The Case for Paid
Apprenticeships Behind Bars
By Annie McGrew and Angela Hanks	

April 27, 2017

Luis Rivera has spent the past two decades struggling to find stable, family-sustaining
work. Although he was released from prison in the 1990s after serving a two-year sentence, his criminal record still casts a long shadow over his employment prospects. As a
result, Rivera has spent most his life piecing together dead-end, informal, and part-time
jobs, and trying to support a family of four while earning minimum wage.1
Rivera’s story is unfortunately far from unique. Today, as many as 1 in 3 Americans
have a criminal record.2 This has meant that each year, millions of people with criminal
records struggle to find good jobs that make it possible for them to support their families
and move on with their lives.3 For people of color and those with disabilities, who face
overwhelmingly disproportionate rates of incarceration, a criminal record is yet one more
obstacle to employment in a labor market that already discriminates against these groups.
The challenges Rivera and millions of others in similar circumstances face do not need
to be inevitable. Governments at all levels can take steps to improve the labor market
attachment of the formerly incarcerated—beginning while they are still behind bars.
Apprenticeship programs for the incarcerated, which combine on-the-job training with
relevant classroom instruction, could significantly improve employment outcomes for
returning citizens. This is especially true if participating inmates are earning wages for
their time on the job. This brief argues that greater access to paid prison apprenticeship
programs could effectively improve inmates’ post-release outcomes, particularly for a
group of individuals who already face significant barriers to labor market entry.

Obstacles to re-entering the labor market
The formerly incarcerated face numerous obstacles to re-entering the labor market
upon release. Lower levels of educational attainment; the stigma of incarceration; a lack
of employment history or long periods of unemployment; and a criminal record all
increase the prospect of unemployment.

1  Center for American Progress  |  The Case for Paid Apprenticeships Behind Bars

Certain populations, such as people of color and those with disabilities, are disproportionally affected by mass incarceration. (see Figure 1) African Americans, for example,
represent 13 percent4 of the national population while representing a startling 35
percent of the incarcerated population.5 Additionally, although women make up a small
share of the incarcerated,6 African American women are overrepresented, making up 21
percent of incarcerated women7 but only 13 percent of women nationwide.8 Decades of
policies promoting mass incarceration have disproportionately ensnared these groups in
the criminal justice system.9

FIGURE 1

People of color, men, and those with disabilities are disproportionately
affected by mass incarceration
Share of national population and incarcerated population, by race, gender,
and disability status
National population

Incarcerated population

13%
African American

35%
18%

Hispanic or Latino

22%
77%

White

34%
49%

Men  

93%
51%

Women

7%
32%

Disabled

11%*
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

* Authors' note: This number is derived from 2012 American Community Survey data standardized to inmates in the 2011–12 National Inmate
Survey based on sex, age, race, and Hispanic origin.
Sources: Demographic data on race and gender of the incarcerated population are from Bureau of Justice Statistics, "Prisoners in 2015" (U.S.
Department of Justice, 2016), available at https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p15.pdf; demographic data on race and gender of the national
population are from U.S. Census Bureau, "QuickFacts: United States," available at https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045216/00 (last
accessed April 2017); data for disability of the national population and incarcerated population are taken from Bureau of Justice Statistics, Disabilities
Among Prison and Jail Inmates, 2011–12 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2015), available at https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/dpji1112.pdf.

The stigma associated with having a criminal record affects nearly one-third of the U.S.
adult working-age population.10 Roughly 60 percent11 of the almost 650,000 inmates12
released from prison each year are unemployed one year after release. Having a criminal
record can be an immediate barrier to employment. Research shows that employers are
50 percent less likely to hire or extend a callback to someone with a criminal record.13

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Additionally, data indicate that unemployment is not just a short-term effect of incarceration: It can continue to be a barrier years after release. Even five years post-release,
67 percent of the formerly incarcerated remain either unemployed or underemployed.14
The stigma of having a criminal record is especially harmful to those who are parents;
nearly half of U.S. children now have a parent with a criminal record.15 The effects of
having a criminal record are also substantially more injurious for African Americans,
who are 50 percent less likely to receive a callback or job offer than someone with a
criminal record who is white.16
There is a clear need for policies and programs that help inmates gain employment
post-release. Research indicates that meaningful employment soon after release is key
to former inmates’ long-term success. A 2008 Urban Institute study examining employment outcomes for the formerly incarcerated found that employment post-release
decreases the likelihood of recidivism, particularly if it is secured shortly after release
and is well-paying.17 The study found that the higher the wages earned by formerly
incarcerated individuals two months post-release, the less likely it was that those individuals would return to prison eight to 10 months after release. For example, individuals who made more than $10 an hour were 50 percent less likely to return to prison
than those making less than $7 an hour.18
FIGURE 2

The incarcerated population has significantly lower educational
attainment than the national population
Share of national population and incarcerated population, by highest level
of educational attainment
National population

Graduate or
professional degree

Bachelor’s degree

Associate degree

Incarcerated population

11%
1%
17%
1%
9%
4%
50%

High school credential

Below high school

64%
14%
30%

0%

20%

40%

60%

Source: Bobby D. Rampey and others, "Highlights from the U.S. PIAAC Survey of Incarcerated Adults: Their Skills, Work Experience, Education, and
Training" (Washington: National Center for Education Statistics, 2016), available at https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016040.pdf.

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Educational attainment is a barrier to employment as well. Individuals who are incarcerated have lower levels of educational attainment, putting them at greater risk of
unemployment once they are released. A startling 94 percent of incarcerated people
have a high school diploma or less, while only 64 percent of the U.S. adult population
is in the same position. (see Figure 2) Among African Americans, this figure rises to 96
percent. (see Figure 3) What’s more, 37 percent of the U.S. adult population holds an
associate degree or higher, while only 6 percent of the incarcerated population holds
the same degree. (see Figure 2)

FIGURE 3

Hispanic and black inmates have lower educational attainment
than white inmates
Educational attainment of incarcerated population, by race
Hispanic

White

Black

80%
71%
60%

63%
54%

40%

40%
33%

20%

20%
4%

4%

6%

0%
Associate degree

High school credential

Below high school

Note: Data on bachelor’s degree and graduate or professional degree by race are not available.
Source: National Center for Education Statistics, "International Data Explorer: PIAAC Data Explorer," available at https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/piaac/ideuspiaac/ (last accessed April 2017).

Research suggests that prison education programs, including apprenticeships and other
vocational and academic programs, are successful in reducing recidivism and improving inmates’ labor market outcomes post-release.19 A 2013 study found that incarcerated individuals who participated in prison education programs were 43 percent less
likely to return to prison than those who did not participate. Additionally, those who
participated in vocational training programs were almost 30 percent more likely to be
employed after release than those who did not receive training.20

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Despite promising research on the positive impact of prison education programs,
educational opportunities within prison are scarce and have decreased over the past
few decades.21 A 2002 study by the Urban Institute found that inmate participation in
vocational training declined from 31 percent to 27 percent between 1991 and 1997,
and that participation in educational programs declined by seven percentage points—
from 42 percent to 35 percent—over the same period.22 One factor contributing to this
decline was Congress’ 1994 decision to remove inmates’ access to Pell Grants. This led
to a 44 percent decrease in participation in postsecondary educational programs within
just one year and the closure of about half of existing postsecondary education programs in correctional facilities.23
The decline in prison education and vocational programs was further precipitated
during the 1990s and early 2000s due to the rapid increase of the prison population;
decreased federal funding for prison education programs; frequent transferring of
inmates from one facility to another; and a greater focus on short-term substance abuse
and anger management programs.24 More recently, during the Great Recession, states
significantly decreased spending on prison education programs with the sharpest cuts
occurring in states with the most inmates.25
There has been recent progress: In 2015, the U.S. Department of Education
announced it was launching a pilot program to test whether access to financial aid
causes more incarcerated people to participate in postsecondary education programs
while incarcerated. However, the pilot is limited to only a small fraction of federal and
state facilities nationwide.26

Working while incarcerated
Many people work while incarcerated. More than half27 of the 1.5 million28 individuals
incarcerated in state and federal facilities work while in prison. According to the most
recent prison census, the vast majority—74 percent—of participants work in facility
support, while others participate in public works assignments or prison industries.29
Individuals who are incarcerated are not statutorily exempt from the Fair Labor Standards
Act of 1938, or FLSA, which requires employers to pay most workers at least the federal
minimum wage.34 However, the courts have generally ruled that such workers are excluded
from FLSA protections.35 In interpreting who is covered under the FSLA, the test applied
by the courts is to determine if an employment relationship exists between the two
entities. Since inmates can be forced to work under the 13th Amendment, and prisons
do not have usual employer rights such as hiring and firing, courts have generally ruled
that inmates and prisons do not constitute an employment relationship.36 As a result, the
overwhelming majority of incarcerated workers are either unpaid or paid well below the
minimum wage.37 Those who do earn a wage are often paid little more than a few cents an
hour—raising human rights concerns about the exploitation of free labor.38

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Employment assignments in prison
Facility support
The most common type of prison work is facility support.30 Inmates who work in facility support
perform various maintenance chores, such as cooking, cleaning, laundry, cleric work, and more.
Public works assignments
The second most common type of prison work is public works assignments.31 Through public
works assignments, inmates work for state or local governments on projects in the public
interest, such as picking up trash, tending to parks, or construction on public buildings.
Prison industries
A small share of inmates work in prison industries that produce goods for government use.32
The federal prison industry is known as UNICOR, but states often have their own prison
industry programs.33

Apprenticeships offer a solution
Where prison work programs fail to offer opportunities for participants to learn skills
that will be valuable in the labor market, apprenticeships, which offer paid on-the-job
training, may be the solution.39 These programs could improve individuals’ job prospects post-incarceration, thus lowering the chance of recidivism.
In 2016, more than 200,000 workers throughout the country started Registered
Apprenticeship, or RA, programs—paid on-the-job training programs that are registered with the U.S. Department of Labor, or DOL—in industries ranging from construction to computer science.40 What is less well-known is that on average, more than
8 percent of RA entrants each year are individuals who are currently incarcerated.41
Apprenticeships are unique in that they offer training and work experience that will be
valuable to individuals upon their release. Given how successful these programs have
been for workers more broadly, they may offer a promising way to help incarcerated
individuals secure a good job upon release.42
Apprenticeship programs are characterized by extensive learning on the job under the
supervision of an experienced worker and supplemented by some classroom instruction. Apprenticeship programs typically consist of 2,000 hours of on-the-job training
along with a recommended minimum 144 hours of classroom instruction annually,
according to the DOL. Importantly, apprentices are paid for their time on the job and
receive incremental wage increases based on time or skills mastery.43 Upon completion,
each apprentice graduates with an industry-issued, nationally recognized credential
from the DOL.44 Research commissioned by the DOL shows that these programs are
proven to increase participants’ wages and provide job opportunities.45

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Apprenticeships have a long history in the United States, and thanks to recent interest
from policymakers, these programs are experiencing a resurgence. In 2014, then-President Barack Obama announced a national goal to double the number of apprentices
nationwide in five years.46 Since then, the number of apprentices has increased by 23
percent.47 The momentum around apprenticeship programs is likely linked to their
impressive stats: a 91 percent post-program employment rate and an average annual
starting wage of $50,000 upon program completion.48

Apprenticeships help alleviate barriers to opportunity
Apprentices represent a small but growing share of the working prison population. Since
the 2005 corrections census was conducted, the number of incarcerated apprentices
has increased by almost threefold. In 2016, more than 9,000 incarcerated individuals
enrolled in apprenticeship programs.49
Apprenticeships offer the incarcerated population the opportunity to gain valuable skills
and a credential that is marketable in the broader labor market. Additionally, apprenticeship programs allow incarcerated individuals to connect with potential employers.
Ideally, these programs should help inmate apprentices connect with outside employment opportunities—by partnering with local unions and employers to help connect
inmates with jobs prior to release. In addition to the DOL certificate, some apprentice
programs offer opportunities for participants to earn industry certifications while incarcerated.50 In some cases, the programs will award transcripts to apprentices who have
completed a certain percentage of their program before release, which can be used with
outside employers to demonstrate competency.
The Iowa Department of Corrections, or DOC, has experienced success with its recently
implemented apprenticeship program. In 2014, the state’s DOC transitioned existing
prison industry jobs into apprenticeship programs. Today, it sponsors 19 registered
apprenticeships across their nine facilities.
The majority of the state’s apprentice programs are run through Iowa Prison Industries
in occupations such as cabinet making, metal fabrication and welding, screen printing,
and computer operations. Since 2015, program participation has increased by more
than 700 percent, and the program currently has 277 registered apprentices. Since starting the program, 71 apprentices have completed it. The DOC is working on collecting
employment data on all completed apprentices, which will likely be available in the
fall. The DOC also works with employers, unions, workforce development boards, and
other organizations to help participants secure gainful employment after release.

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As noted above, job-specific training programs such as apprenticeships increase the
likelihood of employment post-release by 30 percent and decrease the likelihood of
recidivating significantly. For example, the Indiana DOC found that those participating in their prison apprenticeship programs were almost 30 percent less likely to return
to prison within three years of release than those who did not participate in program.51
These findings, along with the findings of a 2012 DOL-commissioned report that
concluded the RA program was cost-effective and increased the earnings of participants,
suggest that the RA program for inmates would produce similar results.52
Despite data indicating that inmates want to participate in job training programs, few
prisons currently offer them. A study by the National Center for Education Statistics,
or NCES, found that only 7 percent of inmates received certificates from a college or
trade school while incarcerated, while 29 percent of respondents wanted to obtain
these certifications. Again, according to the NCES survey, 39 percent of inmates who
indicated they wanted to enroll in an educational program gave as their main reason to
do so a desire to “increase the possibilities of getting a job when released.” That same
survey found that 23 percent of inmates reported having participated in a jobs skills or
job training program during their current incarceration, while 14 percent were on a waiting list for entering a job training program.53 Expanding apprenticeships will help fill this
need and more—providing inmates with the job training and work experience to gain
employment post-incarceration.
Apprenticeship programs may be even more beneficial for individuals who face multiple
barriers to labor market entry, such as racial or other forms of discrimination. Greater
access to prison apprenticeship programs could help these individuals improve their skills
and obtain a credential that holds value in the labor market, which in turn could help
mitigate other barriers to labor market re-entry. Apprenticeship programs—although
often male-dominated because they are concentrated in the male-dominated building
and construction trades—hold great potential for female inmates as well.54 While women
make up just 7 percent of the incarcerated population in the United States, they represent
13 percent of incarcerated apprentices. (see Figure 4) If these programs are made more
available to women who are incarcerated, it can help these women enter well-paid and
traditionally male-dominated fields, such as construction, upon release.

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FIGURE 4

Apprenticeships should be representative of the national prison population
Gender and racial representation in the incarcerated population and in apprenticeship
programs in prison
Incarcerated population

Incarcerated apprentices

35%

African American

33%
34%

White

56%
93%

Men  

87%
7%

Women

13%
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Sources: Demographic data on the incarcerated population are from Bureau of Justice Statistics, "Prisoners in 2015" (U.S. Department of Justice,
2016), available at https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p15.pdf; data on incarcerated apprentices are authors' calculations of 2008–2016 data
from U.S. Department of Labor, "Registered Apprenticeship Partners Information Data System (RAPIDS)," data on file with authors.

Apprenticeships are promising—but must pay fair wages
While prison apprenticeships show promise, as currently designed, they suffer the
same fundamental flaw as other prison work programs: They are either unpaid or pay
well below the minimum wage. In fact, the median starting wage of inmate apprentices
from 2008 to 2016 was 7 cents an hour and the median exit wage was 35 cents.55 (see
Table A1 for full wage distribution) By comparison, the average annual salary for an
individual who completes an apprenticeship is slightly more than $50,000.56 In reality,
median wages may be lower than what is reflected here since some states deduct a share
of inmate’s wages for a variety of purposes, including court fines, victim reparations, and
family support. These deductions leave incarcerated workers with an even smaller share
of their meager pay.57 Moreover, many programs do not pay apprentices at all. In 2016,
4,800 inmate apprentices started their apprenticeship with no pay and almost 4,900
ended their programs without pay. This has translated to more than 30,000 unpaid new
incarcerated apprentices since 2008.58
Paying inmate workers at least the minimum wage is not a novel concept. In fact,
the Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program, known as PIECP—which
is available to a small share of inmates—already pays inmates the prevailing wage.59
Unfortunately, high deductions mean that these workers also take back very low wages.60

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Prison apprenticeships would be much more beneficial to apprentices if they paid better
wages. The formerly incarcerated often find hefty financial burdens waiting for them
upon release. Furthermore, many face significant court fees and fines accumulated
during incarceration that can push them into debt.61 Returning citizens also face the
challenge of returning to families that have suffered financially as a result of that individual’s incarceration, due to the loss of family income or to the lack of child support.
62
Indeed, 2 in 3 families of incarcerated individuals reported difficulty meeting basic
needs because of a family member’s incarceration, and almost 20 percent of families
with incarcerated members were unable to afford housing due to the loss of income
resulting from their family members’ incarceration.63 Paying inmates could help keep
their families afloat financially while they are incarcerated.

Conclusion
Returning citizens face many barriers to re-entering the labor market upon their release.
Apprenticeships can help smooth this difficult transition by equipping returning citizens
with real-world, in-demand skills that can improve employment and earnings prospects
going forward and reduce the likelihood of recidivism.
To be clear, apprenticeships are not a panacea—they cannot wholly alleviate the discrimination that the formerly incarcerated, especially individuals of color and people
with disabilities, face in the labor market. Other policy changes, such as fair chance
hiring, record-clearing, inmate access to Pell Grants, and other criminal justice reforms
are badly needed as well. But apprenticeships do offer one policy solution for putting a
more secure future within reach for returning citizens and their families.
While the number of apprenticeship programs in prisons is growing, they are still too
rare in America’s massive correctional system. Policymakers should expand access
to apprenticeship programs for incarcerated individuals by investing in strategies to
develop high-quality apprenticeship and pre-apprenticeship programs. At a minimum,
high-quality programs should have relationships with outside employers and unions
to help establish connections to jobs upon release. Policymakers should also consider
amending the FLSA to explicitly include incarcerated workers, to ensure that they are
paid at least the minimum wage for apprenticeships and other forms of prison work.
Additionally, although certain apprenticeship programs have collected data on postrelease employment and recidivism of those who have gone through the programs, the
DOL should standardize this data collection across all apprenticeship programs.
As America begins to come to terms with the damage the carceral state is exacting on
its citizens—disproportionately people of color and individuals with disabilities—
paid apprenticeships for inmates offer an evidence-backed plan to give newly released

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individuals the skills and experience they need to secure gainful employment once they
return to their communities. These apprenticeships benefit not only inmates but also
their communities, since returning citizens will have the skills to be productive members of their community. Policymakers should take note.
Annie McGrew is a Special Assistant for the Economic Policy team at the Center for American
Progress. Angela Hanks is the Associate Director for Workforce Development Policy on the
Economic Policy team at the Center. 

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Appendix

Administration of the Registered Apprenticeship program in the United States
The DOL’s Office of Apprenticeship administers the RA system. As noted in a CAP
report, “Training for Success,” the system consists of a national office, six regional
offices,64 and local offices in each state.65 The Office of Apprenticeship directly administers the program in 25 states and delegates some operational authority to state apprenticeship agencies in 25 states and the District of Columbia.
The Office of Apprenticeship is responsible for:
•	 Program approval and standards
•	 Program and apprentice registration
•	 Worker safety and health
•	 Issuing certificates of completion
•	 Ensuring that programs offer high-quality training
•	 Promoting apprenticeships to employers
State apprenticeship agencies devote most of their resources to approving new occupations for apprenticeship and on program and apprentice registration with the DOL.66 All
apprenticeships culminate in a nationally recognized certificate issued by the DOL.67
TABLE A1

Wages for incarcerated apprentices are extremely low
Starting and exit wage distribution of incarcerated apprentices

Percentile

Starting wage

Number of inmate
apprentices that
received this starting
wage or below from
2008 to 2016

Exit wage

Number of inmate
apprentices that
exited the program
at this wage or below
from 2008 to 2016

1%

$0.00

680

$0.00

633

5%

$0.00

3,398

$0.01

3,165

10%

$0.00

6,797

$0.01

6,329

25%

$0.00

16,992

$0.10

15,823

50%

$0.07

33,984

$0.35

31,647

75%

$0.25

50,975

$1.00

47,470

90%

$0.60

61,170

$7.25

56,964

95%

$1.00

64,569

$7.25

60,128

99%

$7.95

67,287

$8.00

62,660

Source: Authors’ calculations of 2008–2016 data from U.S. Department of Labor “Registered Apprenticeship Partners Information Data System (RAPIDS),”
data on file with authors.

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Endnotes
	 1	 Kai Wright,” Boxed In: How a Criminal Record Keeps You Unemployed For Life,” The Nation, November 6, 2013, available
at https://www.thenation.com/article/boxed-how-criminalrecord-keeps-you-unemployed-life/.
	 2	 The Sentencing Project, “Poverty and Opportunity Profile:
Americans with Criminal Records” (2015), available at http://
www.sentencingproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/
Americans-with-Criminal-Records-Poverty-and-Opportunity-Profile.pdf.
	 3	 Rebecca Vallas and Sharon Dietrich, “One Strike and You’re
Out: How We Can Eliminate Barriers to Economic Security
and Mobility for People with Criminal Records” (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2014), available
at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/poverty/
reports/2014/12/02/102308/one-strike-and-youre-out/.
	 4	 U.S. Census Bureau, “QuickFacts: United States,” available at
https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045216/00
(last accessed April 2017).
	 5	 Bureau of Justice Statistics, Prisoners in 2015 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2016), available at https://www.bjs.gov/
content/pub/pdf/p15.pdf.
	 6	Ibid.
	 7	 Authors’ calculations of Ibid.
	 8	 Authors’ calculation of data for women 16 years and older
from the U.S. Census Bureau, “Annual Estimates of the
Resident Population by Sex, Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin
for the United States and States: April 1, 2010 to July 1,
2015,” available at https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/
jsf/pages/index.xhtml (last accessed April 2017).
	 9	 Sarah Childress, “Michelle Alexander: ‘A System of Racial and
Social Control’,” Frontline, April 29, 2014, available at http://
www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/michelle-alexander-asystem-of-racial-and-social-control/.
	 10	 Rebecca Vallas and others, “Removing Barriers to Opportunity for Parents With Criminal Records and Their Children: A
Two-Generation Approach” (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2015), available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/poverty/reports/2015/12/10/126902/
removing-barriers-to-opportunity-for-parents-with-criminal-records-and-their-children/.
	 11	 Vallas and Dietrich, “One Strike and You’re Out.”
	 12	 Bureau of Justice Statistics, Prisoners in 2015.
	 13	 Devah Pager and Bruce Western, “Investigating Prisoner Reentry: The Impact of Conviction Status on the Employment
Prospects of Young Men” (2009), available at https://www.
ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/228584.pdf.
	 14	 Ella Baker Center for Human Rights, Forward Together,
and Research Action Design, “Who Pays? The True Cost of
Incarceration on Families” (2015), available at http://ellabakercenter.org/sites/default/files/downloads/who-pays.pdf.
	 15	 Vallas and others, “Removing Barriers to Opportunity for
Parents With Criminal Records and Their Children.”
	 16	 Pager and Western, “Investigating Prisoner Reentry.
	 17	 Christy Visher, Sara Debus, and Jennifer Yahner, “Employment After Prison: A Longitudinal Study of Releases
in Three States” (Washington: Urban Institute, 2008),
available at http://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/
publication/32106/411778-Employment-after-Prison-ALongitudinal-Study-of-Releasees-in-Three-States.PDF.
	18	 Ibid.

	 19	 Lois M. Davis and others, “ Evaluating the Effectiveness of
Correctional Education: A Meta-Analysis of Programs That
Provide Education to Incarcerated Adults” (Santa Monica,
CA: Rand Corporation, 2013), available at http://www.rand.
org/pubs/research_reports/RR266.html.
	 20	 Ibid.; see also the National Institute of Justice, “Practice
Profile: Corrections-Based Vocational Training Programs,”
available at https://www.crimesolutions.gov/PracticeDetails.
aspx?ID=24 (last accessed April 2017), which found that inmates who participated in vocational training programs had
significant reductions in recidivism, and that participation
in vocational training increased inmates’ odds of obtaining
employment following release.
	 21	 Only 42 percent of incarcerated adults completed further
formal education during their incarceration. However, more
than 70 percent of incarcerated adults reported that they
wanted to enroll in an academic class or program, according
to the National Center for Education Statistics, Highlights
from the U.S. PIAAC Survey of Incarcerated Adults: Their Skills,
Work Experience, Education, and Training (U.S. Department
of Education, 2016), available at https://nces.ed.gov/
pubs2016/2016040.pdf.
	 22	 Sarah Lawrence and others, “The Practice and Promise of
Prison Programing,” (Washington: Urban Institute, 2002),
available at http://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/
publication/60431/410493-The-Practice-and-Promise-ofPrison-Programming.PDF.
	 23	 Lois M. Davis and others, “How Effective Is Correctional
Education, and Where Do We Go from Here?” (Santa Monica,
CA: Rand Corporation, 2014), available at http://www.rand.
org/pubs/research_reports/RR564.html.
	 24	 Lawrence and others, “The Practice and Promise of Prison
Programing.”
	 25	 Rand Corporation, “Prison-Based Education Declined During
Economic Downturn; More Work Is Needed to Better Focus
Spending,” Press release, February 18, 2014, available at
http://www.rand.org/news/press/2014/02/18.html.
	 26	 U.S. Department of Education, “12,000 Incarcerated
Students to Enroll in Postsecondary Educational and
Training Programs Through Education Department’s
New Second Chance Pell Pilot Program,” Press release,
June 24, 2016, available at https://www.ed.gov/news/
press-releases/12000-incarcerated-students-enroll-postsecondary-educational-and-training-programs-through-education-departments-new-second-chance-pell-pilot-program.
	 27	 Bureau of Justice Statistics, Census of State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 2005 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2008),
available at https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/csfcf05.
pdf; see also more recent data from the National Center of
Education Statistics, Highlights from the U.S. PIAAC Survey of
Incarcerated Adults, which found that 61 percent of incarcerated adults work while in prison.
	 28	 Bureau of Justice Statistics, Correctional Populations in the
United States, 2015 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2016), available at https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cpus15.pdf.
	 29	 Bureau of Justice Statistics, Census of State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 2005.
	 30	Ibid.
	31	 Ibid.
	32	 Ibid.
	 33	 UNICOR, “Homepage,” available at https://www.unicor.gov/
Index.aspx (last accessed April 2017).

13  Center for American Progress  |  The Case for Paid Apprenticeships Behind Bars

	34	 The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, As Amended, 29 U.S.C.
§201, available at https://www.dol.gov/whd/regs/statutes/
FairLaborStandAct.pdf.

	 50	 Personal communication from Tim Diesburg, Registered Apprenticeship coordinator, Iowa Department of Corrections,
April 2016.

	 35	 Whitney Benns, “‘Free’ Labor: The Law of Prison Labor,”
OnLabor, May 28, 2015, available at https://onlabor.
org/2015/05/28/free-labor-the-law-of-prison-labor/.

	 51	 This translates to an 11 percentage point difference. Those
who participated in apprenticeship programs recidivated at
a rate of 27 percent, while those who did not participate in
the program recidivated at a rate of 39 percent.

	36	 Ibid.
	 37	 Wendy Sawyer, “How much do incarcerated people earn in
each state?”, Prison Policy Initiative, April 10, 2017, available
at https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2017/04/10/wages/.
	38	 Ibid.
	 39	 Forty-seven percent of incarcerated adults with jobs
compared with only 12 percent of adults nationwide
reported never reading directions or instructions as part of
their current prison job. Eighty-two percent of incarcerated
adults reported never working with fractions, decimals, or
percentages, while only 34 percent of the national population reported the same, according to the National Center for
Education Statistics, Highlights from the U.S. PIAAC Survey of
Incarcerated Adults.
	 40	 U.S. Department of Labor, “ApprenticeshipUSA: Data and
Statistics,” available at https://www.doleta.gov/OA/data_statistics.cfm (last accessed March 2017).
	 41	 Authors’ calculations of 2008–2016 data from the U.S.
Department of Labor, “Registered Apprenticeship Partners
Information Data System (RAPIDS),” data on file with authors.
	 42	 Debbie Reed and others, “An Effectiveness Assessment and
Cost-Benefit Analysis of Registered Apprenticeship in 10
States” (Oakland, CA: Mathematica Policy Research, 2012),
available at https://wdr.doleta.gov/research/FullText_Documents/ETAOP_2012_10.pdf.
	 43	 U.S. Department of Labor, “Frequently Asked Questions,”
available at https://www.dol.gov/featured/apprenticeship/
faqs (last accessed March 2017).

	 52	 Reed and others, “An Effectiveness Assessment and CostBenefit Analysis of Registered Apprenticeship in 10 States.”
	 53	 National Center for Education Statistics, Highlights from the
U.S. PIAAC Survey of Incarcerated Adults.
	 54	 Angela Hanks, “Now Is the Time to Invest in Apprenticeships,” Center for American Progress, November 18, 2016,
available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/
economy/reports/2016/11/18/292558/now-is-the-time-toinvest-in-apprenticeships/.
	 55	 Authors’ calculations of 2008–2016 data from the U.S.
Department of Labor, “Registered Apprenticeship Partners
Information Data System (RAPIDS).”
	56	 Ibid.
	 57	 Sawyer, “How much do incarcerated people earn in each
state?”.
	 58	 Authors’ calculations of 2008–2016 data from the U.S.
Department of Labor, “Registered Apprenticeship Partners
Information Data System (RAPIDS).”
	 59	 Bureau of Justice Assistance, “Prison Industry Enhancement
Certification Program (PIECP),” available at https://www.bja.
gov/ProgramDetails.aspx?Program_ID=73 (last accessed
April 2017).
	 60	 Bureau of Justice Assistance, “Program Brief: Prison Industry
Enhancement Certification Program,” available at https://
www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/bja/203483.pdf (last accessed April
2017).

	 44	 U.S. Department of Labor, “What is Registered Apprenticeship?” available at https://doleta.gov/OA/apprenticeship.
cfm (last accessed March 2017).

	 61	 Tanzina Vega, “Costly prison fees are putting inmates deep
in debt,” CNN Money, September 18, 2015, available at
http://money.cnn.com/2015/09/18/news/economy/prisonfees-inmates-debt/.

	 45	 Reed and others, “An Effectiveness Assessment and CostBenefit Analysis of Registered Apprenticeship in 10 States.”

	 62	 Ella Baker Center for Human Rights, Forward Together, and
Research Action Design, “Who Pays?”.

	 46	 The White House Office of the Press Secretary, “Fact Sheet
- American Job Training Investments: Skills and Jobs to
Build a Stronger Middle Class,” Press Release, April 16, 2014,
available at https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/thepress-office/2014/04/16/fact-sheet-american-job-traininginvestments-skills-and-jobs-build-stron.

	63	 Ibid.

	 47	 Author’s calculation of data from the U.S. Department of Labor, “Data and Statistics: Registered Apprenticeship National
Results: Fiscal Year (FY) 2016 (10/01/2015 to 9/30/2016),”
available at https://doleta.gov/oa/data_statistics.cfm (last
accessed April 2017).
	 48	 U.S. Department of Labor, “ApprenticeshipUSA Toolkit:
Frequently Asked Questions,” available at https://www.dol.
gov/apprenticeship/toolkit/toolkitfaq.htm#3i (last accessed
March 2017).

	 64	 U.S. Department of Labor, “ApprenticeshipUSA: Regional
Offices,” available at https://www.doleta.gov/OA/regdirlist.
cfm (last accessed April 2017).
	 65	 Ben Olinsky and Sarah Ayres Steinberg, “Training for Success: A Policy to Expand Apprenticeships in the United
States” (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2013),
available at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/
economy/reports/2013/12/02/79991/training-for-success-apolicy-to-expand-apprenticeships-in-the-united-states/.
	66	 Ibid.
	 67	 U.S. Department of Labor, “Frequently Asked Questions.”

	 49	 Authors’ calculations of 2008–2016 data from the U.S.
Department of Labor, “Registered Apprenticeship Partners
Information Data System (RAPIDS).”

14  Center for American Progress  |  The Case for Paid Apprenticeships Behind Bars