). As in
State prison, fathers in Federal prison
were also more likely than mothers to
report drunk driving (44% compared to
27%) and alcohol-related physical
fights (23% and 14%, respectively).
About 1 in 7 parents in State
prison reported indications
of a mental illness
In responses to questions regarding
mental health, parents in State prison
(14%) were twice as likely as those in
Federal prison (6%) to report indications of a mental illness (table 12).
Inmates were considered mentally ill if
they reported either of the following
criteria: a current mental or emotional
condition or an overnight stay in a
mental hospital or treatment program.
Reports of a mental illness were
somewhat higher among State prisoners without children (19%).

Mentally ill

Percent of State
prisoners, 1997
Parents Nonparents
14.1%
18.7%

Among parents in State prison, 23% of
mothers reported an indication of
mental illness compared to 13% of
fathers. Reports of mental illness
indicators were more similar among
mothers (10%) and fathers (6%) in
Federal facilities.

In the month prior to their arrest, 29%
of parents in State and 27% of parents
in Federal prison said that they were
unemployed. Half of mothers in State
Mothers in State prison (18%) were
prison were unemployed in the month
twice as likely as fathers (8%) to report before their arrest, compared to a
quarter (27%) of fathers. The level of
a period of homelessness in the year
prior to admission (table 13). Overall,
unemployment among mothers in
parents in State prison (9%) were more Federal prison was lower (38%) but still
likely than those in Federal prison (4%) exceeded that of fathers (26%).
to report being homeless in the year
before admission. In Federal facilities, Forty-six percent of the parents in
State and 53% of parents in Federal
similar percentages of mothers (5%)
and fathers (4%) reported periods of
prison reported a personal income of
homelessness.
at least $1,000 in the month before
Nearly 20% of mothers in State
prison had been homeless
in the year prior to admission

Table 11. Alcohol dependence and experiences of inmate parents in State
or Federal prison, by gender, 1997

Total

Percent of inmate parents, 1997
State
Federal
Male
Female
Total
Male

History of alcohol dependence*

25.1%

25.3%

23.5%

16.3%

16.6% 12.7%

Under the influence of alcohol
at time of current offense

36.7

37.4

28.8

20.7

21.0

16.6

Driven a motor vehicle while
under the influence of alcohol?

47.6

48.5

35.7

42.4

43.6

27.1

Had arguments with your
spouse, family, or friends?

41.7

41.8

39.5

29.8

30.1

25.3

Gotten into a physical fight?

39.2

39.8

31.3

22.4

23.0

14.3

Had as much as a fifth of liquor
in 1 day (20 drinks, 3 six-packs
of beer, or 3 bottles of wine)?

41.4

42.3

30.4

29.8

30.6

18.9

Female

While drinking have you ever —

*Measured by 3 or more positive CAGE responses.
For a description of the CAGE diagnostic measure see Methodology.

Table 12. Mental health status of inmate parents in State or Federal prison,
by gender, 1997

Total

Percent of inmate parents, 1997
State
Federal
Male
Female
Total
Male

14.1%

13.4%

Reported a mental
or emotional condition

8.9

Admitted overnight to a mental
hospital or treatment program

8.8

Mentally ill*

Female

22.5%

5.9%

5.6%

10.3%

8.3

15.7

3.6

3.2

7.9

8.4

14.1

3.5

3.5

3.8

*Reported either a mental or emotional condition or an overnight stay
in a mental hospital or treatment program. See BJS Special Report,
Mental Health and Treatment of Inmates and Probationers, July 1999, NCJ 174463.

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

9

Wages or salary were the most
Among State prisoners, mothers (44%)
common source of income for parents were less likely than fathers (68%) to
in both State (66%) and Federal (68%) receive wages in the month before
prison, followed by income from illegal
their arrest, but were more likely to
activities (27% of State, 31% of
receive transfer payments (42%,
Federal). Eighteen percent of parents
compared to 13% of fathers) and
in State and 13% in Federal prison
income from family or friends (26% and
18%). About 6% of mothers
reported income from family and
friends. Parents in State prison (15%) reported receiving child support or
were more likely than those in Federal
alimony payments, compared to less
prison (9%) to report receiving transfer than 0.5% of fathers. Mothers (28%)
and fathers (27%) in State prison were
In the month before their current arrest, payments such as welfare, Social
Security, or compensation payments.
equally likely to report income from
nonparents in State prison were less
Less than 1% of all parents received
illegal sources in their final month prior
likely than parents to be employed
(65%), or to report at least $1,000 of
to arrest.
child support or alimony payments in
personal income (38%). Nonparents in the month before arrest.
State prison also reported a higher
incidence of homelessness in the past
Table 13. Pre-arrest employment, income, and homelessness of inmate parents
in State or Federal prison, by gender, 1997
year prior to admission (12%).

their arrest. Parents in Federal prison
(15%) were nearly twice as likely as
those in State prison (8%) to report the
highest incomes (at least $5,000) in the
month before arrest. Mothers in both
State (70%) and Federal (66%) prison
were more likely than fathers (53% of
State, 45% of Federal) to report
incomes below $1,000 in the month
before arrest.

Percent of State
prisoners, 1997
Parents Nonparents
Employed during month
before current arrest

70.9%

64.8%

Income of at least $1,000
in month before arrest

46.0%

38.2%

Homeless in the past year

9.2%

12.3%

Total

Percent of inmate parents, 1997
State
Federal
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female

29.1%
70.9

27.4%
72.6

50.1%
49.9

26.5%
73.5

25.6%
74.4

38.2%
61.8

59.0
9.2
2.7

60.5
9.2
2.8

39.2
8.9
1.8

62.7
8.5
2.2

63.7
8.4
2.2

49.4
10.2
2.1

Personal income in the month
before current arrest
Less than $200
$200-599
$600-999
$1,000-1,999
$2,000-4,999
$5,000 or more

16.5%
20.5
16.9
24.4
13.4
8.2

16.0%
19.9
16.7
25.1
13.9
8.4

22.9%
28.4
18.7
16.7
7.7
5.6

16.5%
14.4
15.8
23.8
14.4
15.1

16.2%
13.8
15.4
24.1
14.8
15.7

20.6%
23.6
21.6
19.4
8.2
6.6

Source of income in month
before current arresta
Wages or salary
Transfer paymentsb
Family/friends
Child support/alimony payments
Illegal sources
Otherc

66.4%
15.4
18.4
0.6
27.2
3.4

68.3%
13.3
17.8
0.1
27.1
3.4

43.6%
41.8
26.1
6.5
28.1
2.8

67.6%
8.8
13.3
0.6
30.6
6.0

68.4%
7.1
12.7
0.2
31.1
6.1

57.1%
33.3
22.2
6.3
23.7
4.1

Homeless in the past year, living
on the street, or in a shelter?

9.2%

8.5%

18.4%

3.8%

3.7%

5.0%

Employment during month
before current arrest
Unemployed
Employed
Full-time
Part-time
Occasional

a

Detail may add to more than 100% because
prisoners may have had multiple sources of income.
Includes welfare, Social Security, Supplemental
Social Security income, and compensation payments
such as unemployment insurance, workman's
b

10 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

compensation and Veteran's
Compensation.
c
Includes pensions, educational assistance, investments, and other unspecified types of income.

Methodology
Data in this report are based on
personal interviews conducted through
the 1997 Surveys of Inmates in State
and Federal Correctional Facilities.
Detailed descriptions of the methodology and sample design of the surveys
can be found in the BJS Special
Report, Substance Abuse and Treatment, State and Federal Prisoners,
1997 (NCJ 172871).

Accuracy of the estimates
The accuracy of the estimates in this
report depends on two types of error:
sampling and nonsampling. Sampling
error is the variation that may occur by
chance because a sample rather a
complete enumeration of the population was conducted. Nonsampling
error can be attributed to many
sources, such as nonresponses, differences in the interpretation of questions
among inmates, recall difficulties, and
processing errors. For example,
inmates may deny or dispute parenthood and fail to report children. The
sampling error, as measured by an

estimated standard error, varies by the
size of the estimate and the size of the
base population.
Appendix tables 1 and 2 contain
estimates of the standard errors for
selected characteristics of inmate
parents that were calculated for each
survey. (For other inmate characteristics, please use the generalized
standard error estimates presented
in the appendix tables of Substance
Abuse and Treatment, State and
Federal Prisoners, 1997.)
The standard errors included in the
appendix tables below may be used to
construct confidence intervals around
percentages. For example, the 95%
confidence interval around the percentage of parents in State prison who
reported a prior conviction is approximately 77.2% plus or minus 1.96 times
0.62% (or 76.0% to 78.4%).
These standard errors may also be
used to test the statistical significance
of the difference between two sample
statistics by pooling the standard errors
of the two sample estimates. For

Appendix table 1. Standard errors of selected
characteristics of State prisoners with minor children, 1997

Selected characteristic

Percent of State inmate
parents, 1997
Total
Male
Female

example, the standard error of the
difference between mothers and
fathers in State prison who were violent
offenders would be 1.46% (or the
square root of the sum of the squared
standard errors for each group). The
95% confidence interval around the
difference would be 1.96 times 1.46 (or
2.86%). Since the difference of 19.4%
(45.4% minus 26.0%) is greater than
2.86%, the difference would be considered statistically significant.

CAGE diagnostic instrument for alcohol
dependence
The CAGE questionnaire is a diagnostic instrument for detecting a person’s
history of alcohol abuse or dependence. In a clinical test, three or more
positive responses to the four CAGE
questions carried a .99 predictive value
for alcohol abuse or dependence. For
further information on the predictive
values of the CAGE instrument, see
the article “Screening for Alcohol
Abuse Using the CAGE Questionnaire”
by B. Bush and others, The American
Journal of Medicine, Vol. 82, February
1987, pp.231-35.

Appendix table 2. Standard errors of selected characteristics of Federal prisoners with minor children, 1997

Selected characteristic

Percent of Federal inmate
parents, 1997
Total
Male
Female

Have minor children*

0.54%

0.58%

1.07%

Have minor children*

1.01%

1.08%

2.00%

Lived with children
prior to admission

0.73%

0.77%

1.34%

Lived with children
prior to admission

1.31%

1.40%

1.94%

Child's current caregiver
Child's other parent
Child's grandparent
Foster home/agency

0.53%
0.55
0.23

0.48%
0.54
0.21

1.26%
1.40
0.83

Child's current caregiver
Child's other parent
Child's grandparent
Foster home/agency

0.87%
0.87
0.30

0.78%
0.84
0.30

2.45%
2.64
0.93

Monthly contact with children
Any
Phone
Mail
Visits

0.71%
0.73
0.73
0.60

0.76%
0.77
0.78
0.64

1.15%
1.39
1.33
1.19

Monthly contact with children
Any
Phone
Mail
Visits

1.00%
1.18
1.26
1.11

1.09%
1.27
1.35
1.18

1.47%
2.08
2.35
2.10

Current offense
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order

0.73%
0.61
0.63
0.45

0.78%
0.64
0.66
0.48

1.23%
1.26
1.34
0.85

Current offense
Violent
Property
Drug
Public-order

0.62%
0.43
1.40
0.68

0.65%
0.43
1.46
0.71

1.81%
2.23
5.02
1.98

Criminal history
Any priors

0.62%

0.65%

1.34%

Criminal history
Any priors

1.28%

1.35%

2.51%

Prior substance abuse
Used drugs in month before offense
Alcohol dependent

0.72%
0.64

0.77%
0.68

1.33%
1.19

Prior substance abuse
Used drugs in month before offense
Alcohol dependent

1.32%
0.98

1.41%
1.05

2.58%
1.77

*Based on all State prisoners.

*Based on all Federal prisoners.

Incarcerated Parents and Their Children

11

The Bureau of Justice Statistics
is the statistical agency of the
U.S. Department of Justice.
Jan M. Chaiken, Ph.D., is director.

This report and others from the
Bureau of Justice Statistics are
available free of charge through the
Internet &

BJS Special Reports address a
specific topic in depth from one or
more datasets that cover many
topics.

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/

Christopher J. Mumola wrote this
report under the supervision of Allen
J. Beck. Laura M. Maruschak and
Todd D. Minton provided statistical
assistance. Tom Hester and Ellen
Goldberg edited the report. Jayne
Robinson prepared the report for
publication.

The data from the 1997 Surveys of
Inmates in State and Federal
Correctional Facilities are available
from the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data, maintained by the
Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research at the
University of Michigan, 1-800999-0960. The archive may also be
accessed through the BJS Internet
site.

August 2000, NCJ 182335

12 Incarcerated Parents and Their Children