An Effective System for Investigating Complaints
Against Police

A study of human rights compliance in police complaint models in the US, Canada,
UK, Northern Ireland and Australia

Release Date: 13 April 2009
By Tamar Hopkins
Victorian Law Foundation Community Legal Centre Fellow 2008-2009
Monash University Honorary Fellow
Principal Solicitor Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre

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CONTENTS:
Executive Summary and Recommendations
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Chapter 2 - The duty to investigate – a human rights framework
Chapter 3 - Independence
Chapter 4 Adequacy
Chapter 5 - Public scrutiny
Chapter 6 Involvement of the victim
Chapter 7 - Complaints against police in Victoria Australia
Chapter 8 - Recommendations for Victoria
Appendix 1- List of organisations and people consulted
Appendix 2- Civil litigation as a police accountability mechanism
Bibliography

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Chapter Two contains an analysis of the human rights principles that have emerged in
overseas courts and committees concerning investigation of police complaints. The core
principles emerging from these cases have been identified by the European Commission
of Human Rights rapporteur on police complaints as: Independence, Adequacy,
Promptness, Transparency/Public Scrutiny and Effective involvement of the victim or
family. I use these principles as a structure for this report.
Chapters Three to Six draw out the practical implications of each of these principles and
makes recommendations that will ensure compliance. These chapters will draw on case
law, interviews with police complaint agencies and advocates, reports, media and Inquiry
findings in each of the jurisdictions studied.
Chapter Seven explores the current Victorian police complaint system and in particular
its treatment of complaints from Flemington from 2006- 2009.
Chapter Eight concludes with general recommendations for Victoria. Specific
recommendations are in the executive summary.

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Appendix 1 contains a list of all the individuals and agencies whose expertise I have
drawn from in making this report.
Appendix 2 contains an essay examining civil litigation as a police accountability
mechanism and the lessons which can be drawn from civil litigation for police complaint
systems.
Acknowledgements
This work is dedicated to and inspired by the courage and conviction of the victims and
families who have experienced police abuse in Victoria and have witnessed the failure of
Victoria’s police accountability mechanisms.
I am extremely grateful to Charandev Singh for his expertise, direction, research and
support.
Thank you to the Victorian Law Foundation and in particular Tabitha Lovett for her
assistance with this project. Thank you also to Thuan Nuygen for her support and
ongoing assistance with the grant process.
I am extremely grateful for the time, expertise and inspiration generously shared with me
by individuals and agencies in Canada, the US, Northern Ireland and England. A special
thanks to Kendra Ballingall, Raju Bhatt, King Downing, Craig Futterman, Imran Khan,
Joey Mogul, Tracy Siska, Graham Smith, Flint Taylor, Cameron Ward and the Police
Accountability Project of the National Lawyers Guild (US).
This report presents a tiny portion of the ideas they generously shared.
I am also grateful to practitioners, advocates, work colleagues, activists, youth workers,
community members, authors and academics here in Victoria for the time they have
given me. A particular thanks to Professor Jude McCulloch for her advice and
encouragement, to Andrew Hopkins for his careful comments, and to Carly Marcs,
Anthony Kelly and Graham Smith for their comments on parts of the drafts. Thanks also
to my talented and expert steering committee for their comments, suggestions and moral
support. My steering committee includes Genevieve Nihill, Jill Pryor, Amanda Young,
Jane Dixon SC, Dyson Hore-Lacy SC, Charandev Singh, Sarah Nicholson, Ahmed Dini,
Dale Mills, Anthony Kelly, Associate Professor Jude McCulloch, Carly Marcs and Simon
Roberts.
The errors in the work are all mine. Please send comments and feedback to
Tamar_Hopkins@clc.net.au
List of Acronyms
ACT – Australian Capital Territory, Australia
ALRC – Australian Law Reform Commission

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ACLU- American Civil Liberties Union
CIB – former name for Criminal Investigations Unit (detectives) Victoria Australia
ESD –Ethical Standards Department, Victoria Australia
FKCLC – Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre, Victoria Australia
FOI – Freedom of Information (Australia)
FOIA – Freedom of Information Act (USA)
ICCPR – International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights
IPCC – Independent Police Complaints Commission (UK)
IPRA – Independent Police Review Authority (Chicago)
LERA- Law Enforcement Review Agency
NYCLU- New York Civil Liberties Association
OPI – Office of Police Integrity, Victoria Australia
PONI- Police Ombudsman of Northern Ireland
PCA – Police Complaints Authority (Victoria, Australia)
RCIADIC – Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (Australia)
MIM –Management Intervention Model (Victoria Police)
TIO – Telecommunications Industry Ombudsman (Victoria Australia)
SIU – Special Investigations Unit (Ontario)
UK – United Kingdom
UN – United Nations
US – United States of America
VPM- Victoria Police Manual

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Executive Summary
In this study, I explore the five human rights standards identified by the European
Rapporteur on Police Complaints necessary for the effective investigation of alleged
human rights violations by police.
I then examine responses to complaints in the US, Canada, the UK, Northern Ireland and
Australia in order to draw out the practical implication of the five standards.
I then set out the Victorian complaint investigation process.
Finally I made recommendations for the reform of Victoria’s complaint investigation
systems to ensure compatibility with human rights.
The study was funded through a Victorian Law Foundation Community Legal Centre
Fellowship. I was advised by Associate Professor Jude McCulloch through an Honorary
Fellowship at Monash University.
During the research phase of the study (2008-2009), I visited and interviewed police
complaint agencies in:
•
•
•
•
•

Vancouver,
Winnipeg,
New York,
Northern Ireland and
Victoria

I also attended the National Association of Civilian Oversight of Law Enforcement
conference in Cincinnati in 2008 where I was able to listen to the views of staff at
numerous police complaint agencies across the United States, as well as active and
former Police Chiefs from some jurisdictions.
In addition, I interviewed:
•
•
•

the Manitoba Human Rights Commission Chair Person,
the European Commission for Human Rights Police Complaint Rapporteur,
Police board members in Winnipeg

I also interviewed Attorneys/ solicitors, academics, advocates and activists in locations
including:
•
•

Oakland California,
Vancouver,

5

•
•
•
•
•
•

Winnipeg,
Chicago,
New York,
Belfast,
Manchester and
London.

I attended a National Lawyers Guild Conference in Detroit where I was able to hear from
US attorneys from the National Police Accountability Project and I attended three days of
the coronial inquest into Jean Charles de Menezes in London. In total I conducted 56
interviews.
The report that follows is influenced by the views of all these people and also by my own
experiences in Victoria working on behalf of people reporting police abuse. This report
does not represent the views of any of these individuals or agencies.
RECOMMENDATIONS
These recommendations are directed to the following agencies: the Victorian
Government “VG”, Victoria Police (“VP”) and the Independent Investigation
Commission “IIC” that will do the investigations. The agency to which each
recommendation is directed is noted the end of each recommendation.
Independence:
1.

Investigations of allegations of misconduct, criminality and human rights abuses
must be conducted by an agency that is not only institutionally independent of
police but also practically culturally and politically independent. This means that
the use of former police officers should be minimal if at all. If they are used they
must come from forces outside the one under investigation. My study in the field
did bring me in contact with some rigorous former police investigators within
agencies. However, unless carefully selected for the absence of police cultural
biases, and removed from positions of influence in the organisation, the risk of
using former police in this central task is considerable. On the other hand,
civilians can and do perform investigations in civilian bodies throughout these
regions. They can be trained to be highly effective. Civilians must dominate the
organisation both in number and culture. Former police should be less than 25%
and should not have previously been employed in the agency under scrutiny. (VG
and IIC)

2.

The agency must operate with a healthy scepticism of police accounts concerning
misconduct. It must be complainant centred and complainant oriented. (IIC)

3.

Civilian investigators must by their attitude and attire be distinguishable from
police. (IIC)

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4.

The agency must be protected from the risks of agency capture through
minimising collegiate working relationships with the police agency. While
meetings are important, more than this becomes problematic. No seconded police
officers from the agency under examination or other law enforcement agencies
should be used. (VG, IIC)

5.

The agency must be protected from political and police union interference
through separate enabling legislation and regulations as well as independent
reporting to parliament. Its key positions must be long-term appointments. A
parliamentary committee must be established to assist with improving its
functions and to provide oversight to the agency. (VG)

6.

The agency must be properly and securely funded so that it does not need to rely
on seconded police for any of its functions. (VG)

7.

The agency must be adequately empowered to perform its tasks in the face of
police resistance so that it does not need to rely on maintaining good will with
police to do its task. (VG)

8.

The agency must be staffed by people who reflect the community; it must contain
young people, working class people, people from ethnic, religious, indigenous,
disabled and gay lesbian queer identified and trans-gendered communities and
maintain a gender balance. (VG, IIC)

Adequacy of Investigation
9.

Police suspects and witnesses must be separated and interviewed immediately for
both criminal and administrative purposes or no later than 24 hours after
notification of the details of a complaint. Refusal to participate in an
administrative interview must be grounds for dismissal. (IIC)

10.

Enforceable timelines for investigations are critical. Provision of documents by
police agencies must be prioritised and investigators should use warrants to
collect documents themselves where any delay occurs. (VG, IIC)

11.

Civilian investigation should commence immediately and must thoroughly and
effectively collect and preserve the evidence at a scene of a police involved death,
near death or serious injury. The reporting by police of these incidents to the
civilian body must be mandated. Civilian investigation must commence as soon as
they are notified of complaints that reveal an allegation that could lead to criminal
or disciplinary outcomes. (VG, IIC, VP)

12.

In cases where a person has died in custody, independent civilian investigators
should investigate and prepare the coroners brief. (VG, IIC)

13.

Civilian investigators must investigate as if a crime has been committed. (IIC)

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14.

Properly trained doctors must be free and available to assess pain and injuries at
all police stations, prisons, detention centres, when complainants contact the
complaint body and when they contact solicitors/advocates. It must be clearly
obvious to people in custody that the doctors they are seeing are independent and
not “working for the police.” (VG, VP)

15.

CCTV should be placed in all police stations and cars and data from these should
be removed immediately along with all data recording systems (such as taser data,
c/s spray, weapons/bullet logs, use of force forms, weapons used, log books etc).
(VP, IIC)

16.

Civilian investigators should interview complainants with respect to their
complaint and not to collect evidence in relation to prior behaviour if that
behaviour is under investigation by police. (IIC)

17.

Civilian investigators must not provide evidence to assist the prosecution of
complainants, but, may provide evidence to the defence and prosecution if the
complainant consents on the advice of their lawyer. (IIC)

18.

At the first interview, police are to be told of the allegations during the interview,
but not through prior written notice containing the detail of those allegations. The
complainant’s statement must not be given to police unless disciplinary, civil or
criminal proceedings have commenced against them. (IIC)

19.

Civilian investigators must question police for the purpose of investigating the
complainant’s allegations, not to assist the defence of the officers. (IIC)

20.

The standard of proof applied to substantiate a complaint should be “could the
evidence support a finding of misconduct by the police officers at a hearing”. In
complaints where the complainant is injured, the burden of proof falls on the
police to explain how the complainant was injured in custody.(VG, IIC)

21.

Complaints should be determined on the balance of probabilities at a hearing.
(VG, IIC)

22.

At the conclusion of the investigation, an investigation report explaining, in full
and thorough detail the reasons for the decision should be given to the
complainant any advocates involved. The reasons must contain an analysis of the
law that applies to the facts and any force that was used. (IIC)

23.

Mediations should only be considered where on the face of the complaint, no
facts leading to discipline or criminal charges are evidenced. Both complainant
and police must agree to mediation in these situations. (IIC)

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24.

Allegations of ill-treatment should be resolved in a public hearing. Where a
pattern or practice of abuse is alleged, a full public inquiry capable of not only
establishing individual fault, but inquiring into institutional cultures, underlying
causes and systemic failures is required. (VG, IIC)

25.

The decision following investigation should be open to administrative review and
subsequent to this judicial review. If the complainant is considering
administrative or judicial review, the entire investigation evidence and reports
should be made available to them to assist them with their appeal. (VG, IIC)

Public Scrutiny
26.

Daily or weekly data on complaints against police should be reported in the daily
papers. Weekly or fortnightly analysis from the police complaint agency and
accountability experts and human rights bodies should be publicly reported
describing current trends in complaints. Disciplinary action, civil litigation and
prosecutions against police should all be regularly reported. (IIC, VP)

27.

Investigation bodies should be subject to freedom of information requirements
and establish units to meet the public demand for requests of information. (VG,
IIC)

28.

Complaint data and outcomes as well as trends should be reported in full on the
investigation body websites and its annual reports. (IIC)

29.

Adjudication of complaints and disciplinary proceedings should occur in public.
Results of adjudications should be reported publicly via media and websites. (IIC,
VP)

Involvement of the Victim/ Effective Participation
30.

Views about the adequacy of the complaint body should be obtained from
complainants and solicitors and improvements made in line with suggestions.
(IIC)

31.

Complainants must be permitted to provide evidence through an advocate if they
so wish. (IIC)

32.

Complaint bodies must provide outreach and support for people in vulnerable
groups such as sex workers, drug users, homeless people, women, young people,
Muslim, refugee and migrant communities, prisoners and queer communities
(including multilingual support). (IIC)

33.

Civilian investigators must attend prisons, police stations, holding cells,
immigration detention centres/ border areas and rural communities where police
work and provide contact numbers and record complaints in these facilities and

9

regions. Civilian investigators must be active in pursuing evidence and must be
mobile. (IIC)
34.

Information must be available in multiple languages and by podcast/radio
broadcasts and talks must be given to communities who would not otherwise
access this information. (IIC)

35.

Complainants need to be protected once they have lodged a complaint through
the provision of special visas, removal from places where they are being harassed
(including in prisons) to safe places. Legislation should be in place making it an
offence to victimise a complainant, including laying false charges. Other forms of
protection, such as that provided to whistle-blowers should be available. (VG,
IIC)

36.

Charges laid after a complaint is made must be scrutinised for possible police
misconduct in and of themselves. (IIC)

37.

Complainants should be entitled to full and frank reasons for the decision on their
complaint as well as a full copy of the investigation report and the evidence on
which the decision was made. The release of this information should be subject
only to the harm test, which concerns protection of the identity of vulnerable
witnesses. The harm test should not concern the protection of the agency that
makes the decision. Transparency is the hallmark of accountable decisionmaking. No generalised Public Interest Immunity should be attached to complaint
documents. (VG, IIC)

38.

The victim should have access to the complaint histories of police when preparing
their case against police officers. (VG, IIC)

39.

Civilian investigators should treat complainants with the same care as all victims
of alleged crime should be treated. It must be understood that their experience
could have been highly traumatic and that it may be hard to discuss. Particular
care must be taken with interviewing young people, people from non-English
speaking backgrounds, people from religious, ethnic minorities, Indigenous
people, people with disabilities, trans-gendered people, sex workers. At all times
advocates (like a lawyer) and support persons (such as youth workers) should be
permitted to be in attendance. (IIC)

40.

Complainants should be given full access to preliminary findings and evidence in
order to make submissions prior to the finalisation of a complaint. (IIC)

41.

Complainants should be kept up to date throughout the period of the investigation
and be permitted make suggestions about additional lines of enquiry. (IIC)

42.

There should be adjudicative hearings to determine complaints. (VG, IIC)

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43.

Complainants should be provided with a lawyer paid for by the State and at the
rates equivalent to that paid to lawyers acting for the police throughout the
investigation process. (VG, IIC)

44.

The complainant should have full standing in all complaint processes and should
be able to call witnesses, require that witnesses be called, cross-examine witness
and make submissions. (VG, IIC)

45.

Complainants should be able to choose not to have their complaint investigated.
However this decision should not be because they have not been adequate
resourced or have been intimidated. (IIC)

46.

There should be established a Police Complaint Civil and Disciplinary
Proceedings List at the Magistrates or County Court.
Magistrates or Judges hearing these matters could be provided with the power to:
a) judicially determine complaints on the balance of probabilities,
b) award compensation to victims and
c) make prosecutorial recommendations to the DPP,
d) demote and dismiss police from employment, (including police who refuse to
testify 1 ,) and
e) recommend policy and procedural changes within Victoria Police. (VG)

1

Police must give evidence under compulsion through this process, but their evidence
should not be admissible in criminal proceedings
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Chapter 1

Introduction
Police abuses cover a wide range of behaviours. Many abuses are breaches of human
rights 2 . The daily harassment of young people of African and Afghani descent in
Flemington reported to the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre, Victoria
includes 3 :
•
•
•
•
•

police driving passed groups of youths and calling out “Get back to Africa” while
covering their badges 4 ; (racial abuse 5 )
a young African Australian being stopped up to three times a day by police
wanting details (racial profiling 6 );
the detention, sometimes by force of groups of African youths at the base of
housing estates in order to run their names and addresses through police databases
in case any charges come up (racial profiling, unlawful detention, assault) 7 ;
the regular raids and unwarranted arrests of the same people without ever laying
charges (racial profiling, abuse of police powers) 8 ;
the photographing and verbal abuse of young people as they come out of the gym
(racial profiling and breaches of privacy) 9 .

These are all routine forms of everyday abuses reported to the Flemington & Kensington
Community Legal Centre by young migrants in Flemington 10 . Routine police abuse of
migrants reported to the Legal Centre has also included:

2

Hilary Charlesworth defines Human rights as “the conditions necessary for a human
being to live a life in dignity”. Charlesworth, H 2002, Writing in Rights: Australia and
the Protection of Human Rights, UNSW Press, Sydney.
3
Some of these abuses are included in Tamar Hopkins 2007, “Policing in an era of
human rights” AltLJ 32:4 December 2007 p 224
4
Interview with the author on Feb 2007.
5
Breach of section 8 of the Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (the
Charter)
6
Breach of section 8 of the Charter, reported to the author on April 2007, racial profiling
means an incident where a person is subject to law enforcement scrutiny/suspicion
because of their race.
7
Breach of section 8, 12, 13, 16, 17, 21 of the Charter, reported to the author in Feb
2008.
8
Breach of section 8, 13, 17, 21 of the Charter, reported over 2006, 2007
9
Breach of section 8, 13 of the Charter, reports made during 2007.
12

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

assaults by punching people while they are handcuffed, 11
throwing objects at people 12 ,
slamming people’s heads against interview walls 13 ,
being threatened with sexual violence during interactions with police 14 ,
threats to kill made during assaults 15 ,
excessive batoning 16 ,
using capsicum spray as a punishment 17 ,
assaulting people with torches 18 ,
assaulting a person during an interview with fists until he loses consciousness 19
producing a firearm during a raid of an unarmed child and in the presence of very
young children 20
desecrating a Qu’ran during a raid by throwing it on the ground and calling it
“shit”. 21
a group of officers beating and kicking a young person of African origin who is
handcuffed on the ground 22 ,
punching a person of African origin in the eye with a torch causing permanent
visual impairment 23 .

Many of these reports were made as complaints to the Office of Police Integrity. They
were all found to be unsubstantiated following a police investigation. The pattern of
human rights violations reported by people of migrant descent is strongly indicative of
institutional racism within Victoria Police.
The 1999 Stephen Lawrence Inquiry into racism within the Metropolitan Police defined
of institutional racism to be:
The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional
service to people because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin. It can be seen or
detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through
10

See for example Tamar Hopkins 2007, Complaints Against Police Behaviour in
Flemington, ALJ 32:1 March 2007, 32.
11
Breach of section 22 and 10, numerous reports made to the author.
12
Breach of section 22 and 10, report made in February 2006 to the author.
13
Breach of section 22 and 10 numerous reports made to the author.
14
Breach of section 22 and 10 report made to the author in 2008.
15
Breach of section 22, potentially 10 and 9- report to the author in 2006.
16
Breach of section 22, potentially 10 and 9 – numerous reports.
17
Breach of section 22, 10- report to the author in 2007.
18
Breach of section 22, 10 several reports made to the author.
19
Breach of section 22 and 10 and potentially 9 – report to the author in 2008.
20
Breach of section 22 and potentially 9 – reported to the author in 2006.
21
Breach of section 22 and 10 – reported to the author in 2007.
22
Breach of section 22, and 10 and potentially 9 – report to the author in 2007
23
Breach of section 22, 10 and potentially 9 – report to the author in 2007.
13

unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which
disadvantage minority ethnic people 24 .

Moonee Valley City Council Youth Services produced a report in December 2006 about
young people’s safety concerns in the Flemington region. In that report the two most
significant safety concerns for young people were drugs/crime and Police25 :
What is it that makes it unsafe for you?
30

25

20

15

Number
of respondents
10

5

0
Other community
members

Drugs and crime

No lights at estate

Large groups of people

Police

Being alone

More generally, reports across Victoria include:
•
•
•
•
•

excessive force and degrading treatment of people with disabilities 26 , mental
illnesses 27 , Indigenous and homeless people 28 ,
strip-searches in public places 29 ,
assaults on bystanders 30 ,
assaults of handcuffed people in lifts and police stations 31 ,
thefts of property including drugs, needles and cash 32 ,

24

http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/sli-06.htm#6.6
Graph reproduced from: Creating a Better City for Young People “The needs of young
people living in Flemington, North Melbourne, Kensington and Ascot Vale” Final Report
December 2006, Anna Duff, Simone Perkin, Ahmed Dini, Daniel Hale-Michel et al.
26
Report to the author in 2008, also see Walker & Anor v Hamm & Ors, Walker & Anor
v Carter & Anor [2008] VSC 596 (19 December 2008)
27
Communication with advocates at the Mental Health Legal Centre in 2009,
28
Reports from Fitzroy Legal Centre, Victorian Aboriginal Legal Service, Koori
Complaints Project 2008,
29
Reports from Fitzroy Legal Centre,
30
Reported to the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre after incidents in
November 2007 and October 2007.
31
Report from the Fitzroy Legal Centre and from an incident at Glen Waverly Police
Station in 2008.
25

14

•
•
•
•
•

neglect of people’s needs in custody, such as medical attention, hygiene needs
and food 33 ,
assaults following high speed pursuits 34 ,
sexual assaults 35
physical assaults in homes 36 and in police vehicles 37
assaults on protesters 38 . Frequently, excessive use of force by police results in
serious injury to individuals. Less frequently, but repeatedly, police action
results in a death 39 .

These patterns and themes are widespread throughout the world and affect the daily lives
of thousands if not millions of people. Those traumatised by police initiated human
rights abuses include victims’ families and communities. Torture does not only occur in
countries in civil wars, such as Sudan or Somalia. Large numbers of torture victims
endure their abuse in democratic nations at the hands of police 40 .
Australian law enforcement integrity agencies tend to focus their efforts on large-scale
corruption to the exclusion of human rights breaches. When police accept a bribe or deal
in drugs they engage in misconduct. These are not, however, human rights breaches. A
singular focus on corruption ignores the real and daily abuses experienced by everyday
people and in particular, marginalised groups. The primary attention of police complaint
bodies must the prevention, detection and punishment of human rights violations.
Victoria now has a Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities 2006 (“the Charter”).
Victoria Police has publicly announced its commitment to uphold the rights in this

32

Reports from the Fitzroy Legal Centre in 2009 and to the Flemington & Kensington
Community Legal Centre in 2005.
33
Reports from Fitzroy Legal Centre, Mental Health Legal Centre, communications by
clients with the author,
34
For example Raymond Merrit was assaulted by Police in Victoria after a high speed
pursuit: Reported in the SunHerald on 22 August 2008
http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,24221234-2862,00.html

35

See for example the Ombudsman’s Report into Maryborough Police Investigation 1997
Horvath Communication to the United Nations Human Rights Committee under the 1st
Optional Protocol to the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights 17 August
2008 copy available from the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre
37
Reported to the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre in 2007.
38
Complaint to the Office of Police Integrity by the Federation of Community Legal
Centres following the November 2006 G20 museum protests.
39
See for example Tyler Cassidy, Paul Carter, Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths
in Custody. In Australia one person dies on average every 4.5 days in prison and police
custody or in related police operations –communication with Charandev Singh, deaths in
custody expert.
40
Green & Ward, 2004 “State Crime, Governments, Violence and Corruption” Pluto
Press p 124.
36

15

Charter 41 . One of the objectives of Office of Police Integrity (“the OPI”) is to ensure that
Victoria Police have regard to the rights in the Charter 42 .
Each of the reports made from people in Flemington and throughout Victoria are
allegations of Charter violations. These reports indicate that Victoria Police is not
complying with the Charter. The Office of Police Integrity, in investigating only 3%
complaints made to it 43 , is doing little to ensure police compliance with the Charter and is
therefore complicit in these Charter breaches.
After recording repeated human rights breaches reported by people in the Flemington
region and witnessing the failure of Victoria’s police complaint system to provide a
remedy for abuses of this nature I was motivated to look outside Australia to countries
that may have a more effective way of responding to allegations of human rights abuses
by police. The central question to my exploration was, what is a human rights compliant
response to an allegation of a human rights violation by police and what are the practical
implications for agencies receiving complaints.
This report contains some of the answers to this question. By implementing the
recommendations in this report I contend that the Victorian Government will improve its
compliance with the Charter and more importantly, increase the safety of all Victorians in
their interactions with police. A robust complaint process will encourage greater
individual and systemic police accountability and better policing.
The human rights standards
When police actions or omissions impact on a person’s right to life, the right to freedom
from torture and ill-treatment, the right to privacy and in some circumstances, the right to
equal treatment and non discrimination 44 , international human rights law requires that an
effective investigation into the alleged treatment is conducted.
The European Commission of Human Rights’ Rapporteur on Police Complaints identifies
that an effective investigation is a State initiated investigation that is:
a) Independent,
b) Adequate and capable of resulting in discipline and prosecution of perpetrators,
c) Prompt
d) Transparent and open to public scrutiny
41

See “2008 report on the operation of the Victorian Charter of Human Rights and
Responsibilities: Emerging Change” Victorian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity
Report, page 19. See Carly Crawford and Nick Higginbottom, Herald Sun 11 January
2008
42
See section 8 Police Integrity Act 2008
43
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/OPI_Annual_Report_2008.pdf page 46.
44
These rights give rise to a duty of “effective investigation” under the European Court
of Human Rights jurisprudence. This will be discussed in detail in Chapter two.
16

d) Involves and protects the victim of the alleged abuse.
An example
On 11 December 2008 in Melbourne, 15 year old Tyler Cassidy was shot dead by
members of the Victoria Police. Had the incident occurred in Belfast, London or
Toronto, an independent civilian body would have commenced investigation of the
incident immediately. Trained civilian investigators would have attended the scene,
separated and interviewed civilian and police witnesses and collected and preserved
forensic evidence. This evidence would then form part of coronial inquest proceedings,
and if appropriate, a prosecution and misconduct proceeding against the police. The
fruits of the investigation would also be available to the family for the purposes of civil
proceedings as well as to assist them to participate in the inquest.
In Melbourne, Tyler’s shooting is being investigated by the Victoria Police Homicide
Squad. This investigation is overseen by the Ethical Standards Department (“ESD”) also
an internal branch of the Victoria Police 45 . There is no institutional or practical
independence between the investigators and the police they are investigating.
This process is incompatible with Australia’s international human rights obligations
under the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights and also Victoria’s
Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006.

The purpose of investigation
The purpose of an investigation is two fold. Firstly it must lead to an effective individual
remedy. Secondly the lessons learned from it must be used by the police agency to
reduce the likihood of abuse of rights in the future 46 .
An effective individual remedy requires compensation and rehabilitation for the victim
but also disciplinary or criminal sanctions against the perpetrator/s 47 .
An effective remedy for the victim is also an important prerequisite for ensuring systemic
reform in that it removes or punishes individuals who perpetrate abuses from the police
agency and identifies practises and procedures that contribute to human rights violations.
45

http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,24787921-661,00.html
Lord Bingham of Cornwell in R (Amin) v Secretary of the State for the Home
Department [2003] UKHL 51 at paragraph 31.
http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2003/51.html
47
See for example the definition of effective remedy in the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights: General Comment No. 31 [80] Nature of the General Legal
Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant 26/05/2004.
http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/58f5d4646e861359c1256ff600533f5f?Opendocumen
t
46

17

As the New York American Civil Liberties Union note:
“[P]atterns and practices of police misconduct will not become apparent without
the rigorous investigation of individual complaints. Absent thorough investigation it
is unlikely that discipline of an individual police officer or reform of flawed policing
practices will occur. Complaint investigation is therefore the critical function of an oversight
agency”. 48

In Australia, effective remedies are denied to individuals by limited access to civil
justice 49 and the ineffective investigation of human rights abuses by police in each of its
jurisdictions 50 .
In Victoria, most complaints are managed by supervisors in local police stations 51 . Most
of these complaints will not be investigated 52 . This process ignores that fact that public
complaints and the investigations of police that follow are the gateway to criminal or
disciplinary sanctions against the perpetrators of human rights abuses 53 and that these
outcomes are required under international law. Without an effective investigation of
police misconduct, police criminality and disciplinary offences go without punishment.
Failure to investigate allegations of police criminality, decriminalises police behaviour.
Despite extensive and current evidence accumulated by human rights agencies, nongovernment organisations and community legal centres, the extent of police violence and
abuse in our communities is officially unrecognised and vigorously denied by police
agencies 54 . Furthermore states fail to recognise the use of excessive force by police as a
crime. Additionally, they fail to identify that degrading, inhuman, abusive and wilfully
neglectful practices are human rights violations deserving of detection, investigation and
punishment.

48

Mission Failure, Perry et al A Report Into The New York Civilian Complaint Review
Board 2005, http://www.nyclu.org/files/ccrb_failing_report_090507.pdf
49
These limits include lack of legal aid or community lawyers conducting civil litigation,
short limitation periods, injury thresholds, limited State liability in some jurisdictions and
risks of adverse cost awards. Also see the Concluding Observations on Australia by the
Human Rights Committee http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/hrcs95.htm
50
In Queensland, NSW, the ACT, police investigate or otherwise manage the vast
majority of complaints.
51
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/Improving_Victorian_policing_services_through
_effective_complaint_handling_31.pdf page 30
52
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/Improving_Victorian_policing_services_through
_effective_complaint_handling_31.pdf page 30
53
Conversation with Graham Smith, Rapporteur Police Complaints, European
Commission of Human Rights on 11 December 2008.
54
See Herald Sun article cited above.
18

Until states properly investigate human rights abuses, not only are individuals denied
effective remedies, but the public and particularly its marginalised members remain
unacceptably at risk of death, injury and ill-treatment by police officers.

19

Chapter 2
The Human Rights Framework – The Duty to Investigate
2.1 Introduction
Where, by complaint or other means, the State becomes aware of the possibility that the
right to life 55 or the right to freedom from torture, cruel, inhumane and degrading
treatment (ill-treatment) has been violated by law enforcement officers, there exists an
obligation on the State to conduct an effective investigation into the cause 56 . The right to
life and the right to freedom from torture, cruel, inhuman, degrading treatment and
punishment (ill-treatment) impose both a negative obligation on the state - to refrain from
engaging in such treatment - and a positive (procedural) obligation on the state – to
conduct an effective investigation into an allegation of a violation 57 . There is a third
positive obligation – to prevent violations of human rights. This chapter will examine the
law that establishes the meaning of an “effective investigation”.
Police conduct can violate human rights deliberately or negligently. For example the
police decision to pursue a vehicle in dangerous circumstances which causes the death of
the driver or a member of the public is a violation of the right to life – even if the
violation was negligent and not deliberate. A deliberate violation will occur when police
engage in rape or use of force beyond that which is necessary to arrest a person, such as
punching, tasering or capsicum spraying a handcuffed and restrained person to punish
them for suspected lawlessness, prior resistance, or their refusal to provide answers. This
conduct amounts to cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment. When the inhumane
treatment is intentionally used to coerce a confession or information it is torture.
The duty to effectively investigate alleged human rights breaches by police, is not just a
secondary obligation, but is an intrinsic component of these rights 58 .
In the United Kingdom, victims of ineffective state-run investigations can pursue legal
remedies through domestic courts and then appeals to the European Court of Human
55

See McCann v United Kingdom (1995) 21 EHRR 97 (the Gibraltar case) at para 161
for the first time the duty of an effective investigation was recognised in cases of deaths
caused by state agents.
56
See for example Reynolds, R(on the application of ) v Independent Police Complaints
Commissioner & Anor [2008] EWCA Civ 1160 (22 October 2008) at paragraph 20, 21.
When a member of the public is alleged to have violated these rights, there is also an
obligation on the State to effectively investigate, for example see Menson & Ors v United
Kingdom (1998) EHRR 107 (16 September 1998) p 21.
57
Assessing Damage, Urging Action 2009 Report of the Eminent Jurist Panel on
Terrorism, Counter-terrorism and Human Rights at page 87.
58
House of Lords decision in JL, R (On the Application of) v Secretary of State For
Justice [2008] UKHL 68 (26 November 2008) para 26.
20

Rights. In Khan v The United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights found that
a breach to the right to privacy was not remedied through an in investigation under the
Police Complaints Authority because complaints about breaches to the right to privacy
would leave the investigation of the complaint in the hands of police 59 with only minimal
if any oversight by the Police Complaints Authority. This and subsequent House of
Lords and European Court decisions has expanded the legal requirement on the
Independent Police Complaints Commission (“the IPCC”) to investigate matters itself 60 .
2.2 The Content of the Duty to Investigate
Graham Smith, the Rapporteur to the European Commissioner for Human Rights on
police complaints extrapolates five key principles from the European Court of Human
Rights jurisprudence that are necessary for an investigation of a complaint against police
to be effective. He states:
1. “Independence: there should be organizational and functional independence; that
is by non-police investigators according to established principles of independence
and impartiality;
[“This means not only a lack of hierarchical or institutional connection but
also a practical independence 61 ” “independent in law and practise” 62
“Supervision [of the police investigation] by another authority, however
independent, has been found not to be a sufficient safeguard for the
independence of the investigation 63 ]
2. Adequacy: the investigation should be capable of gathering evidence to determine
whether the behaviour complained of was unlawful [whether the force used was
justified 64 ] and to identify and punish those responsible; [Furthermore, the
investigation is “not simply about what happened….it is about why it
happened”] 65 [the investigative obligation of the state may – depending on the
facts at issue – go well beyond the ascertainment of individual fault and reach
59

Also see the Committee Against Torture’s report on its visit to the United Kingdom
and the Isle of Man from 8 to 17 September 1999, published on 13 January 2000, the
European Committee for the Prevention of Torture at para 55 where it recommends fully
independent complaint body rather than the Police Complaints Authority.
60
Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General, National Audit Office, London 12
November 2008, p5.
http://www.nao.org.uk/publications/0708/police_complaints_commission.aspx
61
Ramsahai v The Netherlands [2007] ECHR 393, (15 May 2007) para 325.
62
Nachova and Others v Bulgaria [GC] ECHR 2005 at para 112.
63
Ramsahai v The Netherlands [2007] ECHR 393, (15 May 2007) para 337. Bati v
Turkey [2004] ECHR (3.6.2004) para 135
64
Jordan v The United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 327 (4 May 2001) para 107.
65
AM & Ors, R (on the application of) v Secretary of State for the Home Department &
Ors [2009] EWCA Civ 219 (17 March 2009) page 9.
21

questions of system, management and institutional culture.] 66
2. Promptness: a speedy response and expeditiousness is crucial for maintaining
trust and confidence in the rule of law and in order to dispel any fear or collusion
in any attempt to conceal misconduct;
3. Public scrutiny: accountability is served by open and transparent procedures and
decision-making at every stage of the determination of a complaint against police;
[In Anguelova v Bulgaria this principle was put: “there must be a
sufficient element of public scrutiny of the investigation or its
results to secure accountability in practice as well as in theory,
maintain public confidence in the authorities’ adherence to the rule
of law and prevent any appearance of collusion in or tolerance of
unlawful acts.” 67 ]
4. Victim involvement: in order to safeguard his or her legitimate interests the victim
is entitled to participate in the process.” 68 [Effective Participation] 69
The Rapporteur’s five principles are based on a synthesis of the extensive authorities
emanating from the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) and the UK House of
Lords.
To these five core principles, I would add a further core principle. That is that the
investigation must be initiated by the State. 70 This principle is clearly apparent in cases
where there has been a death or debilitating injury in custody leaving the complainant
unable to bring a complaint or give an account about what occurred.71 A similar
requirement for state initiation of investigation arises in cases where the person whose
66

AM & Ors, R (on the application of) v Secretary of State for the Home Department &
Ors [2009] EWCA Civ 219 (17 March 2009) para 60.
67
ECHR 2002 at para 40.
68
Graham Smith, (2008) “European Commissioner for Human Rights Police Complaints
Initiative” – 172 JPN 399, pp 1,2. These standards have also been recommended by
Amnesty International in their 2009 Report on France – Public Outrage, Police Officers
Above the Law in France.
69
For example in Khan, R (on the application of) v Secretary of State for Health [2003]
EWCA Civ 1129 (10 October 2003) the England and Wales Court of Appeal found that
the central role at the inquest of the family of a young girl who died in state care entitled
them to state funded legal assistance.
http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2003/1129.html
70
See JL, R (On the Application of) v Secretary of State For Justice [2008] UKHL 68 (26
November 2008) para 35. Hugh Jordan v The United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 327 (4 May
2001) Para 105
71
JL, R (On the Application of) v Secretary of State For Justice [2008] UKHL 68 (26
November 2008) para 65.
22

rights may have been violated has “disappeared.” 72 This principle of state initiated
investigation applies however in all complaint contexts. Because civil proceedings
cannot result in disciplinary or criminal outcomes 73 these proceedings alone are not
sufficient to met the state’s obligation. Despite identifying state initiation as a sixth
principle, I will not discuss this principle as a stand alone feature of complaint system,
but rather treat it as intrinsic to the principle of adequacy of investigations (principle 2
and discussed in Chapter 4 of this report).
Together, these five broad and to some extent interwoven principles set out the content of
the duty to effectively investigate allegations human rights abuses by police.
The rights that give rise to the duty to effectively investigate are located in the Human
Rights Act 1998 (UK). I contend that equivalent rights appear in the Charter of Human
Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Victoria) (section 9, 22 and 10), the Canadian
Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms (1982) and the 5th and 8th Amendments to the
United States Constitution.
I contend that the duty imposed on the UK Government to effectively investigate alleged
breaches of rights by police (or other public authorities) is similarly imposed by human
rights legislation on the Victorian, the ACT, Canadian and the US Governments. The
right to life or freedom from ill-treatment would be meaningless if this was not the case.

2.2.1 Threshold Issue
There is a threshold issue that must be decided before the duty of effective investigation
will be imposed on the State under the European Court jurisprudence. Article 3 of the
European Convention of Human Rights states: “No one shall be subject to torture or
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment”.
An allegation that Article 3 has been violated must be effectively investigated where the
following test has been satisfied:
“Ill-treatment must attain a minimum level of severity if its is to fall within the
scope of Article 3. The assessment of this minimum depends on all the
circumstances of the case such as the duration of the treatment, its physical or
mental effects and, in some cases, the sex, age and state of health of the victim.
The Court has considered treatment to be “inhuman” because inter alia, it was
premeditated, was applied for hours at a stretch and caused either actual bodily
injury or intense physical and mental suffering. It has deemed treatment to be
“degrading” because it was such as to arouse in the victims feelings of fear,
72

For an example of a disappearance case see Tahsin Acar v Turkey [2003] ECHR 233 (6
May 2003)
73
Hugh Jordan v The United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 327 (4 May 2001) at paragraph
141.
23

anguish and inferiority capable of humiliating and debasing them….. The
suffering and humiliation involved must in any event go beyond that inevitable
element of suffering or humiliation connected with a given form of legitimate
treatment or punishment.” 74
Article 3 covers a continuum of treatment. Intentional torture is at one end of the
spectrum 75 . Inhumane, degrading treatment and punishment (ill-treatment) covers a
larger range of experiences. For example other factors found to contribute to treatment
meeting the minimum threshold of ill-treatment and to trigger the duty to adequately
investigate include:
a. Delay in the provision of medical treatment (and degrading comments while in the
police station); 76
b. Unnecessary handcuffing; 77
c. Close monitoring in hospital; 78
d. Arbitrary detention; 79
e. Recourse to physical force not made strictly necessary by the victim’s own conduct. 80
Importantly the right to freedom from ill-treatment arises irrespective of the victim’s
conduct 81 .

Summary of the facts in Menesheva v Russia 82
On 13 February 1999, Olga Menesheva was arrested without warrant or legal authority,
and detained for 5 days at a Russian police station. She forcefully resisted her wrongful
arrest and was injured during the struggle. She was later repeatedly beaten, including
with batons on the head, kicked threatened with rape for about two hours at the police
station. The next day she was beaten and intimidated again. Finally on the day of her
release she was forced to clean the hallway at the police station. She was denied medical
assistance throughout the period. Despite medical evidence of her injuries, an internal
inquiry found her claims of ill-treatment unsubstantiated. The European Court of Human
74

Stoica v Romania [2008] ECHR 191 (4 March 2008) § 60, 61.
Istratii and Others v. Moldova 2007 While intention is part of definition of torture in
the UN Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture, it
is not a necessary component in cruel, inhumane and degrading treatment and
punishment. http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_comp38.htm
76
Istratii and Others v. Moldova 2007 § 47.
77
Istratii and Others v. Moldova 2007 § 57
78
Ibid.
79
C v Australia- decision under the ICCPR of the Human Rights Committee found
arbitrary detention can amount to ill-treatment.
80
Assenov and Others v Bulgaria (1998) 28 EHRR 652 § 93. Also see Kmetty v. Hungary
(Application no. 57967/00) ECHR 16 December 2003
81
Alsayed Allaham v Greece 2007, ECtHR 18 January 2007 para 24.
82
ECtHR, 9 March 2006
75

24

Rights found, inter alia, that Ms Menesheva’s treatment reached the ill-treatment
threshold and that the State’s response, in failing to provide an investigation that was
independent, adequate, prompt, transparent or involving of Ms Menesheva violated the
duty to effectively investigate. Ms Menesheva was awarded 100, 000 Euros in
compensation for pain and suffering and the failure of the investigation.

In the case of an alleged breach to the right to life, a duty to effectively investigate has
been found to exist by the House of Lords in interpreting European Court of Human
Rights decisions, not only when there has been a death in custody, but also where there
has been a near death in custody such as an attempt to commit suicide, or a life
threatening injury, in circumstances where it is arguable that the State was responsible. 83
Thus a violation of the right to life can occur when a near death in custody occurs. The
exact content of the effective investigation may vary depending on whether a death has
occurred however. For example, a near death investigation may mean the victim’s
representatives have a reduced right to cross-examine the evidence during the
investigation of the violation 84 .
It is submitted that the European Court of Human Rights’ definition of torture is not well
defined. Because of its nature as an appellate forum from national legal systems, the
European Court applies a “margin of appreciation” in favour of states when drawing
conclusions about whether enforcement obligations have been met 85 . As a result, the
Court’s conclusions about when the five standards of effective investigation apply is, at
times, unnecessarily narrow.
In contrast, the Commission for Human Rights Concerning Independent and Effective
Determination of Complaint Against the Police is of the opinion that the standards
identified by the Commission, and used in this report, are an appropriate framework for
determining all complaints against police 86 .
For example, the Police Ombudsman in Northern Ireland, independently investigates all
complaints by the public against the police. This includes police involved fatalities and
excessive force allegations to discrimination, incivility and duty failures. There are

83

JL, R (On the Application of) v Secretary of State For Justice [2008] UKHL 68 (26
November 2008) § 6,7,8.
84
Ibid.
85
Alistair Mowbray, 2007 “Cases and Materials on the European Convention on Human
Rights,” 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, 630.
86
Opinion of the Commissioner for Human Rights Concerning Independent and
Effective Determination of Complaints Against the Police, Commissioner for Human
Rights, 12 March 2009, DommDH(2009)
https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1417857&Site=CommDH&BackColorInternet=FEC
65B&BackColorIntranet=FEC65B&BackColorLogged=FFC679

25

civilian bodies in other jurisdictions that also investigate complaints that fall below the
European Court minimum threshold 87 .
I contend that a more appropriate threshold from which to decide whether a complaint
should be effectively investigated, is whether the conduct alleged is capable of
constituting a criminal or disciplinary offence 88 . This threshold is applied by the
independent and fully civilian Office of Police Complaints in Washington DC in deciding
whether to investigate a complaint.
Commissioner Roger Salhany QC appointed to head the Taman Inquiry in Manitoba
Canada, an inquiry into the police investigation of the death of a civilian by a police
officer found a clear need for independent investigation of police criminality. 89 He stated
in his October 2008 report: “Based on my findings in the case, it graphically
demonstrated that internal police investigations are ill-advised in criminal cases.
Regardless of how prevalent the practice may be nationally, this case epitomizes why it is
simply a bad, if not an intolerable, idea 90 .
It is also worth noting that European Court has found that that the right to freedom from
discrimination, in conjunction with the right to freedom from torture91 , as well as the
right to privacy 92 should be effectively investigated when a breach of those rights is
alleged.
These positions point to a need for the principles of effective investigation to apply more
broadly than to allegations of deaths, torture and cruel inhumane and degrading treatment
in custody, and extend to encompass all complaints against police.
The European Court of Human Rights jurisprudence is but one of the sources of the
principles of the duty to investigate in relation to police complaints. The duty to conduct
an effective investigation of alleged rights violations also arises under the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 93 and the United Nations Convention Against
Torture 94 , the United Nations Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being
87

See for example the Law Enforcement Review Agency in Manitoba and the New York
Civilian Review Agency.
88
This is also the view of the Commissioner for Human Rights Concerning Independent
and Effective Determination of Complaints Against the Police, Commissioner for Human
Rights, 12 March 2009, DommDH(2009)
89
http://www.tamaninquiry.ca/
90
Taman Inquiry; p 13. Also see the Davies Commission into the Death of Frank Paul 12
February 2009, Vancouver, Canada.
91
Stoica v Romania (2008) EHRR 191 (4 March 2008) § 124. See also Bekos and
Koutopoulous v Greece (2005) ECHR (13 December 2005).
92
Khan v The United Kingdom (2000) EHRR (4 May 2000) § 47.
93
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_ccpr.htm
94
http://www.hrweb.org/legal/cat.html

26

Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment 95 the Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law
Enforcement Officials 96 , Principles on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of
Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions, 97 Code of Conduct for Law
Enforcement Officials 98 and numerous inquiry findings 99 .
2.3 The Committee Against Torture
The Committee Against Torture, which oversights the Convention Against Torture and
Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, requires State Parties to
ensure effective measures are taken to “prevent, investigate, prosecute and punish”
perpetrators of ill-treatment 100 .
In its concluding observations concerning Australia in 2008, the Committee provided
some further guidance as to the content of these measures. At paragraph 27, the
Committee noted:
“The Committee is concerned over allegations against law enforcement personnel in
respect of acts of torture or cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment or punishment and
notes a lack of investigations and prosecutions. The State Party should ensure that all
allegations of actions of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment
committed by law enforcement officials, and in particular any deaths in detention, are
investigated promptly, independently and impartially and – if necessary – prosecuted
and sanctioned. Furthermore, the State party should also ensure the right of victims of
police misconduct to obtain redress and fair and adequate compensation.” [emphasis
mine] 101 .
2.4 The Human Rights Committee
A further source of law on the need for effective investigations comes from the Human
Rights Committee which oversees the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights. In its concluding observation on Australia it noted the following with respect to
the content of the duty to investigate:

95

http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_comp38.htm
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_comp43.htm
97
http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/i7pepi.htm
98
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_comp42.htm
99
See for example the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry 1999 UK, the Taman Inquiry
(Manitoba, Canada) 2008.
100
See for example its General Comment No 2. 23 November 2007
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/docs/CAT.C.GC.2.CRP.1.Rev.4_en.pdf
101
Concluding observations of the Committee Against Torture 15 May 2008 Australia
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/docs/co/CAT-C-AUS-CO1.pdf
96

27

“21. The Committee expresses concern at reports of excessive use of force by law enforcement
officials against groups, such as indigenous people, racial minorities, persons with disabilities, as
well as young people; and regrets that the investigations of allegations of police misconduct
are carried out by the police itself. The Committee is concerned by reports of the excessive use
of the electro-muscular disruption devices (EMDs) “TASERs” by police forces in certain
Australian states and territories. (articles 6 and 7). The State party should take firm measures to
eradicate all forms of excessive use of force by law enforcement officials. It should in particular:
a) establish a mechanism to carry out independent investigations of complaints concerning
excessive use of force by law enforcement officials; b) initiate proceedings against alleged
perpetrators; c) increase its efforts to provide training to law enforcement officers with regard to
excessive use of force, as well as on the principle of proportionality when using force; d) ensure
that restraint devices, including TASERs, are only used in situations where greater or lethal force
would otherwise have been justified; e) bring its legislative provisions and policies for the use of
force into line with the United Nations Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law
Enforcement Officials; and e) provide adequate reparation to the victims.” 102

In its concluding observations on Hong Kong:
“11. The Committee expresses concern over the investigative procedure in respect of alleged
human rights violations by the police. It notes that the investigation of such complaints rests
within the Police Force itself rather than being carried out in a manner that ensures its
independence and credibility. In light of the high proportion of complaints against police officers
which are found by the investigating police to be unsubstantiated, the Committee expresses
concern about the credibility of the investigation process and takes the view that investigation
into complaints of abuse of authority by members of the Police Force must be, and must appear to
be, fair and independent and must therefore be entrusted to an independent mechanism. The
Committee welcomes the changes made to strengthen the status and authority of the Independent
Police Complaints Council but notes that these changes still leave investigations entirely in the
hands of the police.” 103

In its concluding observations on the Syrian Arab Republic:
“The State party should…..ensure prompt, thorough, and impartial investigations by an
independent mechanism into all allegations of torture and ill-treatment, prosecute and punish
perpetrators, and provide effective remedies and rehabilitations to the victims.” 104
102

Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee 3 April 2009 Australia,
para 21. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/hrcs95.htm
103
Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee 9 November 1995 Hong
Kong para 11.
http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/d77da23e9c76121d802565610053e9d9?Ope
ndocument
104
Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee 9 August 2005 in the
Syrian Arab Republic para 9
http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,CONCOBSERVATIONS,SYR,4562d8cf2,43f2f
f770,0.html

28

In its concluding observations on Brazil:
“The State party should ensure that the constitutional safeguard of federalization of human rights
crimes becomes and efficient and practical mechanism in order to ensure prompt, thorough,
independent and impartial investigations and prosecution of serious human rights violations.” 105

Key themes arising from the Human Rights Committee are that investigations into
allegations of mistreatment must be independent, prompt, credible and capable of
resulting in prosecution and punishment of offenders as well as redress for victims.
2.5 The UN Force and Firearms Principles
The United Nations Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law
Enforcement Officials (UN Force and Firearms Principles) also sets out principles of an
effective investigation, this time, into deaths or injuries involving the use of firearms by
law enforcement officers. Additional principles are as follows:
1. The investigation should be amenable to an independent administrative and
judicial review as well as independent prosecution. 106
2. The victims and families should have access to judicial review. 107
The avenue of appeals, extends our understanding of what an effective investigation must
involve. It also addresses issues relating to the victims involvement in the complaint
process: that is that the victim or their family, must have access to an appeal. Appeals
are essential in ensuring the investigation process has been appropriate (merits review)
and has complied with the law and natural justice (judicial review).
2.6 UN Principles on Extra-Legal Executions
Further sources of the principles of investigation arise in the United Nations Principles on
the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary
Executions, adopted on 24 May 1989 by the Economic and Social Council Resolution
1989/65, (UN Principles on Extra-Legal Executions) 108 . They include:
1.“There shall be a thorough, prompt and impartial investigation of all suspected cases of
extra legal, arbitrary and summary executions, including cases where complaints by
105

Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee 1 December 2005, Brazil,
para 13
http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/13b32e118dfc49d8c12570ae00393223/$FILE/G0545
344.pdf
106
Para 22.
107
Para 23.
108
http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/i7pepi.htm
29

relatives or other reliable reports suggest unnatural death in the above circumstances ...”
2. The investigative authority should have the power to oblige police to appear and
testify. 109
3. In cases involving patterns of abuse or investigators who lack in impartiality or
expertise, the investigation must be conducted by an independent, impartial, and expert
commission, independent from any “institution, agency, or person” the subject of the
inquiry.
4. Families to have access to all information relevant to investigation, and be entitled to
present other evidence at any hearings 110 .
5. The investigation report must be made public and is to include the “ scope of the
inquiry, procedures, methods used to evaluate evidence as well as conclusions and
recommendations based on findings of fact and on applicable law ...” 111
Finally UN Manual on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-legal,
Arbitrary and Summary Executions 112 discusses the purposes of a death in custody
inquiry which is:
“(a) to identify the victim;
(b) to recover and preserve evidentiary material related to the death to aid in any
potential prosecution of those responsible;
(c) to identify possible witnesses and obtain statements from them concerning the death;
(d) to determine the cause, manner, location and time of death, as well as any pattern or
practice that may have brought about the death;
(e) to distinguish between natural death, accidental death, suicide and homicide;
(f) to identify and apprehend the person(s) involved in the death;
(g) to bring the suspected perpetrator(s) before a competent court established by law.”
In section D, it is stated that “In cases where government involvement is suspected, an
objective and impartial investigation may not be possible unless a special commission of
109

Para 10.
Para 16.
111
Para 17.
112
http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/executioninvestigation-91.html
110

30

inquiry is established ...”.” 113
The themes arising from these additional sources are broadly consistent with the 5
principles identified by the Rapporteur to the European Commission for Human Rights
on police complaints. A further principle identified in the UN Firearms Principles
requires there be access to an appeal mechanism. I will deal with appeals under the
chapter relating to “adequacy” as well as in the chapter relating to “victim involvement”.
2.7 Application to Victoria
Victoria Police, the Department of Justice, the Special Investigations Monitor and the
Office of Police Integrity are all public authorities under section 4 of the Victorian
Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006. Section 1 of the Charter
imposes an obligation on public authorities to act in way that is compatible with human
rights. “International law and the judgments of domestic, foreign and international courts
and tribunals relevant to a human right may be considered in interpreting a statutory
provision.” 114 Sections 9 and 10 of the Charter concern the rights to life and freedom
from torture, cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment. International law has determined
that these rights include the obligation to effectively investigate allegations of their
breach. Section 38 of the Charter make it unlawful for public authorities to act
incompatibly with human rights or fail to give human rights consideration in their
decision making. The Office of Police Integrity is thus bound to investigate alleged
breaches of Section 9 and 10 of the Charter in line with the Rapporteur’s principles of
effective investigation and the international law that these principles encapsulate. This
requirement has been most recently articulated at paragraph 21 of the Human Rights
Committee’s Concluding Observations on Australia 3 April 2009 115 .
In the next 4 chapters I will examine in closer detail each of the Rapporteur’s principles.
I will use practical examples drawn from the US, Canada, Northern Ireland and the UK.
The intention of each chapter to draw out the practical and detailed content of the duty to
investigate. The recommendations that follow appear in the executive summary of this
report.

113

Quoted from Hugh Jordan v The United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 4 May 2001 at para

92.
114
115

Section 32 of the Charter.
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/hrcs95.htm
31

Chapter 3

Independence
3.1 Introduction
Independence is the first of the five standards necessary for the investigation of a police
complaint to be effective and consistent with human rights. In this chapter I examine the
importance of independence and then look at various attempts to create an independent
bodies to investigate police complaints to see if they overcome the problems that exist
when police investigate themselves. I will conclude the chapter with recommendations.
Police retention of the power and authority to investigate themselves is a highly
contentious issue. In the words of retired Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Superintendent and current executive director of the Winnipeg Police Advisory Board,
Bob McIntyre, “the issue of police investigating police is not going to go away.” 116
On the other hand, a former police officer now employed by the Commission for Public
Complaints Against Royal Canadian Mounted Police expressed the view that it is unfair
to criticise police for investigating themselves, when lawyers or doctors also investigate
their own. 117 He said:
“I am intolerant of these police investigating police arguments. Police have been tainted
as being so biased you can never trust any of them. I don’t buy the assumption of police
being tainted by culture. I think you have to be acquainted with police culture to do this
job or you will be searching for a pin in a haystack. Transparency is the issue. Whoever
gathers the facts is irrelevant. The problem is at the decision making level not the
gathering of facts.”

The assumption in this opinion is that fact gathering is a neutral process. The reality is
that the decision to conclude that a human rights violation has occurred is dependent and
informed by the thoroughness of the fact gathering process. On numerous occasions the
European Court of Human Rights has been unable to determine whether a violation
occurred because of serious flaws in the investigation process.
In the case of Anguelova v Bulgaria [2002] ECHR 489 at paragraphs 142- 144, the
European Court found that the failure of the police investigators to sufficiently document
the injuries of a boy allegedly mistreated by police in custody undermined its capacity to
determine the causes of those injuries.

116

Communication with the author on 23 October 2008.
Interview by the author with a complaint analyst from the Commission for Public
Complaints Against the Royal Canadian Mounted Police on 10 October 2008.
117

32

In the investigation into the police involved death of Indigenous man Frank Paul in
Vancouver, a police detective failed to collect all relevant evidence in his initial
investigation. This had a profound effect on the outcome 118 :
British Columbia Civil Liberties Association Submission 2008, Canada: “Detective
Staunton was responsible for directing the investigation at the scene [of the police
involved death of Frank Paul in Vancouver, Canada on 5 December 1998] . From the
outset Detective Staunton did not approach the scene as a suspicious death, and failed to
collect and direct others to collect pertinent information. Detective Staunton was
immediately confronted with inconsistencies in the evidence that he failed to identity.
His failure resulted in the permanent loss of critical evidence and compromised the
investigation.” 119
In Australia, the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody noted:
The breadth and quality of the coronial inquest often "reflected the inadequacies of
perfunctory police investigations and did little more than formalise the conclusions of
police investigators". The Report emphasised the "general inability of coroners to control
the quality of preliminary police investigations which lay the foundation for the
subsequent coronial inquest" (RCIADIC 1991, Vol. 1, p. 130) 120 .

These examples reveal how important the initial investigation is and why concerns about
who does it are so important.

3.2 Police investigating police
Most police and former police argue that only other police are capable of investigating
police. Examples of civilians investigating police reveal otherwise. The Washington DC
Office of Police Complaints currently employs no former police officers and yet is
capable of conducting investigations 121 . Only 25% of the investigating staff in the
Northern Ireland Police Ombudsman’s Office are former police officers and none of
these officers previously worked in Northern Ireland 122 .
118

http://www.frankpaulinquiry.ca/ See other examples, Semsi Onen v Turkey -

22876/93 [2002] ECHR 445 (14 May 2002). Also see the Royal Commission into
Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, Australia Vol 1 4.2.2, 4.2.3
119

Submissions by the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association to the Frank Paul
Inquiry in 2008. The BCCLA had been granted participant status to this Inquiry.
http://bccla.org/othercontent/Frank_Paul_Final_Submissions.pdf
120
Quoted from Bronia Halsted, November 1995, Australian Deaths in Custody, No. 10
Coroners’ Recommendations and the Prevention of Deaths in Custody: A Victorian Case
Study. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/dic/dic10.html
121
Kesha Taylor, Chief Investigator Washington DC Office of Police Complaints, 27
October 2008
122
Jim Coupland, Senior Director of Investigations Northern Ireland Police Ombudsman
28 November 2008.
33

It is true that any body investigating itself faces a conflict of interest. The unique nature
of law enforcement agencies, however makes self-investigation particularly problematic.
William Westley wrote in 1964:
“[The policeman] regards the public as his enemy, feels his occupation to be in conflict
with the community and regards himself as a pariah. The experience and the feeling give
rise to a collective emphasis on secrecy, an attempt to coerce respect from the public, and
a belief that almost any means are legitimate in completing an important arrest. These
are for the policeman basic occupational values. They arise from his experience, take
precedence over his legal responsibilities, are central to an understanding of his conduct,
and form the occupational context within which violence gains its meaning. 123 ”

While this was written in 1964, it is no less applicable today.
Monash University’s Associate Professor Colleen Lewis notes:
‘This strong group loyalty is one of the culture’s many beneficial features in dangerous
operational situations. However, it has proven to be its “Achilles’ heel” in relation to
complaints about police behaviour. The exceptionally strong unwritten code, that police
must stick together at all times, encourages police to cover up the misconduct, even the
criminal activities of other officers.’ 124

A pattern of collusion and cover-up by police officers was noted by lawyers acting for the
family in the Inquest into the police shooting of Gary Abdullah in Victoria in 1989. In
submissions to the Coroner, lawyers noted:
“It is the inescapable conclusion, taking the presentation of evidence by police witnesses
as a whole [at the Inquest], that the majority were schooled in both the manner in which
they were to give their evidence and the content of it.” 125

It has been found that police investigations are motivated by self-interest; 126
The Aboriginal Justice Inquiry into the police investigation of the Winnipeg Police
Departments shooting of JJ Harper on 9 March 1988 stated:
“Our second conclusion is that the Winnipeg Police Department was guided more by
self-interest in the Harper investigation than by public interest. There were many errors
and poor decisions. Supervision was not competent and evidence was mishandled.
123

William A Westley, ‘Violence and the Police,” in Police patrol readings, ed. Samuel
G. Chapman (Springfield IL: Charles C Thomas, 1964), 284
124
Lewis 1991 as quoted in Liberty, UK 2000 Harrison & Cunneen,“An Independent
Police Complaint Commission.”
125
Submissions for the family, the Inquest of Gary Abdullah at page 81.
126
Report of the Aboriginal Justice Implementation Commission, Manitoba, report into
the investigation of the death of JJ Harper, chapter 9, 29 June 2001.
http://www.ajic.mb.ca/volumelll/chapter9.html
34

Harper’s death was not investigated in a thorough and independent fashion. This resulted
in the failure of the subsequent inquest to examine and explain all the circumstances
surrounding the death in a manner that the public could accept and respect.”

On 12 February 2009 the Davis Commission Report into the Death of Frank Paul found
that:
Having concluded that the current practice of a home police department
conducting criminal investigations of police-related deaths is fundamentally
flawed due to conflict of interest, it follows that no amount of tinkering with the
current practice can eliminate that underlying conflict of interest. The challenge
lies in developing a new system for the investigation of police-related deaths. 127

Dr Craig Futterman of the University of Chicago raises the impact of the police code of
silence on complaint handling noting that:
“Veteran Chicago police abuse investigators and officers consistently report that they are
not aware of a single instance in which a Chicago police officer reported having observed
a fellow officer abuse a civilian.” 128

In response to systemic themes surrounding police investigations of themselves, human
rights jurisprudence mandates the following requirements of investigation into allegations
of police human rights violations:
1. Institutional, organisational and hierarchical independence 129 .
2. Practical/functional/cultural (willingness to act) independence 130
3. Legal and political independence 131 ;
The remainder of this chapter is devoted to discussing these three requirements.
1. Institutional, organisational and hierarchical independence
Police agencies in many jurisdictions have come up with five ways to attempt
independent investigations. The first of these methods is to create specialist internal units
to investigate allegations against police officers.
(a) Specialist internal units

127

At page 218.
Futterman, Craig 2008, The Use of Statistical Evidence to Address Police Supervisory
and Disciplinary Practices: The Chicago Police Department’s Broken System, DePaul
Journal for Social Justice, Vol 1 Number 2
129
Ramsahai v The Netherlands [2007] ECHR 393, (15 May 2007) para 337.
130
Ramsahai v The Netherlands [2007] ECHR 393, (15 May 2007) para 325.
131
Nachova and Others v Bulgaria [GC] ECHR 2005 at para 112.
128

35

The theory behind specialist units is that they will be protected from a hierarchy and a
culture that might otherwise undermine an ability to investigate. Morale in these units is
typically poor. For example, the Law Enforcement Review Agency Commissioner,
visiting a unit of this nature in Winnipeg noted officers commenting, “Only 200 days left
here and counting.”
Michael Quinn, a former police officer from Minneapolis writes:
“If you are looking to move up the ranks, then an assignment to Internal Affairs is seen as
a ticket punch on your promotion card. You do your time, try not to hurt anyone, then
get out as soon as you can. You will be investigating former partners, future bosses, part
supervisors, and friends – the same people who covered for you when you made
mistakes. You know and they know that a thorough investigation often means breaking
132
the Code of Silence, and most cops are not going to do that.”

In describing the investigation by the ethical standards unit in Queensland into the death
in custody of Indigenous man Mulrunji Doomagee in Palm Island Australia, the
Queensland Coroner said in a finding dated 27 September 2006:
“It was inappropriate for the officer most likely to be under investigation to be the person
picking up the investigators from the airport. It was a serious error of judgment for the
investigating team, including officers from ethical standards, to be sharing a meal at the
home of that officer that evening. If a police officer needs support, it is not the task of
investigators to provide this support, but to identify the need and delegate someone else
to provide it.” 133
Internal investigation units are not sufficiently independent to meet the standard imposed
under human rights law. Many police complaint systems however, even those with
civilian review agencies, utilise specialised police units at the first stage to investigate
complaints.
For example, 97% of complaints in Victoria are investigated or otherwise managed by the
Ethical Standards Department of the Victoria Police or police in regional stations.
Another example of a civilian agency that refer complaints to police is the Commission
for Public Complaints against the Royal Mounted Canadian Police 134 .
Because investigations of conduct require the investigation not only of the individual
conduct alleged, but also any organisational causes that led to that conduct, the entire
agency’s practises and procedures fall under question. This means that no one within the
agency’s overall hierarchy is truly independent from the investigation.
132

Michael W Quinn, 2005 “The Police Code of Silence, Walking with the Devil” Quinn
& Associates at page 74.
133
http://www.courts.qld.gov.au/1680.htm#2006
134
http://www.cpc-cpp.gc.ca/

36

(b) Using another police force to investigate
Another mechanism used to investigate complaints is to call in another police force to
investigate complaints. For example, the Vancouver Police is sometimes investigated by
Royal Mounted Canadian Police when members of the public complains. 135
While this would overcome concerns raised by former police officer Michael Quinn in
the quote above, that police will be investigating colleagues, it does not deal with the
issues brought by police to the investigation process. Issues such as a general scepticism
and hostility to complainants as well as the common practice of accepting police accounts
at face value.
The Frank Paul Inquiry Commission 12 February 2009 notes:
Given that the RCMP polices 70 percent of British Columbia’s population
and has the largest police force in the province, it would seem to make
sense to assign police-related death investigations to that force, as an
alternative to using other municipal forces. On the issue of independence,
however, I question whether the level of public confidence would increase
significantly if the criminal investigation of police-related deaths were
assigned to the RCMP rather than to another municipal police
department—it is still the police investigating themselves. Though the
RCMP has a well-earned reputation for competence in serious crime
investigations, and though it has the capacity to respond immediately and
has access to specialized services, I have deep reservations about making
such a recommendation. 136

Typically, police, whether from the same agency or another have years of ingrained
thinking that complainants are wielding a grudge. The majority of police will have had a
complaint made against them in the course of their career which they will regard as
unreasonable. This experience then informs a preconception that complainants are not
credible. Their long-standing biases will prevent impartial investigation. Police tend to
view police as hard done by. The lens through which they investigate the complainant is
the same one they use to criminalises that person. This means they view the complainant
as criminal and therefore motivated to lie. A further concern is that police rationalise and
tolerate police violence within their work and this taints their perceptions of
complainant/police interactions. There exists a reluctance to find fault on the part of the
officer and a readiness to blame the complainant. Institutionalised bias exists across all
police agencies, means that asking one to investigate another does not overcome these

135

Interview between the author and William MacDonald, Investigative Analyst for the
Office of Police Complaints, Vancouver BC on 7 October 2008.
136
“Cold and Alone” Davis Commission Inquiry into the Death of Frank Paul page 223
http://www.frankpaulinquiry.ca/

37

concerns. While, there will be exceptions to these generalisations, the risk of failing to
overcome bias is unacceptable given the critical importance of complaint investigation.
For these reasons, the Human Rights Committee and the European Court of Human
Rights have been scathing of complaint systems that leave investigations in the hands of
police. 137
The groundbreaking Stephen Lawrence Inquiry in the United Kingdom recommended in
1999:
“That the Home Secretary, taking into account the strong expression of public
perception in this regard, consider what steps can and should be taken to ensure
that serious complaints against police officers are independently investigated.
Investigation of police officers by their own or another Police Service is widely
138
regarded as unjust, and does not inspire public confidence.”

(c) Making the internal agency external.
In Chicago, the Independent Police Review Authority (the “IPRA”), the “new” city
agency responding to police complaints was formed by taking police from the former
internal investigation unit, externalising them and re-naming them “Independent”. 139
According to its published figures, the IPRA’s substantiation rate is lower than the former
unit. This could indicate the new agency is performing more poorly than when it was an
internal unit, or that the restructure has either temporarily or permanently taken resources
away from its investigation capacity.
According to Professor Craig Futterman at Chicago University and Tracy Siska of the
Chicago Justice Project, IPRA employs the same investigators, who they had previously
critiqued for their culture of poor performance and demonstrated bias against
complainants. They note however that that IPRA's new leader is making real attempts to
change the culture, and are they confident of her genuine intentions. It will be instructed
to watch whether this change in leadership will be sufficient to overcome the ingrained
culture of the unit and the absence of political support from City Hall in ensuring
Chicago's police are held accountable. A level of skepticism does not seem unrealistic in
these circumstances. 140

137

See Khan v The United Kingdom and Concluding observations of the Human Rights
Committee 9 November 1995 Hong Kong at paragraph 11.
138
See the Recommendations at paragraph 58. http://www.archive.officialdocuments.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/4262.htm
139
Tracy Siska, Chicago Justice Project interview with the author on 5 November 2008.
140
Interviews on 5 & 6 November 2008. It is worth noting that the current Mayor of
Chicago is a former prosecutor who is accused by advocates of using confessions he
knew to be made under torture to convict numerous African Americans during the 60s
and 70s. The Mayor is currently working hard to avoid being forced to answer questions
on the matter before a grand jury. While the time has run out to use his alleged use of
38

(d) Using seconded police in the civilian agency
Many civilian agencies second police from the forces they are investigating to investigate
on their behalf. While they are temporarily removed from their policing positions, the
reality is that police are still doing the investigation. Having seconded police in
independent oversight bodies is “like have the fox in the hen house” 141 and civilians find
themselves having to “agree to disagree” with these officers. Furthermore, the seconded
officer’s loyalty and future employment lies with the police agency under investigation.
A further critique of the use of seconded police will be provided in the next section of
this chapter.
(e) Civilian Oversight of police investigations
As we have seen, deficiencies in the process of collecting evidence can render an
investigation unable to reach conclusions. The issue of oversight was commented on in
Hugh Jordan v The United Kingdom, where in 2001 the Strasburg Court said:
“The Investigation into the killing by a RUC police officer was headed and carried out by
other RUC officers, who issued the investigation report on the file. The Government
pointed out that, as required by law, this investigation was supervised by the ICPC, an
independent police monitoring authority. A member of the ICPC was present during the
interview of Sergeant A, for example. Their approval was required of the officer leading
the investigation. There was nonetheless a hierarchical link between the officer in the
investigation and the officers subject to the investigation, all of whom were under the
responsibility of the RUC Chief Constable….” 142
This observation goes a critical issue. It is the person who does the investigation, not the
person (such as the coroner or an oversight agency) that directs the investigation or even
determines the avenues of inquiry, who is determinative of whether the investigation is
independent.
Police investigators will never find acceptance with complainants, are widely criticised in
academic literature 143 , Public Inquiries 144 and human rights case law. Independent
civilian investigation is necessary to overcome these criticisms.

these confession as the basis for a charge against him, any perjury he commits in
explaining his actions could be used. http://www.peopleslawoffice.com/news/articles/13/
141

Interview with William MacDonald, Investigative Analyst Office of the Police
Complaint Commissioner British Columbia, 7 October 2008.
142
Jordan v The United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 327 (4 May 2001) paragraph 120.
143
See for example Prenzler & Ronken 2001 157 “Models of Police Oversight: A
critique,” Policing & Society Vol 11 No 3 at page 157.
144
MacPherson Inquiry 1999, http://www.archive.officialdocuments.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/4262.htm
39

2. Practical/functional/cultural independence, (willingness to act)
Independent civilian investigation in name alone is not sufficient to meet the principle
identified by the Rapporteur on Police Complaints to the European Commission on
Human Rights. Case law, research and jurisprudence indicates that practical
independence is required as well.
The Human Rights Commission Rapporteur on Police Complaints notes that it is all very
well to set up a body to investigate police complaints, but unless they are genuinely
oriented towards complainant interests, they will fail to achieve their goals. The history
of the reform of police complaint systems in England and Wales provides an instructive
catalogue of poorly performing agencies. After each agency is created, a boom in
complaints occurs as complainant’s and their solicitor’s hopes are raised that the new
body will be effective. The hope is quickly dashed and complaints drop down to normal
levels a short while later. Interesting, substantiation rates also dropped after each body
was created and these rates did not improve over time. A cause of complainant
dissatisfaction was that each creation remained focussed on police concerns disregarding
the interests of complainants. 145
In 2008, The Guardian newspaper conducted an investigation into complaints lodged
with the Independent Police Complaint Commission in the UK and found:
™ A pattern of favouritism towards the police with some complaints being rejected
in spite of apparently powerful evidence in their support;
™ Cases of indifference and rudeness towards complainants;
™ Extreme delays, with some complaints remaining unresolved after years of
inaction and confusion; 146
Following an unsubstantiated finding by the IPCC, complainants have successfully
litigated their complaints against police. This success of civil litigation where complaint
investigation fails is indicative of possible errors in the investigation process such as
failure to obtain information, inappropriateness of conclusions on the law or positions on
the credibility of witnesses. 147

The Taman Inquiry 2008 http://www.tamaninquiry.ca/ The Frank Paul Inquiry 2009.
Smith Graham 2005, A Most Enduring Problem; Police Complaints Reform in
England and Wales, Jnl Soc. Pol. 35, 1, 121-141.
146
Crisis at police watchdog as lawyers resign | Politics | The Guardian
http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2008/feb/25/police.law1
147
Imran Khan, Senior Partner, Imran Khan & Associates, interview with the author
December 2008.
145

40

As both complaint adjudication by the IPCC and in civil litigation proceed “on the
balance of probabilities” these discrepancies raise serious concerns about the
effectiveness of IPCC investigations.
A good example of IPCC failure was reported in the Guardian on 19 March 2009. In this
case the IPCC investigation failed to conclude that a police officer, with a lengthy
complaint history, tortured Barbar Ahmad in December 2003. After civil litigation
proceedings were commenced, the police admitted the “serious, gratuitous and prolonged
attack” 148 and agreed to pay Mr Amad £60,000. This outcome raises serious concerns
about the adequacy 149 of IPCC managed investigations as well as the IPCC’s orientation
and willingness to act against police.
Speaking of a House of Common’s Public Accounts Committee Report concerning the
IPCC on 9 March 2009, Edward Leigh MP, chairman of the committee was reported on
the BBC to say, "Public confidence in the police complaints system looks to have
improved. But when it comes to how effective the IPCC actually is, that's where the
questions start to be asked. Systems for checking the quality of its work are
conspicuously absent. There is no external independent scrutiny and the IPCC has no
formal internal processes to monitor its work, exposing it to potential allegations of
incompetence or bias." 150
Concerns have also been raised about the New York Civilian Complaints Review Board
(the “CCRB”):
“CCRB deference to the NYPD [New York Police Department] is often cloaked
in the rhetoric of cooperation. But there is no mistaking what is going on:
capitulation, within the universe of municipal governance, to a superior force.” 151
When the CCRB receives cases involving alleged criminality by police cases are
simultaneously investigated by the police. The media spokesperson from CCRB told me
he was not aware of the CCRB reaching a different conclusion to the police in these
investigations. In these cases complainants are made to provide a statement to the CCRB
and a different one to the Police 152 .
Dr Craig Futterman from the Chicago University says “The [complaint body’s] interests
need to be to protect the public from the officers who abuse them. It should care deeply
about the investigation of allegations of abuse by officers, not just think it’s the right
thing to do.” 153
148

http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/mar/18/babar-ahmed-met-police/print
Adequacy of investigation is discussed in Chapter 5
150
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7973120.stm
151
Robert Perry, 2006, Mission Failure: Civilian Review of Policing in New York City
New York Civil Liberties Union, at page 39.
152
Interview with New York CCRB media spokesperson on 19 November 2008. It is also
pertinent to note that salaries for CCRB investigators are well below those for police.
153
Interview with the author on 6 November 2008.
149

41

The attitude of investigators toward complainants is essential. Being complainant
oriented does not mean accepting complaints on face value. It does mean however,
determinedly and doggedly setting out to find if there is evidence to support the
complaint. It means treating the complainant’s evidence as just as credible, if not more
so, than police evidence. It means being thoroughly familiar with the endlessly
documented police habit of colluding and lying for each other that underpins the code of
silence and the reason why independent investigation is so essential 154 .
The code of silence and the systemic collusion police engage in to hide misconduct
renders police evidence about misconduct unreliable 155 . Analysis conducted in Chicago
indicates that while only 10% of police conduct physical torture and abuse of people (the
repeater beaters), the vast majority are silent in the face of this abuse, or actively cover up
for it (the enablers) 156 . This leaves a tiny fraction of police (the whistleblowers), who can
be reasonably treated as credible witnesses regarding police misconduct.
Given this stark pattern it is clear that police witnesses in cases involving allegations of
police misconduct enjoy undeserved deference by police complaint agencies,
investigators, courts and juries 157 . In Howard Becker’s hierarchy of credibility 158 , in
misconduct investigations police should occupy the bottom rung.
A good example of an investigation that gave too much credit to police officer evidence
was described by the Taman Inquiry:
Taman Inquiry Report 2008 Manitoba, Canada said the following of the police
investigation into a police caused death of a civilian: “The evidence before me showed
that there was an uncritical presumption during the [police] investigation that the officers
would tell the truth because they were police offices, and that officers should not be
pushed or challenged. The interviews that were conducted were pro forma, brief in
length, cursory and incomplete. Indeed, some were conducted with leading questions
that could have had no other effect than to assist officers, if so minded, to claim that they
knew nothing helpful. The problem was not just one of method. No attempt was made to
consider whether any of the officers had a motive to mislead or minimize events, even

154

See an example the Office of Police Integrity’s 2008 Report “The Victorian Armed
Offenders Squad – a case study”
155
John Kleinig 2000 “Police Violence and the Loyal Code of Silence,” in Violence and
Police Culture, edited by Coady et al, Melbourne University Press at page 219.
156
Futterman, Craig 2008, The Use of Statistical Evidence to Address Police Supervisory
and Disciplinary Practices: The Chicago Police Department’s Broken System, DePaul
Journal for Social Justice, Vol 1 Number 2 p 20.
157
An example of jury deference was provided by an Investigator at the Police
Ombudsman of Northern Ireland on 28 November 2008 to the author.
158
See a discussion of this in Carlton, Bree 2007 “Imprisoning Resistance” Sydney
Institute of Criminology Press p 49, 50.
42

though it was patent that a number did. As a result, even intuitively-suspect claims were
accepted at face value.”

Practical independence demands civilian agencies be aware of that police may have a
motive to mislead when they are being investigated and that this should be considered in
drawing conclusions about the credibility of police witnesses and the reliability of their
evidence.
Craig Futterman sees the issue facing civilian review of complaints in terms of
“institutional denial” of police brutality. If you don’t ask difficult questions, you won’t
get difficult answers. By adopting the position that “most complainants are vexatious”
low substantiation rates can appear justified 159 .
Studies however indicate that most complainants are genuine in feeling aggrieved. 160
Futterman suggests that complaints bodies must understand that even if there has not
been a violation of rights of the person, the person has still had a very bad experience that
will effect how they feel about the police 161 .
Many complaint bodies criticise complainants for not meeting the idealised behaviour of
the fragrant 162 white middle class. Some complainants will have engaged in criminal
behaviours, be extremely fearful and distrustful, suffer mental illnesses, miss
appointments, have no transport options, be unable to write, have yelled abuse at the
police or resisted (at times an unlawful) arrest or refused to stop their car prior to the
abuse they complain about. These behaviours in no way invalidate their complaints.
They do not justify torture, ill-treatment or the unnecessary loss of life all of which are
absolutely prohibited under all human rights instruments.
Cultural independence –a case study on the difference between Northern Ireland and
Ontario
The Police Ombudsman Northern Ireland (“PONI”) has been described as the “Golden
Standard in Police Investigations” 163 . It investigates all complaints it receives, from
deaths in custody to religious and socio-economic profiling. Meeting with its staff
clarifies how it has achieved its label. Staff are highly motivated and complainant
centred in their attitude and operation. They also retain the respect of the local police
agency. More detail concerning its operations will be described in the next chapter on
“adequacy of investigations”.

159

Communication with the author on 6 November 2008.
Maguire, M. & Corbett, C. (1991). A Study of the police complaints system. London:
Her Majesty’s Stationery Office.
161
Communication with the author on 6 November 2008.
162
This descriptor is used by Raju Bhatt, interview with the author in December 2008.
163
Discussion at the NACOLE Conference in Cincinatti October 2008.
160

43

One of PONI’s investigators, a former police officer from Scotland who worked as a
homicide investigator and then worked in internal affairs said, “I don’t think the police
are capable of investigating themselves. Police investigations are bad for the police and
for the public.” 164
He sees the IPCC which conducts only the most serious complaints as a hybrid system
that does not match the system in Northern Ireland. He moved to the Police Ombudsman
of Northern Ireland because of the quality of the investigations it carries out.
The one critique I heard of PONI in my limited time in Northern Ireland was that it
needed more Catholic staff in order to be trusted by this minority 165 . This is an important
observation.
A similar body, the Special Investigations Unit in Ontario (“SIU”) a unit that investigates
all police involved deaths and serious injuries in custody, has not received the same
acclaim. In his September 2008 report into its operation and credibility, Andre Marin,
the Ontario Ombudsman noted the significant influence of police culture within the
agency 166 .
He notes that former police are a commanding influence in the Unit and that many wear
their police watches, ties and “thin blue line” rings while at work 167 . He notes the use of
derogatory language prevalent in policing circles has become part of the common
language of the Unit including: “crack whores” to denote female prostitutes, “shit rats” –
those with criminal histories, and “Jamaicans” anyone from a black racial group assumed
to have a criminal record. 168 He notes a “cosy” relationship between the SIU and
police. 169
He notes the view of civilians that SIU officers talk and act like police and their concerns
with interacting with the unit.
In a real effort to address the concern of complaint body staff being seen as similar to
police, the Northern Ireland Police Ombudsman staff wear reflective orange clothing
clearly stating “Police Ombudsman” and go to lengths not to replicate police behaviours.
The Northern Ireland Police Ombudsman staff report strong public support at their
presence at crime scenes and considerable public willingness to share information 170 .
Ontario Ombudsman Andre Marin quotes one SIU investigator as saying:

164

Interview with the author on 28 November 2008
Communication with a taxi driver in Belfast 2008.
166
http://www.ombudsman.on.ca/media/30776/siureporteng.pdf
167
Ibid at para 346
168
Ibid at para 345
169
Ibid at para 331
170
Interview with the author on 28 November 2008.
165

44

“It’s what you bring from your work experience, or your life experience, and a lot of
them [the SIU investigators] have had very similar experiences. So if you work for 30
years arresting…the same sort of people and you decide that those sorts of people are a
certain way, its hard to get out of that mindset. And if you work for 30 years with certain
types of people and you think that they are terrific, its hard to get into the mindset that
once in a while someone can do something that is not ideal or is criminal…..There are
some that are not influenced by pre-set notions, but I would say the majority of them
171
are.”

The Ontario Ombudsman also noted that the SIU was filled with white aging men and
needed to more adequately reflect the community who needed it to work for them 172 .
The Ontario Ombudsman’s report is a damning critique of the use of former police as
investigators in civilian investigation agencies. His critique is also a thorough account of
poor investigative practices within the Unit.
The dominance and control of police culture and attitude is a major difference between
PONI and the SIU. While 25% of PONI’s staff are former police officers, leadership and
attitudes within PONI are assertively civilian. The latter is also strongly influenced by the
history of Northern Ireland and the dominant role that the European Convention of
Human Rights has played in ensuring that investigation of human rights abuses is its
primary function and that the involvement of the victim is central in its operation.
A further limitation of Ontario’s Special Investigation Unit, is that its director reports to a
government department (the Attorney General) and not directly to Parliament. This
reduces its independence from the incumbent Government.
3. Legal and Political Independence
The Commissioner of the Independent Police Complaints Commission in the UK is
appointed by the same department that has responsibility for the police. This means that
there are risks that the Commissioner, if too outspoken, could be removed from office by
same the department with relationships and responsibilities for the police. A government
department is an inherently political body under the control of and answerable to
ministers.
The New York Civil Liberties Union (“the NYCLU”) report into the New York Civilian
Complaint Review Board (the “NYCCRB)” noted that the NYCCRB has been
intimidated by the police into adopting a permissive attitude to the failure of police to cooperate and is hampered by a poor legislative framework granting only weak powers to
compel police to respond 173 .

171

Ibid at para 344
Ibid at Para 332
173
http://www.nyclu.org/node/1343
172

45

These examples raise two issues. The first is the issue of an absence of structural or
political independence, which leaves the agency open to intimidation or renders it
powerless and forced to “agree to disagree”. The second is part of a broader concern that
relates to regulator capture – which I will discuss at the end of this section.
In order to combat structural powerlessness governments must make a genuine
commitment to sufficiently fund, empower and protect oversight agencies from political
interference.
A powerful study by Ian Freckelton described the failure of the Victorian Government to
protect a genuinely committed civilian review authority. The Police Complaints
Authority (“the PCA”) in Victoria operated for two years in 1986 to 1988. The PCA’s
willingness to act was evidenced by its complainant focussed attention to investigation.
It operated a 24 hour complaint hot-line and was willing to travel to complainants. It was
also willing to exercise its power to investigate “public interest” complaints and saw
these as including complaints made by ordinary people about police abuses. It conducted
thorough re-investigations of complaints where complainant’s raised concerns about the
initial police investigation. It also had a high media profile on trends and issues in police
misconduct. Unfortunately the PCA was seriously under funded by the Government and
hampered by badly drafted legislation. It was then shut down by the Government within
2 years of its commencement following a powerful backlash from the Police
Association 174 .
A further example of “shooting the messenger” occurred in New York following a
vigorous investigation of Antonio Rosario’s death on 12 January 1995. Antonio died after
police shot him in the back while he lay face down on the floor of an apartment in New
York. The New York Civilian Review Board concluded that the police action was
unlawful. During the investigation, New York’s Mayor Giulliani, had taken a strong propolice stance. He knew the detectives involved in the incident personally: they had been
his bodyguards during his election and one was a childhood friend. The civilian
investigators involved in finding the police conduct unlawful were subsequently fired 175 .
These examples reveal the essential need for a civilian investigation body to move
beyond mere formal independence and to be politically independent.
Political independence requires that the investigation body be answerable to parliament
rather than the government of the day. It also means its enabling legislation be protected
from opposing interests.

174

Freckelton, Ian 1991 “Shooting the Messenger” in Complaints Against the Police, The
Trend to External Review, edited by Andrew Goldsmith.
175
Justifiable Homicide, Reality Films, by Jon Osman, 2002.
http://realityfilms.net/justifiable/index.shtml

46

In British Columbia, the Office of Police Complaints has been calling for legislative
reform to separate it from the legislation in which police are also regulated. They want it
to be free to seek amendments to regulation and legislation away from the ministers and
departments that are also involved in governing the police. In order to protect bodies
from government interference, they must report directly to parliament. Monash
University Associate Professor Colleen Lewis argues for a Parliamentary sub-committee
to be formed to assist in its oversight and provide functions that would normally be
provided by government departments 176 . Fixed tenures beyond political terms would
also assist in the political independence of its directors.
Regulatory capture
Regulatory capture is the process by which the regulator fails in its role of holding the
regulated body to legal standards because of inappropriate relationships:
“Regulatory capture occurs ‘when officials inappropriately identify with the interests of
a client or industry’ii. For example, a liquor licensing inspector could, after years of
contact with people in the industry, begin to favour the wishes of the industry rather than
public interest. Alternatively, the inspector may be biased toward a single firm or
company, motivated by a ‘white knight’ kind of sympathy. In such cases the regulator
may fail to enforce because they believe the firm is struggling and the management team
are ‘nice folk’ who ought to be protected.” 177
A study by Tim Prenzler into the Queensland Criminal Justice Commission set up
following the1989 Fitzgerald Inquiry into police and public sector corruption in
Queensland, found evidence that the CJC was exposed to regulatory capture through its
“role in facilitating police management, joint operations [with police] against organised
crime and reliance on seconded police investigators.” 178 He also found that the CJC had
adopted an appeasement strategy towards the police and politicians. Political interference
resulted in a dramatic curtailment of its independence.
Functional and practical independence demands that exposure to regulatory capture is
designed out of a civilian agency.
Recommendations
Out of this Chapter several recommendations can be made to ensure the human rights
principle of independence is practically discharged through the investigation of alleged
police human rights abuses.

176

Interview with the author in January 2009.
Gary Adams, Sharon Hayes, Stuart Weierter and John Boyd, Regulatory Capture:
Managing the Risk Australian Public Sector Anti-Corruption Conference 24 October
2007 – Sydney page 1
178
Tim Prenzler, 2000 “Civilian Oversight of Police, A Test of Capture Theory,” in
British Journal of Criminology (2000) 40 at 659.
177

47

1. Investigations of allegations of misconduct must be conducted by an agency that is not
only institutionally independent of police but also practically culturally and politically
independent. This means that the use of former police officers should be minimal if at
all. If they are used they must come from forces outside the one under investigation. My
study in the field did bring me in contact with some rigorous former police investigators
within agencies. However, unless carefully selected for the absence of police cultural
biases, and removed from positions of influence in the organisation, the risk of using
former police in this central task is considerable. On the other hand, civilians can and do
perform investigations in civilian bodies throughout these regions. They can be trained to
be highly effective. Civilians must dominate the organisation both in number and
culture. Former police should be less than 25% and should not have previously been
employed in the agency under scrutiny.
2. The agency must operate with a healthy scepticism of police accounts concerning
misconduct. It must be complainant centred and complainant oriented.
3. Civilian investigators must by their attitude and attire be distinguishable from police.
4. The agency must be protected from the risks of agency capture through minimising
collegiate working relationships with the police agency. While meetings are important,
more than this becomes problematic. No seconded police officers from the agency under
examination or other law enforcement agencies should be used.
5. The agency must be protected from political and police union interference through
separate enabling legislation and regulations as well as independent reporting to
parliament. Its key positions must be long-term appointments. A parliamentary
committee must be established to assist with improving its functions and to provide
oversight of the agency.
6. The agency must be properly and securely funded so that it does not need to rely on
seconded police for any of its functions.
7. The agency must be adequately empowered to perform its tasks in the face of police
resistance so that it does not need to rely on maintaining good will with police to do its
task.
8. The agency must be staffed by people who reflect the community, it must contain
young people, working class people, people from ethnic, religious, indigenous, disabled
and gay lesbian queer identified and trans-gendered communities and maintain a gender
balance.

48

Chapter 4

Adequacy of Investigation
4.1 Introduction
Adequacy of investigation is the second of the five standards necessary for the
investigation of a police complaint to be effective and consistent with human rights.
The Rapporteur on police complaints to the European Commission of Human Rights
states that the investigation: “should be capable of gathering evidence to determine
whether the behaviour complained of was unlawful [whether the force used was
justified 179 ] and to identify and punish those responsible.” 180
The Rapporteur also notes the requirement of promptness that is: “a speedy response and
expeditiousness is crucial for maintaining trust and confidence in the rule of law and in
order to dispel any fear or collusion in any attempt to conceal misconduct” 181 .
For the purpose of this report, I am treating promptness as a subset of an adequate
investigation, and for convenience including a discussion about it in this chapter.
In this chapter I will explore what is meant by an adequate and prompt investigation by
looking at the kinds of investigations that are conducted into police complaints in
Victoria, the US, Canada, the UK and Northern Ireland.
I will conclude with recommendations that arise from these examples.

4.2 Capacity to lead to criminal or disciplinary outcomes
Where sufficient evidence exists of a criminal offence, the officer should be arrested,
interviewed and charged immediately. 182 Because a criminal investigation must be
capable of leading to a prosecution in appropriate cases, police officers facing a criminal
investigation must be given the same rights as all suspects before an interview is
conducted or their evidence will be inadmissible. This means that police officers must be
free to exercise the right to silence before an interview for this purpose.

179

Jordan v The United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 327 (4 May 2001) para 107.
Graham Smith, (2008) “European Commissioner for Human Rights Police Complaints
Initiative” – 172 JPN 399, pp 1,2.
181
Ibid and at
https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1417857&Site=CommDH&BackColorInternet=FEC
65B&BackColorIntranet=FEC65B&BackColorLogged=FFC679
182
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/apr/10/g20-assault-investigation/print
180

49

On the other hand, administrative or disciplinary investigation, is quite different. The
purpose of administrative investigation is to ensure that police officers conduct
themselves with the highest integrity and that unsuitable officers are dismissed from the
force. This ensures the safety of the public and is an important risk management strategy
for the agency. Because the outcomes of an administrative investigation are related to
public safety and officer integrity, it is essential that all police officers be legislatively
required to respond to these investigations immediately and with full candour. Failure to
submit or respond to questioning for an administrative investigation must itself be a
disciplinary offence and dismissal from service for failures to comply is an appropriate
penalty.
If police are to be permitted to exercise police powers, carry weapons and use force for
the purposes of arrest and control of public order, the corollary is that they must be
prepared to account when they use that force and exercise those powers. The use of force
and invasive police powers are a routine part of a police officer’s job. While the public
may use force for self-defence and defence of others, police have weapons for this
purpose. Police also stop, question, search people and enter their houses, all of which
impacts on their freedoms and rights. Because these powers and the use of force impacts
directly on fundamental human rights, accounting transparently and publicly for their use
is essential to ensure that the public are satisfied that the use police powers and force is
not abused. These issues make the policing profession entirely unique to non-coercive
professions. As a result accountability requirements need be far more rigorous than in
other professions.
When officers provide an immediate and independent account of events, there is a
reduced risk of collusion and cover-up that could occur if police are only required to
account after they are provided with the facts. Because of the operation of the code of
silence police are more susceptible than other professions to covering up for themselves
and others 183 . This means that legislative requirements for them to account immediately
are essential.
In order to protect the officer’s human rights during any criminal trial relating to the
complaint, anything said by an officer during administrative questioning must be
inadmissible against the officer when they have chosen to exercise the right to silence.

183

See for example the Age 12 February 2009 – Stephen Linnell pleads guilty to
attempting to assist colleagues escape detection at misconduct proceedings.
http://www.theage.com.au/national/linnell-spared-jail-over-lies-leaks-2009032599n7.html See also a discussion of the code of silence in the Office of Police Integrity’s
Armed Offenders Squad report at:
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/The_Victorian_Armed_Offenders_Squad__a_case_study.pdf

50

It is possible and indeed practical for the two investigations to occur simultaneously. In
Northern Ireland, Police Ombudsman investigators start with the criminal investigation
and move straight to an administrative investigation if the right to silence in invoked.
This is also the approach favoured by the 2005 UK Taylor Report which reviewed and
made recommendations on police disciplinary processes. 184
The other right that applies is the right to speak to a solicitor prior to interview for
criminal investigation.
This right has caused interview delays of hours in Northern Ireland, delays of days in
Ontario and delays of months in Manitoba. It would be hard to imagine in the
investigation of a civilian, delays of this length being permitted. The right to a solicitor is
the same for police and civilians and excessive delays for police officers is indicative of a
bias towards their interests.
In other models such as Victoria, in some cases, police have not been required to account
beyond their statement made as part of a prosecution brief against the complainant. In
some cases officers who were waiting to provide their side of the story were told their
response was not needed 185 . For an investigation to be adequate, all police witnesses
must be interviewed for the purpose of that investigation. As well as being essential in
terms of natural justice, accounts provided by police for other purposes will lack critical
information relevant to the complainant’s allegation.
Josiah Wood QC Vancouver Canada: “Another factor which accounted for those
complaint files that were improperly concluded was the lack of cooperation by
respondents. Without the power to force a respondent to give a statement, or submit to an
interview, the best professional standards officer is left with little more than a written
duty report from which to assess that officer’s response to a complaint.”186
Recommendations
1. Police suspects and witnesses must be separated and interviewed immediately for both
criminal and administrative purposes or no later than 24 hours after notification of the
details of a complaint. Refusal to participate in an administrative interview must be
grounds for dismissal.
184

Review of Police Disciplinary Arrangements Report 2005 (the Taylor report) at page
30. http://press.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/police-disciplinaryarrangements/report.pdf?view=Binary
185
OPI Improving Victorian Policing Services Through Effective Complaint Handling
Report 2008 at p 49 available at:
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/Improving_Victorian_policing_services_through_e
ffective_complaint_handling_31.pdf
186
Josiah Wood QC - Report on the review of the Police Complaint Process in British
Columbia, February 2007 at paragraph 25
51

2. Enforceable timelines for investigations are critical. Provision of documents by police
agencies must be prioritised and investigators should use warrants to collect documents
themselves where any delay occurs.

4.3 The importance of time
Investigators, judges, lawyers, doctors, coroners and forensic technicians understand that
time is critical in ensuring evidence is collected and retained for subsequent purposes.
Memories fade, evidence is tampered with, scenes are altered, footage “lost”, cameras
stolen, witnesses intimidated or even murdered, bruises fade, clothes removed, shot
residue dissipated, false evidence planted, fingerprints lost, splatter marks removed,
collusion, stories and alibis concocted 187 .
There must be time limits set for investigations. Delay is a major issue facing most
complaint bodies. This can be an issue of deficient resources or of complacency.
Charging a person with murder can occur within days or weeks where the offender is not
a police officer and brief preparation can occur within one or two months. The times
involved in matters where the suspect is a police officer should replicate those involving
civilian suspects. Most complaint bodies see the need for specific time limits introduced
into the legislation under which they are set up.
Case Study: The “Golden Hour” - Northern Ireland Police Ombudsman
In Northern Ireland, Police Ombudsman investigators pride themselves at being able to
get to a scene within the hour of police involved death or serious injury occurring. They
will interview all police and civilian witnesses. If the police are also investigating in
cases where a civilian may be charged, the rule is that that the investigation with the more
serious allegation has primacy and that relevant forensic information must be provided to
other investigation after wards. Usually this means the Police Ombudsman investigation
has primacy.
The Police Ombudsman operate a 24-hour service. There is a team of eight investigators.
For small investigations, they send two people out. They wear orange jackets to
distinguish them from the police. According to Police Ombudsman investigators, they are
highly visible and get their fast. They believe this takes the tension out of the incident for
people. While they investigate like police, they don’t have the attitude of the police.
They say they are friendly and approachable and that the public perceives them to be

187

See for example the Victorian Coroner Hal Hallenstein’s Findings into the Inquest of
Gary Abdullah, 31 October 1994, Case No. 2060/89.
52

independent and competent. These views are reflected in their complainant satisfaction
survey of 2007 188 .
The Northern Ireland Police Ombudsman use independent scientists and medical
experts 189 . They attend post mortems that are conducted by the state pathologist. They
produce the file and are in charge of collecting the evidence for the coroner.

Recommendations
3. Civilian investigation should commence immediately and must thoroughly and
effectively collect and preserve the evidence at a scene of a police involved death, near
death or serious injury. The reporting by police of these incidents to the civilian body
must be mandated. Civilian investigation must commence as soon as they are notified of
complaints that reveal an allegation that could lead to criminal or disciplinary outcomes.
4. In cases where a person has died in custody, independent civilian investigators should
prepare the coroners report.

4.4 Thoroughness
When police investigate their own, they have been found to either delay investigation so
that this evidence is lost, or neglect to collect it. For example in the 2008 Taman Inquiry,
the police investigators failed to breathalyse the police officer who killed Crystal
Taman 190 , in the Frank Paul Inquiry 2009, the police investigator failed to accurately
record the scene and the position in which Frank Paul’s body was found 191 . In the 1999
Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, suspects with whom the police investigators were
ideologically aligned, were permitted to get rid of incriminating evidence before being
arrested 192 . The 2008 Ontario Ombudsman Report found that investigators (in this case
civilian investigators, but former police officers and thoroughly ensconced in police
culture) allowed police but not civilian witnesses to recovered from the trauma of the
incident before interviewing them 193 . The Neil Stonechild Inquiry 194 finalised in 2004,

188

See complainant satisfaction survey available at:
http://www.policeombudsman.org/Publicationsuploads/Satisfaction%20Report%20compl
ainant%202006-07.pdf
189
Medical experts obtained by police have been accused of bias see:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/apr/11/g20-pathologist-ian-tomlinson/print
190
http://www.tamaninquiry.ca/
191
http://www.frankpaulinquiry.ca/
192
http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/4262.htm
193
http://www.ombudsman.on.ca/media/30776/siureporteng.pdf
194
http://www.stonechildinquiry.ca/

53

found that the original police investigators had closed the file without any real
investigation at all 195 .
In Anguelova v Bulgaria [2002] ECHR 489 the European Court noted at paragraph 142:
“that the failure of the autopsy to record morphological data and the absence or presence
of “contre-coup lesions” made it impossible to establish what object might have caused
the skull fracture.
It is highly significant, furthermore, that the police officers were never asked to explain
why the detention register had been forged, why they had not called for an ambulance
right away or why they had given apparently false information to Dr Mihailov. These
were crucial questions which obviously had to be raised in examinations and
confrontations. The reconstruction of the events conducted on 20 March 1996 was, for
reasons that are unclear, exclusively concerned with the number of times and the places
where Mr Zabchekov had fallen to the ground when he had been trying to escape and
ignored the events that took place at the police station, the moments between the boy's
arrest and his arrival at the police station and the times when he had been lying on the
ground, handcuffed to a tree or was alone with Sergeant Mutafov (C) and his friend D
(see paragraphs 21, 26, 29-40 and 68 above).
Furthermore, there is no record of any timely visit of the investigator to the scene of Mr
Zabchekov's arrest in Beli Lom Street. The site was visited at about 11 a.m. on 29
January 1996 by a police officer from the same police station as the implicated officers.
Finally, the investigation concentrated on the origin and timing of the skull injury and
paid scant attention to the other traces left on the boy's body. The Government have not
explained these omissions.
143. The Court also refers to its findings above that the testimony of the police officers
was considered fully credible despite their suspect behaviour and that, notwithstanding
the obvious contradiction between the two medical reports, the authorities accepted the
conclusions of the second report without seeking to clarify the discrepancies (see
paragraph 120 above). Indeed, the decisions of the prosecution authorities to put an end
to the investigation relied exclusively on the opinion in the second medical report about
the timing of the injury, an opinion that had been based on a questionable analysis (see
paragraphs 79, 81, 84 and 88-90 above).
144. The Court finds, therefore, that the investigation lacked the requisite objectivity and
thoroughness, a fact which decisively undermined its ability to establish the cause of Mr
Zabchekov's death and the identity of the persons responsible. Its effectiveness cannot,
therefore, be gauged on the basis of the number of reports made, witnesses questioned or
other investigative measures taken.

Rather than assisting to cover up the evidence, adequate civilian investigation must
ensure evidence is collected and preserved at the earliest possible time, this means scenes
are processed as if a crime has been committed, bullet trajectory diagrams made, reenactments conducted and photographs taken. It is also essential that there is a thorough
assessment of injuries sustained by a doctor who is capable of assessing not just the
visible injuries, but the pains, numbness, movement loss, tingling, nerve and cartilage

195

http://www.stonechildinquiry.ca/

54

damage and all other forms of injury physical or psychological that may have been
inflicted on the victim 196 .
Recommendations
5. Civilian investigators must investigate as if a crime has been committed.
6. Properly trained doctors must be free and available to assess pain and injuries at all
police stations, prisons, detention centres as well as when complainants contact the
complaint body and when they contact solicitors/advocates. It must be clearly obvious to
people in custody that the doctors they are seeing are independent and not “working for
the police.”

4.5 Provision of cameras in Police Stations
The requirement that a complaint process must be capable of leading to prosecutions and
discipline has implications for the provision of cameras and voice recording in police
stations, throughout holding cells and police vehicles. If the State does not ensure that
this evidence can be gathered, it fails to meet its duty to ensure complaints can be
adequately investigated.
For example, image recordings were a critical part in the successful prosecution of police
involved in the May 2006 assaults of suspects in the St Kilda Police Station in
Melbourne, reported in the Age on 25 February 2008 197 .
Community Legal Centres receive numerous reports from people alleging assault by
police in police interview rooms. For example in the 2006-2007 there were 7 separate
reports made to the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre of assaults
occurring inside police interview rooms at the Flemington and Moonee Ponds Police
Stations 198 . These are very serious allegations.
Unfortunately there are no cameras to provide independent evidence of the events that
unfolded.

196

Dr Frank Arnold, Medical Justice, UK speech to a House of Commons Committee
Room meeting on 10 December 2008. Also see the Effective Investigation and
Documentation Manual of Torture and other Cruel Inhuman and Degrading Treatment at:
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900sid/DPAL5ZLDT7/$file/8istprot.pdf?openelement
197
http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/exdetectives-admit-to-bashingsuspect/2008/02/25/1203788246914.html
198
Report to the Chief Commission of Victoria Police in a letter from the Flemington &
Kensington Community Legal Centre on the 28 February 2008.
55

It is essential that equipment be installed to record whether human rights violations such
as assaults of suspects within police stations occur. In Northern Ireland, there is video
surveillance of police cars and stations. 199
Recommendations
7. CCTV should be placed in all police stations and cars and data from these should be
removed immediately along with all data recording systems (such as taser data, c/s
spray, weapons/bullet logs, use of force forms, weapons used, log books etc).

4.6 Independence from prosecutions of complainants
When complainants also face charges by police, there will be two investigations into
similar facts. It is essential that the complaint investigation into the police is completely
separate from the police investigation into the complainant. Otherwise the complaint
investigation could end up providing evidence to the police in their prosecution of the
complainant and undermine the impartiality and separateness of the process.
When the Police Ombudsman Northern Ireland [ the “PONI”] have information that
would assist the defence of a complainant who is being prosecuted they will disclose this
to the prosecution with the consent of the complainant. They will not release evidence
that will assist the prosecution of complainants. This is not their role. Its up to the police
to collect that evidence. Occasionally the prosecution drops the case against the
complainants after the Ombudsman have supplied them with information.
A PONI investigator said: “Our job is not to assist the prosecution of the complainant.
It’s a totally distinct task. Mostly I do not ask anything about what the complainant has
done prior to the issue they are complaining about. This is the police role. It up to the
police to collect that evidence. When the police have already spoken to the complainant
it’s a non-issue.” 200
Recommendations
8. Civilian investigators should interview complainants with respect to their complaint
and not to collect evidence in relation to prior behaviour.
9. Civilian investigators must not provide evidence to assist the prosecution of
complainants, but, may provide evidence which assists the complainant in their defence
of police charges to both the defence and the prosecution with the complainant’s consent.

4.7 The need for uncontaminated police statements

199

Interview with staff from the Police Ombudsman of Northern Ireland on 28 November
2008.
200
Interview with a PONI investigator on 28 November 2008.
56

The Northern Ireland Police Ombudsman’s staff says: “We require the police to give us a
different statement to their statement they have made for the prosecution of the
complainant. The issues are entirely different and we need to probe further. When we
interview, we have different questions than what the police have put in their
statements.” 201
This is a critical issue. Many complaint bodies rely on police notes or statements they
have put together themselves. Alternatively they call police in for an interview well after
the police are fully briefed on the allegations against them, have access to the full
complaint by the victim, and have thoroughly discussed it with their colleagues.
For example, in Manitoba Canada, the Law Enforcement Review Agency sends a copy of
the complaint to the suspect police officer as soon as they receive it and well prior to their
investigation 202 .
When investigations fail to separate police witnesses and allow police to provide their
own statements and notes, remarkable similarities in the statements are observed 203 ;
The Honourable Roger Salhany QC stated in the October 2008 Taman Inquiry in
Manitoba Canada:
“Moreover, both [Police Officers] Bakema and Graham misspelled the name of the
RCMP analyst as Chris Landford, when, in fact, his name was Chris Blandford. Pedersen
and Maloney testified that it was a common practise for Bakema and Graham to
collaborate in preparing their notes. I am satisfied that Bakema and Graham prepared
their notes together in this investigation to paint a misleading picture of an uneventful
investigation.” 204
The Davies Commission into the Death of Frank Paul notes:
Det. Staunton did not meet and interview the many police officers, Corrections
employees, and Jail staff who had relevant evidence about the Paul case. Instead, he
asked them for written statements. He testified that if these people were given adequate
direction on what to describe, their written report would be superior to a civilian
witness’s written report. This may be true, but having studied the numerous short written
statements provided by police officers and other non-civilians in this case, I can only say
that most of them invite as many questions as they answer. Many of these reports are
short and cursory. Some two-member police teams prepared reports jointly, clearly not a

201

Interview with a PONI investigator on 28 November 2008.
Section 7 of the Law Enforcement Review Act
http://web2.gov.mb.ca/laws/statutes/ccsm/l075e.php
203
Taman Inquiry September 2008, Manitoba Canada, Vol A pg 46. Saunders & Anor, R
(on the application of) v The Association of Chief Police Officers & Ors [2008] EWHC
2372 (Admin) (10 October 2008)
204
Taman Inquiry 2008 page 58
202

57

“best practice.” I would expect a meaningful and critical investigation to require more
than written statements. I would expect probing and interactive questioning to occur. 205
In the United Kingdom, Regulation 9 of the Police (Conduct) Regulations 2004 requires
that police be informed in writing the detail of the complaint and the nature of the
allegations against them 206 . It does not entitle them to a copy of the complaint.
Civilians being questioned by police do not get this level of detail before they are
questioned. In my view Regulation 9 represents, at the early stages of an investigation,
an unnecessary concession to police. Obviously full disclosure is required prior to civil,
disciplinary or criminal trial proceedings, and should be done following investigation to
ensure transparency of the process, but at the initial stages of the investigation, delay and
full provision of information is indicative of police being treated advantageously in
comparison to their civilian counter-parts. Given that the issue of full disclosure before
questioning is central to why many attorneys in the US and Australia advise their clients
against putting in complaints to police, it is vital that the mechanics of the system remove
bias from the start of the process.
In Ramsahai and Others v The Netherlands [2007] ECHR 393 the European Court said at
paragraph 330 “What is more, Officers Brons and Bultstra were not kept separated after
the incident and were not questioned until nearly three days later. Although, as already
noted, there is no evidence that they colluded with each or with their colleagues on the
Amsterdam/Amstelland police force, the mere fact that appropriate steps were not taken
to reduce the risk of such collusion amounts to a significant shortcoming in the adequacy
of the investigation.”
A similar criticism can be made of the investigation in the Jean Charles de Menezes
shooting in the London underground on 22 July 2005. In that case the officers were left
to write up their notes together without any supervision or taping of their conversations.
They said during Inquest proceedings that they had a “general conversation about the
statements” while they were doing this. Yasmin Khan from the UK organisation
Inquest, noted that the Independent Police Complaints Commissions, at the request of the
Metropolitan Police, did not start investigation until 3 or 4 days after the shooting. She
said that CCTV footage of the shooting went missing 207 .
Not surprisingly, the evidence from the two suspect police officers in the shooting was
remarkably similar, in the phrases they used to describe the incident and their internal
feelings 208 .

205

Davies Commission in to the Death of Frank Paul 12 February 2009, Vancouver
Canada, at p111 and 112.
206
Thames Police, Regulation 9 Policy paper.
207
Conversation with Yasmin Khan from Justice for Jean in December 2008.
208
Coroner’s summary of evidence in December 2008.
58

There is… “a well known principle that discussions between witnesses should not take
place, and that the statements and proofs of one witness should not be disclosed to any
other witness. The witness should give his or her own evidence, so far as practicable
uninfluenced by what anyone else has said, whether in formal discussion or informal
conversations…..A dishonest witness will very rapidly calculate how his testimony may
be “improved”. 209
The critical importance of this issue is frequently set aside when it comes to police
witnesses. In many cases, police statements will be word for word replicas of each other,
with perhaps a phrase here or there altered to create the semblance of individuality.
While this is problematic in normal criminal cases involving police, it seriously
undermines the adequacy of investigations when police are being investigated.
Recommendations
10. At the first interview, police are to be told of the allegations during the interview, but
not through prior written notice containing the detail of those allegations. The
complainant’s statement must not be given to police unless disciplinary, civil or criminal
proceedings have commenced against them.

4.8 Questioning techniques
The Taman Inquiry conducted in Manitoba and completed in 2008 made some stark
observations about police investigators accepting police evidence at face value, failing to
ask probing questions and asking leading questions that allowed police to avoid
difficulty. Failures to interview police correctly will impact on the investigation’s
adequacy. Indeed, as Raju Bhatt observed as a result of reading transcripts of police
investigating police, very often these interview have been exercises in mitigation rather
than investigation 210 . It is not the role of the investigation to explore or even create the
defence strategies of the police.
Recommendations
11. Civilian investigators must question police for the purpose of investigating the
complainant’s allegations, not to assist the defence of the officers.

4.9 Standards of Proof
Standards of proof are applied at every point where a decision is made regarding a
complaint. The decision to investigate, is not so much a standard of proof, but an
assessment of whether the allegation meets the agency’s investigation guidelines. The
decision to substantiate, the decision that a disciplinary offence has occurred or that a
criminal offence has occurred all involve different standards of proof.
209
210

Momodou, R v [2005] EWCA Crim 177 (02 February 2005) at paragraph 61.
Interview with Raju Bhatt of Bhatt Murphy on 2 December 2008 in London.
59

The standard of proof that a disciplinary offence has occurred, like all civil proceeding is
the balance of probabilities. This standard applies in Canada 211 in Australia 212 , and in the
UK 213 .
In Australia, the case of Briginshaw v Briginshaw 60 CLR 336 (30 June 1938)
established that there is no third standard. It did however find that a serious allegation,
required quality evidence to meet the standard of proof. That is where the allegations are
serious, a civil court must, in the same way as disciplinary tribunals, be satisfied that the
evidence is sufficient to support a balance of probabilities test.
The question then, is what standard should apply to the substantiation of complaints?
The standard applied when the department of public prosecutions decides to proceed with
a prosecution is lower than the criminal standard applied by the Court. The standard to
proceed for the Crown Prosecuting Service in the UK is “where on one possible view of
the facts there is evidence upon which a jury could properly come to the conclusion that
the defendant is guilty.” 214
In Victoria the Office of Public Prosecution Guidelines state:
“the initial consideration in the exercise of this discretion is whether the evidence
is sufficient to justify the institution or continuation of a prosecution….Once it is
established that there is a prima facie case it is then necessary to give
consideration to the prospects of conviction….A prosecution should not proceed
215
if there is no reasonable prospect of a conviction being secured” .
Translating this into the complaint process, the standard must be that whether there is a
reasonable prospect that an adjudicator at a disciplinary tribunal could find that the
211

F.H. v. McDougall, 2008 SCC 53 Prior to this case, the standard applied in Canada to
police complaint matters was “clear and convincing evidence,” see for example section
27(2) of the Law Enforcement Review Act. While not necessarily different to the civil
standard, complaint agencies are now recognizing the need to clarify these standards to
reflect the ruling in McDougall that only two standards apply in Canada and that the civil
standard applies to disciplinary hearings as well – communication with the Law
Enforcement Review Agency Commissioner George Wright on 15 October 2008 and
Cameron Ward, Attorney, Vancouver BC on 10 October 2008. Also see
http://www.mpcc-cppm.gc.ca/alt_format/300/2007-10-12-0-eng.pdf
212
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/A_Fair_and_Effective_Victoria_Police_Discipli
ne_System_(online).pdf at page 36.
213
Interview with Graham Smith Manchester University 2008.
214
R v Gallbraith (1981) 73 Cr App R 124, 127 per Lord Lane CJ.
215
http://www.opp.vic.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/Office+Of+Public+Prosecutions/Home/
Director+of+Public+Prosecutions/OPP++Prosecution+Policies+and+Guidelines+%28PDF%29

60

alleged conduct occurred. If this standard is reached, the complaint should be
substantiated and disciplinary proceedings initiated.
In 2009 a police investigator told the author following his investigation of a complaint in
Victoria, Australia, that if an explanation exists that is consistent with the innocence of
the police officer that, despite the existence of plausible and credible evidence
implicating the officer, the complaint would be found to be unsubstantiated.
A concern raised in the 2006-2008 Koori Complaint Project in Victoria Australia was the
issue of who was applying the standard of proof. At page 22, it noted that the standards
were being applied “from the perspective of police” as to whether the weight of the
evidence supported the complainant.
Decisions about the weight of evidence and prospects of success are strongly susceptible
to bias. As with complaint investigation, decision-making about the strength of a case is
not value neutral. Decisions about whether to substantiate must be made by an
independent person.
The balance of probabilities test should apply when the complaint is being determined in
a hearing. Such determinations occur in Washington DC Office of Police Complaints and
Manitoba Canada, through complaints made to the Law Enforcement Review Agency.
Both of these processes lead to public hearings where a finding is made, after any
disputed evidence has been properly tested. In Manitoba these hearings also lead to
disciplinary findings and sentences. The Manitoba model is exceptional in combining
complaint adjudication and discipline in the one hearing. It is worthy of replication in
this particular feature.
It is also worth noting that under European human rights law in cases where injuries
occur in custody, a reverse onus of proof arises and that it is up the State to provide a”
plausible explanation” for how the injuries occurred216 . In Alsayed Allaham v Greece,
the European Court said:
“The Court recalls in particular that where a person is injured while in detention or
otherwise under the control of the police, any such injury will give rise to a strong
presumption that the person was subjected to ill-treatment.” 217

The onus on the State to account for injuries was similarly articulated by the Human
Rights Committee at paragraph 9.2 in Womah Mukong v. Cameroon, Communication No.
458/1991, (1994). 218
Recommendations
216

Hugh Jordan v The United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 327 (4 May 2001) at paragraph
103 Also see the comments by Stephen Craig in:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/apr/11/g20-ian-tomlinson-death/print
217
Alsayed Allaham v Greece, 18 January 2007, Strasbourg Court at paragraph 27.
218
http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts//undocs/html/vws458.htm
61

12. The standard of proof applied to substantiate a complaint should be “could the
evidence support a finding of misconduct by the police officers at a hearing”. In
complaints where the complainant is injured, a burden of proof falls on the police to
explain how the complainant was injured in custody.
13. Complaints should be determined on the balance of probabilities at a hearing.

4.10 Unlawful use of force
A concern raised by advocates for complainants is that some police and police
investigators don’t appear to understand the law regarding assault.
Douglas King, Attorney, Pivot Law Society Vancouver, Canada 219 ; I think the police
believe they have an exemption from the laws of assault. They believe that they have the
ability to physically strike someone. They don’t understand how restrictive the assault
laws are. They think so long as they are not beating someone up it’s not an assault. But
unless they have a need they can’t touch the person.
The investigators are the same, they don’t see that it’s an assault.
The fact that complaints found through police investigation to be unsubstantiated can be
successfully litigated in civil law suits lends support to this proposition 220 .
The human rights standard is that a finding must be reached as to whether the use of force
was justified. It is rare if ever to find a thorough analysis of the lawfulness or otherwise
of force used in letters provided to complainants 221 . A good example of this can be found
in a letter from the Office of Police Integrity to the Federation of Community Legal
Centres in Victoria dated 9 January 2008. The letter’s thesis was that because the use of
batons had been authorised by force command against singing and dancing protesters at
the Melbourne Museum in November 2006, the use of batons by police officers was
automatically lawful. This is far from the analysis required to meet the standard.

219

Interview by the author with Attorney Douglas King, Pivot Law Society, Vancouver,
Canada on 9 October 2008
220
See McCulloch & Palmer ibid, Graham Smith 2003 “Actions for Damages Against the
Police and the Attitudes of Claimants” Policing and Society 2003, Vol 13, No. 4 pp 413422, Clifford Zimmerman and G.Flint Taylor, “The Interrelationship of Police
Disciplinary Decisions and Police Misconduct Litigation” Police Misconduct and Civil
Rights Law Report May-June 1994, conversations in 2008 with Pivot Law Society,
Vancouver Canada, Joey Mogel, Flint Taylor, Craig Futterman, Chicago USA, Raju
Bhatt and Imran Khan UK, Dyson Hore-Lacy SC, Melbourne Australia
221
I have not seen a letter following a complaint that analyses the law that applies to the
allegations made.
62

William MacDonald, an investigative analyst in the Office of the Police Complaint
Commissioner in British Columbia noted, that police tend to overlook the unlawful use of
pre-emptive force in their investigations 222 .
The OPI letter states that police feared the peaceful protestors – there is no evidence in
the letter of a legal basis to use force – that is what led to the police fear, whether lives
were in danger, or whether the police assertion of fear was credible or merely a poor
attempt to justify their violence. There was no analysis of whether the Victoria Police
safety first principles 223 had been engaged prior to the use of force. These principles
require the use of negotiation, containment and retreat before using force. Furthermore
rather than asserting that as batons had been authorised, their use was justified, each and
every individual use of a police baton must be justified. A generalised authority to use
force is simply not enough. Police have authority to use force only when absolutely
necessary and all other options have been exhausted. An effective investigation must
critically examine whether the planning, control and training of the officers had taken
into account the safety first principles and human rights principles (such as the right to
life and the freedom of political expression) as well as a close consideration as to whether
each strike was justified 224 . In this case, a least one person was seriously injured and
required an ambulance. Because of the extremely serious and potentially lethal
implications of the use of long arm batons, their use must be reserved for extreme
situations where all other alternatives have been exhausted 225 . These are the kinds of
questions and issues that complaint facts must be subject to. If such analysis had in fact
been conducted, then the OPI letter to the Federation did not reflect this.
Another controversial example concerns the lawfulness of lethal force when a police
officer perceives his or her life is in danger.
One of the Commission for Complaints Against the Royal Canadian Mounted Police’s
complaint analysts said that the Commission has made a decision that it will find a
shooting lawful when police act without knowing for certain that the threat is real. He
said that so long as the police officer perceives a threat to their life, the Commissioner
will endorse their use of lethal force 226 .
A concern with training police officers to shoot to kill when they perceive their life is in
danger is that police officers are trained to perceive their life is in danger in situations

222

Interview with William MacDonald, Investigative Analyst on 7 October 2008.
Victoria Police Manual Instruction 101-1.
224
McCann & Others v The United Kingdom - 18984/91 [1995] ECHR 31 (27 September
1995) at paragraph 149. http://www.bailii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1995/31.html
225
For example note the death of Ian Tomlinson following a baton hit by police in the
2009 G20 protests in London in April. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/apr/07/videog20-police-assault
226
Communication with the author on 10 October 2008.
223

63

where an ordinary person would not have the same perception 227 . Often they will say
they feared their life was in danger at the time they shot the person to escape liability 228 .
In their evidence to the coronial inquest jury one of the police officers who shot Jean
Charles de Menezes in 2005 after believing him, on basis of flawed intelligence and
surveillance evidence, to be a suicide bomber, said that: “Everything I have ever trained
for, for threat assessment, seeing threats, perceiving threats and acting on threats proved
wrong, and I am responsible for the death of an innocent man. That's something I have to
live with for the rest of my life.” 229
The fact is that policing is a relatively safe profession. In the US National Census of Fatal
Occupational Injuries in 2000, police fatalities per 100,000 workers ranked at 12.1. This
is a country where citizens can carry guns. In countries with strict gun controls, the
statistics are likely to be lower. In the US, the fatality rate for police was lower that the
rates for Groundkeepers (14.9), those in the agricultural industry (20.9), truck drivers
(27.6), miners (30.0) and timber cutters (122.1). 230
The fear of lethal violence described by police oversteps the reality of the dangers they
face in their work.
The principles of the use of firearms by police is set out in the UN’s “Basic Principles on
the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement” which state that police may use
force “only when strictly necessary” and that when the use of firearms is unavoidable
they shall minimize “damage and injury” caused 231 .
Any police training or planning that over states the danger a member of the public poses
to police or others, trains police to kill where other options would be sufficient and
effective.
Another area of concern is where police justify their actions based on something the
complainant has done. For example, police will sometimes punch a person for turning
their head against a police order to stay still or when they speak when ordered to be

227

Police shoot Amadou Diallo in 1999, New York, saying they thought the wallet in his
hand was a gun.
228
David Robinson, Attorney who has acted for both police and plaintiffs in police
misconduct suits on 15 October 2008.
229
Oral summary of the officer’s evidence given by the Coroner on 4 December 2008,
UK. See page 58 http://www.stockwellinquest.org.uk/hearing_transcripts/dec_03.pdf
230
Kristian Williams, 2007, “Our Enemies in Blue, Police and Power in America” at p
20.
231
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_comp43.htm 5(b) Also see comments by
Berny Maubach reported in the New Zealand news on 28 January 2008 concerning the
shooting of New Zealand teenager Halatau Naitoko. http://tvnz.co.nz/nationalnews/expert-calls-police-shooting-overhaul-2455508
64

silent 232 . These punches are assaults. The use of force to compel compliance with orders
that are beyond that necessary to arrest a person or to punish some one for failing to
comply with an order is an abuse of authority 233 and unlawful.
David Robinson Attorney, Detroit US, 15 October 2008:
Police through their training misconstrue power for authority. My client Luis Hamilton
was told to leave a venue by a police officer. He had a disability and his rate of
movement was slower than the police officer liked. In sight of cameras, the police officer
assaulted him. The police office had the power to ask him to leave, but no power to ask
him to move faster. The police officer misconstrued his power. 234
Civilian agencies must apply the law and UN principles when they analyse allegations
against police rather than defer to common police practice and culture.
Recommendations
13. At the conclusion of the investigation, an investigation report explaining, in full and
thorough detail the reasons for the decision should be given to the complainant and
advocates involved. The reasons must contain an analysis of the law and human rights
principles applying to any force that used by police.

4.11 Role of Mediation/Settlement
If a complaint body permits mediation to occur where on the face of the allegation
disciplinary or criminal charges may arise, it will fail to detect and punish abuses.
Complaint investigations are not like civil proceedings, where outcomes are concern
compensation. If an investigation is terminated due to the complainant having accepted a
cash payment from police, as occurs in Manitoba, the States obligation to discipline and
punish wrong-doing cannot be fulfilled. In an example in 2007 in NSW, an investigation
into a false imprisonment and excessive use of force claim was stopped after the victim
took civil action:
“The documents released to news.com.au show that the internal investigation was brief,
with the investigators never bothering to identify the arresting officers. The investigators
then decided to close the case because they argued the civil action could be considered a
“satisfactory means of redress”.
But Stephen Blanks from the NSW Council for Civil Liberties said the investigator’s
action seem like a coverup. “It’s inappropriate for officers to decline to investigate a
232

Examples reported to the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre in 2007
and 2008.
233
Alsayed Allaham v Greece 2007, ECtHR 18 January 2007 para 8.
http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?action=html&documentId=8130
16&portal=hbkm&source=externalbydocnumber&table=F69A27FD8FB86142
BF01C1166DEA398649
234

Speech given to the National Police Accountability Project of the National Lawyers
Guild, 15 October 2008.
65

complaint simple because they have had the opportunity to (try to) buy confidentiality,”
he said. “The public has a legitimate interest in knowing the outcome of complaints and
that appropriate action has been taken.” 235

In some jurisdictions, complainants are forced to mediate before an investigation will
occur 236 .
The purpose of the investigation (to detect, investigate, punish and discipline abuse) is
subverted in these situations.

Kijani Obalaye Tafari, Ella Baker Centre for Human Rights: “Clients are very
frustrated about the process. They don’t want to mediate, they don’t want to be friends,
they want restitution or the officer fired. They are very dissatisfied. It’s a waste of time
for them.” 237

Washington DC Office of Police Complaints has adopted a sound policy concerning
these issues. If it receives a complaint that would not on its face lead to disciplinary or
criminal outcomes it will attempt resolution between the parties. For example, where
police have lawfully arrested a person and the complaint is that the arrest was unlawful,
and it is clear from the facts provided by the complainant that the arrest was lawful, then
mediation is appropriate. This allows the complainant and police office in a mediated
conversation to understand where the other is coming from 238 .
If a disciplinary or criminal breach appears on the face of the complaint, then it must be
investigated or the complaint system cannot be said to be capable of detecting and
punishing misconduct as is required under this standard.
A further issue arising from United Kingdom case law on purpose of investigations into
allegations of ill-treatment, degrading and inhuman treatment is that they should “go well
beyond the ascertainment of individual fault and reach questions of system, management
and institutional culture”. 239 This means that complaints raising allegations of illtreatment need hearings and on some occasions will require full public inquiries in order
to meet the State’s obligation to guarantee the right to freedom from torture, cruel,
inhuman and degrading treatment and punishment.

235

Activist Padriac 'Paddy' Gibson lands payout after APEC arrest | National News |
News.com.au 6/03/09 http://www.news.com.au/story/0,27574,25143875-421,00.html
236
Oakland complaint process for example.
237
Interview with Kijani Obalaye Tafari, Police Accountability Project, Ella Baker
Centre for Human Rights 28 September 2008.
238
See an example of this in Tim Prenzler 2009 Manuscript.
239
AM & Ors, R (on the application of) v Secretary of State for the Home Department &
Ors [2009] EWCA Civ 219 (17 March 2009) para 60. (the Harmondsworth case)
66

An example of a full public inquiry into an allegation of ill-treatment, cruel, inhumane
and degrading treatment was the public inquiry into the Canadian Governments role in
the torture, rendition and detention of Canadian Maher Arar. The Commission released
its report on 18 September 2006 240 .
Recommendations
15. Mediations should only be considered where on the face of the complaint, no facts
leading to discipline or criminal charges are evidenced. Both complainant and police
must agree to mediation in these situations.
16. Allegations of ill-treatment should be resolved in a public hearing. Where a pattern
or practice of abuse is alleged, a full public inquiry capable of not only establishing
individual fault, but inquiring into institutional cultures, underlying causes and systemic
failures is required.

4.12 Appeals
The UN Force and Firearms Principles set out the need for the family of a victim of a
shooting death to have access to administrative and judicial review of the
investigation 241 .
In England and Wales, investigation findings and decisions by the police can be reviewed
by the Independent Police Complaints Authority (the “IPCC”) 242 . In order for the
complainant to be involved and informed in the appeal, the IPCC can disclose, as a
matter of presumption, the full police investigation reports and invite the complainant to
comment and make further submissions before making a decision on whether to reinvestigate, otherwise amend or accept the police decisions 243 . The provision of
administrative review where the IPCC can seek further information/conduct further
investigations is an important feature of the IPCC. Probably of most importance to
complainants is the disclosure of investigation reports that is part of this process 244 .
Decisions of the IPCC are also judicially reviewable through the courts.
However, as the IPCC deals at first instance with deaths in custody, access to
administrative (that is merits review) of its decisions, as required under the UN principles
on the use of Fire Arms are not available under this scheme. This is because the IPCC is

240

http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/206/301/pco-bcp/commissions/maher_arar/07-0913/www.ararcommission.ca/eng/26.htm
241
See provision 22 and 23 http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_comp43.htm
242
http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/index/resources/evidence_reports/ipccguidelines_papers/ipcc_
resources_caseworkmanual.htm Go to Appeals
243
http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/makinginformation_available121108.pdf
244
Communication with Raju Bhatt in December 2008.
67

the final layer of administrative review 245 . Where the IPCC has conducted the
investigation, there ought to be an administrative review option to a further independent
body, such as a Court or Tribunal.
In Manitoba, a decision of the Law Enforcement Review Agency to find a complaint
unsubstantiated can be judicially reviewed. However the lack of merit review is a source
of considerable frustration for complainants under this scheme 246 .
Administrative (merit) review of investigative decisions is a critical feature of good
decision-making. For example there are three layers of administrative review available
for decisions in relation to social security payments in Australia. There is firstly internal
review to an Authorised Review Officer. Secondly there is merit review to the Social
Security Review Tribunal, thirdly, there is merit review to the Administrative Appeals
Tribunal. Merit review adds a layer of accountability and transparency for contentious
decision-making such as those involving police complaints decisions.
Judicial review should also be available. Restrictions to judicial review is a serious
concern in Victoria 247 . It is incompatible with provisions of the UN Firearms Principles
and at odds with underlying principles of justice. 248
Recommendations
17. The decision following investigation should be open to administrative review and
subsequent to this judicial review. The entire investigation evidence and reports should
be made available to the complainant or family members to assist them with their appeal.

4.15 Body that makes the decision about the complaint
Complaints should be decided judicially by an independent body in a public hearing
where both sides have the opportunity to cross-examine and call evidence. Examples of
such hearings are under the Law Enforcement Review Agency in Manitoba Canada and
the Office of Police Complaints in Washington DC, USA. Ideally this body would also
make disciplinary decisions and award compensation. This issue will be discussed
further in Chapters 5 and 6 and in Appendix 2.

4.14 Conclusion
245

See note 238.
Communication with Nahinni Fontaine, Director of Justice for the Southern Chiefs’
Organization, 22 October 2008.
247
See Section 109 of the Police Integrity Act 2008.
http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/pia2008193/s109.html
248
See for example the discussion in Plaintiff S157 at http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgibin/sinodisp/au/cases/cth/HCA/2003/2.html?&nocontext=1
246

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As we examined in Chapter 4, an adequate investigation of a police complaint, requires
independent investigation of a complaint by a body culturally, practically, politically and
institutionally independent of police. As we see in this chapter, it also needs to be
adequate and prompt. To ensure the adequacy of the investigation, it needs to:
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™
™

Be capable of leading to criminal and/or disciplinary outcomes.
Be prompt so that evidence is not lost.
Thoroughly collect all forensic, medical, video, eye-witness evidence.
Interview police separately and immediately and ensure police evidence is
uncontaminated and not the result of collusion.
Test police evidence critically, without assisting in the police defence, and using
effective questioning techniques;
Be separate from any investigation into an allegations of a criminal offence by the
complainant;
Apply the correct standard of proof;
Apply the correct legal tests to the evidence;
Not unduly pressure the complainant to mediate;
Be subject to merit and judicial review.

Many of these requirements are met by the Police Ombudsman of Northern Ireland. The
models that best test the police evidence are those that put the evidence under crossexamination –such as in Manitoba and Washington DC, though it is important that the
complainant is legally represented in this process.

4.14 Recommendations arising from this Chapter
1. Police suspects and witnesses must be separated and interviewed immediately for both
criminal and administrative purposes or no later than 24 hours after notification of the
details of a complaint. Refusal to participate in an administrative interview must be
grounds for dismissal.
2. Enforceable timelines for investigations are critical. Provision of documents by police
agencies must be prioritised and investigators should use warrants to collect documents
themselves where any delay occurs.
3. Civilian investigation should commence immediately and must thoroughly and
effectively collect and preserve the evidence at a scene of a police involved death, near
death or serious injury. The reporting by police of these incidents to the civilian body
must be mandated. Civilian investigation must commence as soon as they are notified of
complaints that reveal an allegation that could lead to criminal or disciplinary outcomes.
4. In cases where a person has died in custody, independent civilian investigators should
prepare the coroners report.
5. Civilian investigators must investigate as if a crime has been committed.

69

6. Properly trained doctors must be free and available to assess pain and injuries at all
police stations, prisons, detention centres as well as when complainants contact the
complaint body and when they contact solicitors/advocates. It must be clearly obvious to
people in custody that the doctors they are seeing are independent and not “working for
the police.”
7. CCTV should be placed in all police stations and cars and data from these should be
removed immediately along with all data recording systems (such as taser data, c/s
spray, weapons/bullet logs, use of force forms, weapons used, log books etc).
8. Civilian investigators should interview complainants with respect to their complaint
and not to collect evidence in relation to prior behaviour if that behaviour is under
investigation by police.
9. Civilian investigators must not provide evidence to assist the prosecution of
complainants, but, may provide evidence if the complainant consents on the advice of
their lawyer.
10. At the first interview, police are to be told of the allegations during the interview, but
not through prior written notice containing the detail of those allegations. The
complainant’s statement must not be given to police, unless disciplinary/civil/criminal
proceedings are to commence.
11. Civilian investigators must question police for the purpose of investigating the
complainant’s allegations, not to assist the defence of the officers.
12. The standard of proof applied to substantiate a complaint is that would the evidence
on one view of the facts support a finding of misconduct by the police officers.
13. Complaints should be determined on the balance of probabilities at a hearing.
14. At the conclusion of the investigation, an investigation report explaining, in full and
thorough detail the reasons for the decision should be given to the complainant and any
advocates involved. The reasons must contain an analysis of the law that applies to the
facts and any force that was used.
15. Mediations should only be considered where on the face of the complaint, no facts
leading to discipline or criminal charges are evidenced. Both complainant and police
must agree to mediation in these situations.
16. Allegations of ill-treatment should be resolved in a public hearing. Where a pattern
or practice of abuse is alleged, a full public inquiry capable of not only establishing
individual fault, but inquiring into institutional cultures, underlying causes and systemic
failures is required.

70

17. The decision following investigation should be open to administrative review and
subsequent to this judicial review. If the complainant is considering administrative or
judicial review, the entire investigation evidence and reports should be made available to
them to assist them with their appeal.

71

Chapter 5

Public Scrutiny
Introduction 5.1
The fourth human rights standard identified by the Rapporteur to the European
Commission on Human Rights is as follows:
“Public scrutiny: accountability is served by open and transparent procedures and
decision-making at every stage of the determination of a complaint against police;” 249
In Anguelova v Bulgaria this principle was put: “there must be a sufficient element of
public scrutiny of the investigation or its results to secure accountability in practice as
well as in theory, maintain public confidence in the authorities’ adherence to the rule of
law and prevent any appearance of collusion in or tolerance of unlawful acts. 250
This chapter examines three issues.
1. The public’s role and right to scrutinise data and information relating to police
complaints.
2. Transparency in individual decision-making.
3. A brief look at examples of public investigative/adjudicative inquiries.
The chapter concludes with recommendations.
Issues concerning the complainant’s right to investigation reports and the evidence
collected during the investigation of their allegations, also involve issues of transparency.
These will be addressed in Chapter 6.
While transparency is mandated by the human rights standards, access to information is
also implicit in the Australian Constitution’s establishment of Australia as a
democracy 251 . Transparency and public scrutiny of data and decision-making are not
merely best practice, but essential principles of representative democracy. Moreover, as
public inquires and investigative journalism has repeatedly shown, transparency and
public scrutiny are frequently only true form of accountability that exists against
government and police misconduct 252 .
249

https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=1417857&Site=CommDH&BackColorInternet=F
EC65B&BackColorIntranet=FEC65B&BackColorLogged=FFC679
250
ECHR 2002 at para 40.
251
See Open Government, a Review of the Federal Freedom of Information Act Report
by the Australian Law Reform Commission at paragraph 2.4
http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/alrc/publications/reports/77/2.html
252
For an excellent example see the Guardian’s coverage of the police involved death of
Ian Tomlinson as a result of the policing of protests to the G20 meeting in April 2009 in
72

5.2 Public Scrutiny of Complaint Data
In Winnipeg the local papers report the daily crime statistics. These statistics are derived
from non-investigated reports of crime rather than the figures of the number of charges or
even successful prosecutions of crime 253 . In addition, once a week there is a report by the
local police chief published by the paper. Through these reports, the public is kept well
informed of trends in crime. Winnipeg Mayor Sam Katz describes the reporting of these
details as “a sign of unprecedented transparency and openness” 254 .
In contrast to the reporting of crime, there is no equivalent reporting in the Winnipeg
Press of the number of complaints against police every day or the locations where these
incidents occur. Nor is there a weekly report in the papers from human rights defenders
or the Law Enforcement Review Authority into current themes arising in police
misconduct allegations 255 .
Dr Craig Futterman from the University of Chicago notes:
“When someone is arrested in the US, their identity is reported and what they are charged
with is known… You would think that where a public official, a police officer is charged,
or a complaint filed that there would be an even greater public interest in this
information.”

Futterman argues that when a public official is charged with the abuse of public trust,
there is no greater public interest than in knowing who it was, where it happened, and the
causes and patterns that are emerging in official misconduct more generally. He
describes as scandalous, the denial of this information to the public and that this data is
kept hidden from the scrutiny of the courts. He notes the power that police and
governments have over whom they choose to give information. For example, there is
considerable incentive for governments to give information to people who will write
favourably of them. In contrast, those who are prepared to write highly critical pieces
when the need arises, are starved of government and police sources. This is a
considerable problem for good independent, investigative journalists who operate in the
highly competitive media business 256 .
Futterman notes that one of the problems in holding police and officials accountable in
Chicago has been the failure of the press. They might report a one-off scandal, but not
ongoing persistent problems. When a new complaint system starts operating they stop
London. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/apr/11/police-surveillancemarina-hyde/print http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/apr/07/video-g20-police-assault
253
http://www.winnipeg.ca/crimestat/interpretation.stm
254
http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070202/crimestat_070202?s
_name=&no_ads=
255
The Law Enforcement Review Agency does however put complaint rates and cases
studies into their annual report.
256
Communication with the author on 6 October 2008.
73

reporting, appearing satisfied by claims that the problems have been solved. However it
is the period after these claims are made when intense public scrutiny is necessary to
ensure the agency is working as it should 257 .
The Guardian Newspaper’s regular investigative analysis of the UK’s Independent Police
Complaints Commission over 2007-2009 reveals the critical importance this form of
accountability. The intense public scrutiny its coverage permitted on the decisionmaking into who and how the investigation was conducted into Ian Tomlinson’s police
involved death during the G20 meeting in London in April 2009 has revealed some
critical flaws in the investigation processes and shone light on the issue of access to legal
aid for victims of police violence 258 .
In Chicago there have been numerous scandals around police misconduct. One of these
scandals involved the systematic torture of African-Americans to gain confessions to a
range of serious crimes in the 1980s. The torture included the use of an electric shockbox, metal prods, plastic bags, handcuffing and forcing people against electric heaters,
beatings and mock executions. Some 100 or more African Americans were jailed for
years as a result of confessing to crimes they never committed. Some are still in prison
now despite the extremely serious and documented pattern of torture by detectives. The
details of the torture and its systematic use has been established in numerous lawsuits and
appeals 259 .
While some of this particular scandal has been well reported by the press, the persistent
and on-going mistreatment of Chicago residents is not covered 260 .
Nicola Rollock, in a 2009 report by the Runnymede Trust in the UK concerning the
impact of Stephen Lawrence Inquiry on UK policing of black and ethnic minority
communities 10 years later said:
Public scrutiny should continue beyond the publication of an Inquiry report Government should be obliged to ensure greater coherence and transparency in the ways
in which recommendations emanating from Public Inquiries are implemented and
followed up. In addition, all evidence submitted to a Public Inquiry should be made
available to the public within a minimum period of time.

Daily or weekly reporting to the public of complaints against police would be a powerful
and regular indicator of police integrity. Coverage of their outcomes and
disciplinary/prosecutorial action taken and civil litigation results would also enhance the
public understanding of the extent of the issue and the State’s effectiveness in detecting,
deterring and punishing police misconduct.

257

Communication with Dr Craig Futterman on 6 October 2008.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/apr/11/g20-ian-tomlinson-death/print
259
http://www.peopleslawoffice.com/news/articles/13/ Also see John Conroy, 2000,
Unspeakable Acts, Ordinary People, p26.
260
Dr Criag Futterman conversation with the author on 6 November 2008.
258

74

The 1989 Queensland Fitzgerald Inquiry into government and police corruption and
misconduct stated:
It is obvious….that confidentiality….provides a ready means by which a Government can
withhold information which it is reluctant to disclose. A Government can deliberately
obscure the processes of public administration and hide or disguise its motives. If not
discovered there are no constraints on the exercise of political power. The rejection of
constraints is likely to add to the power of the Government and its leader, and perhaps
lead to an increased tendency to misuse power.
The risk that the institutional culture of public administration will degenerate will be
aggravated if, for any reason, including the misuse of power, a Government’s legislative
or executive activity ceases to be moderated by concern for public opinion and the
possibility of a period in Opposition….
The ultimate check on public maladministration is public opinion, which can only be
truly effective if there are structures and systems designed to ensure that it is properly
informed. A Government can use its control of Parliament and public administration to
manipulate, exploit and misinform the community, or to hide matters from it. Structures
and systems designed for the purpose of keeping the public informed must therefore be
allowed to operate as intended. Secrecy and propaganda are major impediments to
accountability, which is a prerequisite for the proper functioning of the political process.
Worse, they are the hallmarks of a diversion of power from the Parliament.
Information is the lynch-pin of the political process. Knowledge is, quite literally, power.
If the public is not informed, it cannot take part in the political process with any real
effect 261 .

Tracy Siska, the President of the Chicago Justice Project sees the need for the public,
government and police leadership to provided with “undeniable, unquestionable
information” about police decisions around the introduction of new weapons 262 , police
misconduct, crime and prosecutions and any attempts at concealment 263 .
The Project’s guiding principle: “is that access to information is the foundation for any
meaningful reform to the criminal justice system.” 264
The aim of the Chicago Justice Project is to provide unbiased, full information about all
aspects of policing and the criminal justice system. This is exactly the kind of
information that should be provided by government agencies. Claims by government
agencies that they are in fact providing full and unbiased information must be treated
with some cynicism. Due to the nature of government and its aim of retaining power, it is
non-government agencies and the public that instead must hold police and government
accountable. To do this, they require unfettered access to information.
261

Fitzgerald Inqury p126.
http://www.chicagojustice.org/blog/ 1 September 2008 – a report on the decision to
use M4 Assault weapons at a school in Chicago.
263
Interview with Tracy Siska on 5 November 2008, Chicago.
264
http://www.chicagojustice.org/
262

75

Futterman argues that, “the public has a deep interest in how police abuse complaints are
investigated and treated by public officials.” 265
After sustained litigation to obtain documents, he and his research team conducted an
analysis of investigations into complaints against the police. He and his research team
found:
“In more than 85% of the Chicago Police Department police abuse investigations
analyzed, the accused officer was never even interviewed. In many of the remaining 15%
of the investigations, the Department determined that the complaint was “not sustained”
without ever requesting any information from any of the officers on the scene.
In the instances in which the charged officer was contacted by an investigator, the contact
usually occurred months after the incident. The officer was then provided with the
specifics of the charges, including the name of the complainant and victims, and given,
on average, an additional seven to ten days to return a brief “To/From” report, generally
denying the allegations. In some cases, the charged officer took longer than a month to
respond to the charges. The months-long delay between the incident and required
response from the accused creates opportunities for collusion. It was not uncommon to
see a group of officers submit nearly verbatim responses, even mimicking the same
typographical errors. Following the receipt of these form denials, the complaints were
almost invariably “not sustained” by the Department. Canvasses were rarely conducted.
Investigators rarely even visited the scene of the incident. Physical evidence was not
preserved, much less tested. Recordings of “911” calls of police abuse were routinely
destroyed. Police and civilian witnesses were rarely interviewed in person. While
investigators frequently ran background checks on civilian complainants and witnesses
who corroborated police abuse, they did not consider the complaint histories of any
Chicago police officer involved in the investigation 266 .
This extraordinary account of inadequacies and bias in the investigation of complaints
was possible following full access to investigation information. While ever information
about investigations is with-held from public scrutiny, corrupt, inadequate and collusive
practices in the process can go unchecked.
Retired Victorian Policeman Paul Delianis told the Age’s Karen Kissane in an article
reported on 7 February 2009 that “The thing that has curtailed corruptions more than
anything else has been the media, I think. Reporting. Investigative journalists.” 267
The regular reporting of complaints made and, disciplinary and prosecutorial outcomes is
265

Interview with Dr Craig Futterman, Chicago University, 6 November 2008.
Craig Futterman, 2008, The Use of Statistical Evidence to Address Police Supervisory
and Disciplinary Practices: The Chicago Police Department’s Broken System, DePaul
Journal for Social Justice, Vol 1 Number 2 at page 18, 19.
267
http://www.theage.com.au/national/another-bloody-underbelly-200902067zz9.html?skin=text-only
266

76

one of the many critical ways needed to fulfill this function. There is every reason for
transparency of this accumulated data.
When information and data is released, it must be in full so that selective reporting of
information that artificially enhance the appearance of police and government compliance
with standards, human rights and inquiry recommendations does not occur.
When complaint investigation agencies are wary of their funding or sustainability and
when they need to maintain good relationships with police, police unions and police
command in order to get the information they need, they too will be reluctant to report
critical information about policing. When investigating agencies are the police, this issue
is of even greater concern. Some independent investigating bodies with particularly cosy
relationships with their policing partners report police misconduct only once it has been
disciplined and prosecuted. Given the rareness of these outcomes, systemic problems
such as the everyday abuse of human rights and poor investigative practice do not come
to light through these means.
1. Daily or weekly data on complaints against police should be reported in the daily
papers. Weekly or fortnightly analysis from the police complaint agency and
accountability experts and human rights bodies should be publicly reported describing
current trends in complaints. Disciplinary action, civil litigation and prosecutions
against police should all be regularly reported. Inquiry recommendations and their
implementation should also be fully reported.

5.3 Transparency in individual decision-making
According to complainants, advocates and many complaint body staff, transparent
decision-making is the most important aspect of an effective police complaint mechanism
and ensuring public support for it. It is also of critical importance in meeting human
rights standards.
Some complaint handling/investigation bodies are exempted from Freedom of
Information Act requirements 268 and are entitled to withhold all information. On the
other hand, others have units set up specifically to facilitate the provision of this
information 269 .
2. Investigation bodies should be subject to freedom of information requirements and
establish units to meet the public demand for requests of information.

268

See for example the Office of Police Integrity in Victoria, Australia.
http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/pia2008193/s51.html
269
See for example the Independent Police Complaints Commission for England and
Wales. http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/index/resources/foi.htm

77

3. Complaint data and outcomes as well as trends should be reported in full on the
investigation body websites and its annual reports.

5.4 Public investigations
Inquests and some investigations into police human rights abuses do occur in public
through a public inquiry. For example, in Washington DC, and in Manitoba, the
investigation of a complaint against police and its adjudication is routinely conducted
publicly 270 . There is power in other models for investigative hearings to be public too.
While many bodies rarely exercise these powers, when they do, these models, offer an
increased level of public scrutiny of investigations.
For example, in Washington DC, the Office of Police Complaints routinely refers public
complaints after an initial investigation to public adjudication. In these forums, both
police and complainants can, through legal representatives, cross examine witnesses and
make submissions. Decisions are published on their website.
4. Adjudication of complaints and disciplinary proceedings should occur in public.
Results of adjudications should be reported publicly via media and websites.

5.5 Public Disciplinary hearings
If a complaint investigation has been substantiated, there are two possible further
hearings necessary. The first hearing needed will be a disciplinary hearing. It should also
be public. The other kind of hearing that could occur is a criminal prosecution.
In Manitoba, both adjudicative and penalty hearings occur in public and decisions are
published on the Law Enforcement Review Agency website 271 . This is a significant step
forward in transparency and accountability.

5.6 Recommendations arising from this Chapter
1. Daily or weekly data on complaints against police should be reported in the daily
papers. Weekly or fortnightly analysis from the police complaint agency and
accountability experts and human rights bodies should be publicly reported describing
current trends in complaints. Disciplinary action, civil litigation and prosecutions
against police should all be regularly reported.
2. Investigation bodies should be subject to freedom of information requirements and
establish units to meet the public demand for requests of information.

270

http://policecomplaints.dc.gov/occr/frames.asp?doc=/occr/lib/occr/pdf/opc_fy07_annu
al_report.pdf
271
http://www.gov.mb.ca/justice/lera/index.html
78

3. Complaint data and outcomes as well as trends should be reported in full on the
investigation body websites and its annual reports.
4. Adjudication of complaints and disciplinary proceedings should occur in public.
Results of adjudications should be reported publicly via media and websites.

79

Chapter 6

Effective participation of the victim
6.1 Introduction
Effective participation of the victim is the 5th principle of effective investigation. The
European Rapporteur on Police Complaints, identifies it as follows:
“in order to safeguard his or her legitimate interests the victim is entitled to participate
in the process.” 272
Complainants perform a vital public service in filing complaints against police, without
which the State would be unable to fulfil its obligation to discipline and punish
perpetrators of human rights abuses. The transmission of information is critical at the
time a complaint is lodged and on an ongoing basis throughout its investigation. It is the
complainant who knows what happened and has critical background information and
insight. As a result they are well placed to assist and scrutinise investigations. An
effective investigation requires victim involvement, not just for the sake of victims’
rights, but because victims are critical in ensuring the investigation occurs and that it has
the capacity to get to the truth of what occurred and hold police, who abuse their power,
to account. The victim must be central to an investigation process.
This chapter will examine the role of the victim in the complaint process and in
particular:
1. Inhibitions on the filing of a complaint against police.
2. Concerns raised by legal practitioners about complaint investigation.
3. Protections for victims.
4. The provision of information to the victim.
5. The role of the victim in the investigation process and adjudicative hearings.
6. Withdrawal of complaints
This Chapter concludes with recommendations.

6.2 Inhibitions on filing complaints
The very first part of the complaint process is the filing of a complaint by a victim.

272

Graham Smith, (2008) “European Commissioner for Human Rights Police Complaints
Initiative” – 172 JPN 399, pp 1,2.
80

In Victoria, as in many places in the world, the State’s mechanisms for handling
complaints against the police do not inspire confidence in the community and people are
reluctant to complain.
The Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre’s experience is that complaints
to the police complaints authority are unsuccessful. Complainants and their families –
mainly African Australian refugees, continue to experience high levels of fear and
continue to report police misconduct to the centre. The legal centre has logged over 50
complaints, the majority involving allegations of police assault since October 2005.
However, its clients no longer want to make complaints.
These experiences reflect those making complaints in Indigenous communities in rural
parts of the State. A 2006-2008 report into Indigenous views of the complaint system by
the Indigenous Justice Unit of the Department of Justice notes:
“Many Indigenous people were of the view that making a complaint about police
behaviour was futile and, in some cases, counter-productive. Many within the
Indigenous Community are of the view that successfully pursuing a complaint against
police is especially difficult. The Koori community is largely disillusioned with the
system and significant work is needed to develop confidence, which can only be achieved
if the process is reformed and Koori-friendly interventions are built into the process. It
would be reasonable to expect low levels of complaints to continue until these changes
are made.”

Studies across in the United States indicate that only 1 in 10 people who feel violated by
police complain 273 . I suggest the proportion of people who complain is in fact well
below this number. Anecdotal evidence from solicitors and workers at the Moreland
Community Legal Centre, Fitzroy Legal Centre, Mental Health Legal Centre, Victorian
Aboriginal Legal Service and Youthlaw in Victoria indicate that despite the reports of
police caused injuries, assaults, false imprisonment, thefts and unlawful strip searches,
people who are willing to complain are a tiny fraction of the overall number. For
example, despite some serious injuries not one of the 20 complainants seen by the
Moreland Community Legal Centre in 2007- 2008 submitted a formal complaint. 274
The reasons people don’t make formal complaints are:
a) Lack of faith in the complaint system; 275
b) The fact that complaints will be investigated by police officers; 276

273

Oakland Police Survey, Pueblo, Tryon Woods, October 2006, Mathew J Hickman ,
Bureau of Justice statistics Special Report, US Department of Justice, NCJ 210296,
Complaints about Police Use of Force 1 (June 2006).
274
Communication with the author in February 2009.
275
2008 Report NY Lawyers for the Public Interest “No Place Like Home”.
276
Interview with a Complaint intake worker at the RCMP Office of Public Complaints
in Vancouver in October 2008.
81

b) Hostility by the complaint system, or a process that does not support or assist
complainants; 277 ,
c) Fear of physical retribution or increased harassment; 278
d) To reduce the risk that cover charges will be laid; 279
d) That communities have come to expect police mistreatment and do not trust the
system to uphold complaints that police are acting unlawfully 280 ; 281
e) Lack of faith in any institutional commitment to do something about the police
violence; 282
f) Lack of legal support; 283
g) The lack of independence between police and complaint system 284 ,
h) Visa status 285 ,
i) Marginalisation- (for example sex workers, drug users, illiteracy, language/cultural
barriers, youth, informants, muslims, indigenous people or complaints involves police
sexual abuse 286 );
j) the victim has been incarcerated; 287
k) the victim has been deported; 288
i) A preference to use civil proceedings due to significantly better outcomes; 289 .
j) inaccessibility; 290
k) time lag; 291

277

Interview with Professor Locke Bowman from Northwestern University Chicago
November 2008,
278
Interview with Tracy Siska, Chicago Justice Project 5 November 2008
279
Some clients of the FKCLC reported this reason not to formally complain.
280
Interview with Dr Craig Futterman Univesity of Chicago
281
Interview with Tracy Siska, Chicago Justice Project.
282
Interview with a client of the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre in
2007.
283
Interview with Investigator at the LERA Commission in Winnipeg, Manitoba,
October 2008.
284
Interview with a Complaint intake worker at the RCMP Office of Public Complaints
in Vancouver, but repeated throughout the US, Canada, UK and Victoria.
285
Javier Maldonaldo, Attorney, National Lawyers Guild, Police Accountability Project
talk given on 15 October 2008
286
Interview the Civil Rights Attorney Andrea Richie, New York
287
Michela Bowan and Juliene James of the Vera Institute speaking at the National
Association of Civilian Oversight of Law Enforcement Conference in Cincinatti, US 6
October 2008.
288
Medical Justice, UK, 10 December 2008 meeting in the House of Commons.
289
Mara Verheyden-Hillard, Attorney, Washington, 16 October 2008
290
Report on Complainant Non-cooperation with the Complaint Process, Northern
Ireland Police Ombudsman, October 2006 pp 5,6.
291
Ibid
82

Many of those who are assaulted by police become conditioned into silence through a
view that; “what’s complaining going to do anyway?”
Complainants provide a benefit to the community. When a person makes a formal
complaint, there exists a potential for detecting, investigating, disciplining and
prosecuting police engaged in misconduct and the reform of systemic failures in police
practices.
However, complaint systems expose complainants to considerable risks. Without proper
safeguards, they increase complainant’s risks to false charges, police harassment and can
prejudice civil action they may later be the position to take 292 .
As a complainant is likely to get a better result through taking civil action rather than
making a complaint 293 there is little incentive for a complainant to lodge a complaint.
In order to increase the public faith in the efficacy of complaining, it is essential that the
complaint system is not only functional but also protective of complainant interests rather
than their traditional focus on the rights of police.

6.3 Legal practitioner views on complaint systems
One way to increase the use of complaint systems is to address concerns raised by legal
practitioners. Many of these concerns are reflected in earlier chapters in this report.
Solicitors have fiduciary obligations to protect their clients. This means that if they
believe it is against their client’s best interest to make a complaint, they will advice
against using the process. Unless their concerns are addressed by complaint agencies,
formal complaints filed with an agency will represent a tiny fraction of the real problem.
Many legal practitioners advise clients against lodging complaints. For example, an
attorney I spoke to in Chicago, US said that advising a client to file a complaint was
tantamount to professional negligence.
In one Melbourne legal centre I visited, solicitors require their clients to sign a form
saying that they acknowledge the physical and legal risks they face in making a
complaint before they will file a complaint on their client’s behalf.
In Vancouver, Canada, legal centres are formally boycotting the complaint handling
system due to its poor outcomes for complainants and lack of independent
investigation 294 .

292

For example, complainants in New York are required to make a statement to police
and a separate statement to the civilian review board when they make a complaint.
Inconsistencies will hamper any civil action.
293
Mary Seneviratne, 2004 “Policing the Police in the United Kingdom, Policing &
Society Vol 14, No. 4 December 2004, at page 331
83

In London, solicitors have walked off the board of the Independent Police Complaint
Commission in dismay over its delays and bias 295 .
Recommendation
1. Views about the adequacy of the complaint body should be obtained from
complainants and solicitors and improvements made in line with suggestions.

6.3.1 What do complainant advocates specify is the problem?
Dr Locke Bowman of the Northwestern Law School MacArther Justice Centre in
Chicago identified three specific concerns:
1. Making a complaint to a complaint body exposes the plaintiff to making another
statement of their evidence.
2. When complaint bodies take a statement from a complainant the person taking the
statement is hostile and interested in undermining the complainant’s story.
3. There does not appear to be a lot to gain from the process, given the low substantiation
rates 296 .
A forth difficulty identified by a Washington DC Attorney in October 2008, was that the
statement given to the police complaint authority by the complainant is then immediately
provided to the police. This permits police to construct their responses with other police
officers before attending the complaint handling body to account.
A fifth issue is the risk of cover charges and further harassment and victimisation by
police and police investigators who assist police in the complainant’s prosecution. In a
case in the US, a complaint led to the person’s deportation before the matter was
finalised 297 .
A sixth concern raised by solicitors is that the return letter from the complaint body is retraumatising. As Dr Bowman says that you are not given adequate reasons, you are
locked out as if you don’t matter, when you should be central to the process.
Dr Bowman says, “there needs to be a way of respecting the needs of the investigation
while respecting the litigation tactics and concerns of complainants. It requires some
good will between both sides. I would like to find out a way of making it work.”
294

See the January 2009 Press Release put out the by the British Columbia Civil Liberties
Association.
295
http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2008/feb/25/police.law1
296
Interview in November 2008 with the author.
297
Javier Maldonaldo, Attorney, National Lawyers Guild, Police Accountability Project
talk given on 15 October 2008
84

The concerns raised by solicitors about complaint investigation processes are also raised
and by those who have made complaints without the assistance of a solicitor.
Unrepresented complainants report to community legal centres in Victoria hostile, rude,
inflexible and accusatory attitudes by investigators as well as pressure to drop the
complaint 298 .
The distrust between complaint bodies and victims and their solicitors is a world-wide
phenomena. In my opinion solicitor and complainant concerns are a strong and valid
indicator of failures that exist in the investigation process.
Police complaint bodies, if truly interested in detecting and investigating police
misconduct, have the same interest as complainant’s and their solicitors. There should be
a level of mutual respect between these players in the police accountability system.
This is unfortunately not the case. Instead, in some cases, the closest relationships seem
to be between the complaint bodies and the police. In Victoria, where the police and the
Office of Police Integrity conduct joint operations, the maintenance of this primary
relationship is central to their business.
A solicitor discussing the Ombudsman in Victoria, prior to the Ombudsman’s
appointment as Director of the Office of Police Integrity says:
“The Ombudsman is supposed to be considered to be independent of the police and one
of the problems is that [he] is so dependent on the Ethical Standards Department and the
Victoria Police Force that I think [he] has no lost touch with the other parts of the
community.” 299

In 2005, Graham Smith analysed police complaint and substantiation rate data in the UK
over a 40-year period 300 . During this time four statutory reforms to complaint handling
processes occurred. Each reform was precipitated in part by an inquiry or serious scandal
in policing but also a build up in dissatisfaction 301 . Noting the continued dissatisfaction
of complainants and solicitors despite these reforms, Smith concludes that:
“the search for effective complaints systems is severely damaged by under
representation of complainant’s interests in the reform process and by those
responsible for procedures.” 302
How might some of the concerns raised by legal practitioners and complainants be
addressed? Chapter 3 discussed the need for complaint bodies to be culturally
298

Discussions with victims by the author.
McCulloch & Palmer 2005 at p 96.
300
Graham Smith 2005, A Most Enduring Problem: Police Complaints Reform in
England and Wales, Jnl Soc. Pol. 35, 1, 121-141.
301
Ibid at 136.
302
Ibid at p 137.
299

85

independent and willing to act. In the next paragraphs I discuss some processes that are
needed to overcome complainant concerns and better involve complainants.
6.3.2 Provision of Statement by Complainants
When police conduct investigations of police, complainants are often very reluctant to
attend and give statements to police. In the UK, to overcome this problem police
investigators accept statements made by complainants through their solicitors 303 . On the
other hand, in Victoria and Chicago, complaints bodies (or police) regularly terminate
investigations when then complainant refuses to give evidence in person to them 304 .
While it is preferable that investigators take the statements in person to enable them to
reach conclusions about credibility, it is the police whose credibility must be examined
through investigation.
Complainant reluctance to speak may be reduced when the investigation is conducted by
civilians. In Northern Ireland, where the investigators have the support of the public,
there are clear protocols guiding at what stage in the process and how much of the
complainant evidence will be provided to the police regarding the complaint.
The focus on complainant criminality is one reason why complainants are reluctant to
give statements to police. Many complainant advocates have noted that police
investigations are like interrogations. They also say that through distortion, omission or
intimidation police often fail to document the evidence as told by their client 305 .
In Victoria, people already distrustful of police based on the experience about which they
are complaining, are loathe to go anywhere near an investigating police officer with an
account of their experience 306 . Many who do submit to the process walk away
traumatised by this experience in itself. A fully independent and complainant oriented
investigation body is less likely to suffer from these serious concerns.
Obviously if a matter goes to a disciplinary, criminal or civil trial all witnesses will be
required to submit evidence in person. Re-examination is built into these processes to
reduce the impact of distortion.
Recommendations
2. Complainants must be permitted to provide evidence through an advocate if they so
wish. Complaint bodies should concentrate on the allegations against police rather than
any prior criminality alleged against the victim.
303

See for example R (on the application of Deborah Clare) v IPCC and others [2005]
EWHC 1108 (Admin)
304
Interview with Locke Bowman, MacArthur Justice Centre, Chicago.
305
www.communitylaw.org.au/public_resource_details.php?resource_id=1218 - p 12
306
Communications with many clients of the Flemington & Kensington Community
Legal Centre
86

6.3.3 The need to outreach to complainants
A frequent concern raised by advocates and surveys of complainants is lack of
accessibility of investigating officers. Complainants are not always able to attend city
offices or arrange childcare. Office based investigation does not discharge the burden on
the state to adequately investigate. Similar issues surround complainants who are in
custody or incarcerated or those who are otherwise unable to travel to the complaint
bodies office. It is essential that complaint bodies ensure outreach exists to people in
custody. Capturing complaints from those who have been deported also requires
considerable thought. Some complaints in the US concern treatment of people at border
crossovers. Without outreach to these locations, accountability for allegations of human
rights abuses that occur in these locations will be non-existent.
People who are in vulnerable positions such as those who work in the sextrade or illegal drug industry or homeless people also face serious barriers in making
complaints 307 . Outreach to street setting and brothels are necessary to capture the issues
arising for people in vulnerable situations.
Language barriers and illiteracy are also critical barriers and need to be managed through
interpreters and oral communication of complaints to complaint bodies. On-line
complaint forms do not sufficiently manage this accessibility issue.
Recommendations:
3. Complaint bodies must provide outreach and support for people in vulnerable groups
such as sex workers, drug users, homeless people, women, young people, muslim, refugee
and migrant communities, prisoners and queer communities. (including multiligual
support).
4. Civilian investigators must attend prisons, police stations, holding cells, immigration
detention centres/ border areas and rural communities where police work and provide
contact numbers and record complaints in these facilities and regions. Civilian
investigators must be active in pursuing evidence and must be mobile.
5. Information must be available in multiple languages and by podcast/radio broadcasts
and talks must be given to communities who would not otherwise access this information.

6.4 Protection of Complainants
Where complainants are incarcerated or subject to serious targeting by police, means to
protect them, such has providing safe houses, new identities or changing the location of
their incarceration is essential 308 .
307

Communication with Andrea Richie, New York Attorney in November 2008.
87

People whose visa status is vulnerable will need assistance. Protections such as
confidentially and special visas that will enable a person to complain without risking
deportation is necessary. A person’s vulnerability to deportation leaves them exposed to
exploitation and abuse by police aware of their vulnerability 309 .
Finally the risks of cover charges and harassment require serious consideration. Where
the police charge a person after notification of a complaint, this should be treated with
great suspicion and investigated for misconduct in and of itself.
Article 13 of the United Nations Convention Against Torture requires that States:
“ensure that the complainant and witnesses are protected against ill-treatment or
intimidation as a consequence of his (sic) complaint or any evidence given.” 310
REDRESS, an organisation based in London notes:
“A person who complains about torture or ill-treatment may subsequently be
charged with an offence related to the alleged torture, for example having resisted
police officers, or any other offence, which may related to the initial arrest or a
separate incident. Bringing such charges will constitute a violation of the right to
complain about torture if the charge is unfounded and the state authorities take
such action in response to the complaint in order to deter the person from
pursuing the complaint further. The obstruction of an investigation intended by
such conduct will also constitute a violation of the state’s duty to investigate a
complaint promptly, impartially and effectively. The same reasoning applies to
unfounded charges being brought against any person in anticipation of any
complaint if it is clear that its purpose is to deter him or her from pursuing a
complaint.” 311

308

While this report does not focus on complaints against prison guards, prisoners who
complain about treatment are at serious risks while they remain in the custody of those
they complain about: communication with Donna Williams, Darebin Community Legal
Centre 2008.
309
Incite! Women of Color Against Violence, “Law Enforcement Violence Against
Women of Colour & Trans People of Police” p13 (available at www.wincitenational.org)
310
http://www.hrweb.org/legal/cat.html
311
REDRESS, February 2009, “Memorandum on the compatibility of the practice of
bringing fabricated charges with international human rights standards, national
jurisprudence and international standards on policing” in Recovering the Authority of
Public Institutions.
http://www.redress.org/documents/Sri%20Lanka%20report%20Feb09.pdf

88

People who filed complaints against police with human rights commissions are protected
by victimisation clauses. These clauses make it an offence to victimise someone who has
complained 312 . As well as other strategies, anti-victimisation clauses must be built into
police complaint legislation.
Recommendations
6. Complainants need to be protected once they have lodged a complaint through the
provision of special visas, removal from places where they are being harassed (including
in prisons) to safe places, legislation making it an offence to victimise a complainant and
other forms of protections provided to whistle blowers.
7. Charges laid after a complaint is made must be scrutinised for possible police
misconduct in and of themselves.

6.5 Provision of information to the complainant
Victim involvement requires that victims are given access to investigation information
and are regularly updated of the progress of the investigation so that they can make
suggestions and offer further information. Unfortunately, very few complaint bodies
comply in practise with these requirements.
Cameron Ward, Attorney, Vancouver Canada: “The shooting [of a young man killed
by the police] occurred on 13 October 2006, almost exactly two years ago. Neither the
family nor I have received a single piece of information from the coroner or the police
and I was retained even before the funeral and I have been asking since then. We don’t
have the autopsy reports we don’t have the police investigation reports, we don’t have a
scrap of paper and I have been writing regularly, asking for the material so I can prepare
for the inquest. Meanwhile the police lawyers I am sure, have access to the files.” 313
Commonweath Ombudsman’s Review of AFP complaint handling in 2008:
“At the first review, issues of concern were inconsistent practice in acknowledging
complaints; uninformative and, in some cases, abrupt outcome letters to complainants;
and a failure to provide information to complainants about the role of the Commonwealth
Ombudsman.” 314

312

See for example section 96 and 97 of the Equal Opportunity Act 1995
http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/eoa1995250/s97.html
313
Interview by the author with Cameron Ward, Attorney, British Columbia, Canada on
10 October 2008.
314
Report on Commonwealth Ombudsman’s Activities under Part V of the AFP Act at
page 8.
89

In New York, the Civilian Review Board says that it can’t release information to
complainants because the complaint and the details of the investigation form “part of the
police officers internal employment records.” 315
The issue of how documents are characterised is good example of the phenomena of
agency capture described by Tim Prenzler referred to in Chapter 3. In this case, police
interests have pressured the complaint body to override the public and particularly the
complainant’s interest in transparency.
Douglas King, Attorney, Pivot Law Society Vancouver, Canada October 2008 “[After
the police investigation]…you get a written report about a page or two. Its verbatim
from the officers, you don’t get the video or anything like this.
It’s re-victimising. A lot of the time you get, “this is what you did wrong.” The officer
responded because you were drunk, you did this wrong, you did that wrong. It’s all about
blaming the person. Its not written like a judge’s decision. I’ve looked at both sides etc,
its all blame. Its like someone giving a lecture about what that person did wrong.”
Victoria Police refuses to release information about the extent of the inquires undertaken
by police investigators into police misconduct or investigator’s opinions as to the veracity
of information supplied to them. They also refuse to release information as to the overall
scope and direction of individual investigations 316 .
They say that “members of police must be able to freely communicate their opinions and
thought processes so as to ensure that complaints are thoroughly investigated and
decision made regarding the direction of the investigation are subject to proper and
thorough deliberation….Disclosure would “impede the ability of police to engage in
robust and meaningful deliberation…” 317
In Ogur v Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights concluded that the State failed to
conduct an effective investigation into a death in custody. One of the reasons for its
conclusion was that “the [investigation] file was inaccessible to the victim’s closest
relatives, who had no means of learning what was in it.” In this case an additional flaw
was that a decision was made about cause of death without the victim’s family being able
to make submissions to the decision maker. Nor were the family served with a copy of
the final order. This meant they could not exercise their right to appeal 318 .

315

Communication with the CCRB press officer in November 2008.
See for example the reasons given by the Freedom of Information Unit in response to
a request for the complaint investigation report in Victoria, received by the FKCLC in
2008
317
See for example the reasons given by the Freedom of Information Unit in response to
a request for the complaint investigation report in Victoria, received by the FKCLC in
2008.
318
Ogur v Turkey ECHR (20 May 1999) paragraph 92.
316

90

Similarly in Khalitova v Russia ECtHR on 5 March 2009, the European Court of Human
Rights found that the failure to involve the wife of a man killed by Russian military
forces in the investigation and to provide her with access to investigation reports during
the course of the investigation was a key reason for the Court’s decision that Russia had
failed to conduct an adequate investigation into the death.
Withholding the true basis for which a decision is made from the complainant is a recipe
for inconsistent, poor quality and prejudicial decision-making where by irrelevant and
biased considerations can influence outcomes. This is especially concerning given the
large volume of complaints that are unsubstantiated. Secrecy invites concerns that there
has been collusion between investigators and police they are investigating. If
investigators have come to conclusions about credibility, the reasons for these
conclusions must be provided. So too should all information that has materially effected
their decision-making.
If the police officer has been exonerated, the complainant is more likely to accept the
result if they can see for themselves the evidence gained from the investigation and the
full reasons the decision was made. Transparency will have a profound effect in raising
trust in the investigation process and policing in general.
Other than protecting informant/complainant identity, there is very little ground for any
form of secrecy concerning specific complaints, particularly once all parties to the
process are aware of the investigation of the complaint and after witness statements have
been obtained from police involved.
The refusal by investigators to release information during an “on-going investigation”
appears very suspect when weeks, months or years have passed and an investigation is
not resolved. There is no reason either to protect specific facts (identities removed) from
public release. For example, Manitoba’s Law Enforcement Review Authority’s releases
complaint case studies in its Annual Report. The Office of Police Complaints in
Washington DC publishes the full findings of complaint adjudications on its website.
Recommendation 26, Chapter 47, 1999 Stephen Lawrence Inquiry states:
“That Senior Investigating Officers and Family Liaison Officers be made aware that good
practice and their positive duty shall be the satisfactory management of family liaison,
together with the provision to a victim’s family of all possible information about the
crime and its investigation.”

Covering up the investigation information further reduces the incentive for complainants
to use public accountability mechanisms.
As a result of complainants boycotting complaint systems due to the fact that complaint
material would be available to police and not complainants in subsequent civil
proceedings, in 1994 the House of Lords reversed its prior position that complaint
investigation results could be withheld on the basis of public interest immunity. As a

91

result investigation results are now available to plaintiffs in civil trials unless a specific
and unique reason exists to exclude the material. 319
In England, investigation reports are released to the complainants subject only to the
“harm test” 320 . The investigating body has responsibility to give the complainant a full
and frank explanation of how and why decisions are made. It is possible for the report to
incorporate all the relevant evidence considered during the investigation321 .
This has enabled complainants to have access to the entire body of evidence from the
investigation: the investigation reports and the underlying witness statements 322 .
These steps in the UK have been essential in permitting proper public access to
investigative mechanisms and exposing failures in complaint processes.

Recommendations
8. Complainants should be entitled to full and frank reasons for the decision on their
complaint as well as a full copy of the investigation report and the evidence on which the
decision was made. The release of this information should be subject only to the harm
test, which concerns protection of the identity of vulnerable witnesses. The harm test
should not concern the protection of the agency that makes the decision. Transparency
in decision-making is the hallmark of accountable decision-making. No generalised
Public Interest Immunity should be attached to complaint documents.

6.6 Release of complaint history of police officer
Dr Craig Futterman’s research into complaints against police in Chicago reveals that a
small number of police attract a large volume of complaints. And yet, he finds that a
“complaint against a repeater officer is no more likely to lead to meaningful discipline
than a complaint against the 80% of Chicago officer who do not accumulate
complaints.” 323
Where a police office accumulates complaints and no steps are taken by the state to
protect the public from further abuses, the State is complicit in promulgating a culture of
abuse and impunity. Complainants are entitled to know if the police against whom they
complain are “repeater beaters” and complaint bodies should be thoroughly aware of
319

R v Chief Constable of the West Midlands, ex p. Wiley [1994] UKHL 8 (14 July 1994)
Complaints against the police, Framework for a new system, December 2000, UK
Home Office report, p 7. Information that is withheld includes for example the identity
of vulnerable witnesses or confidential police informants.
321
Complaints against the police, Framework for a new system, December 2000, UK
Home Office report, p 7. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/comp-againstpol/complaints-against-police.pdf?view=Binary
322
Interview with Raju Bhatt on 2 December 2008
323
Futterman et al 2008 at page 22.
320

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police complaint histories when they adjudicate complaints. Previous complaints may be
admissible where they indicate a modus operandi, that is, unvarying or habitual method
or procedure 324 and have significant probative value 325 . Providing complaint histories is
also critical in assisting complainants to cross-examine police, prepare their case and
identifying possible witnesses.
Officers who display patterns of abuse complaints also provide key information about the
effectiveness or otherwise of a complaint investigation and disciplinary processes and
statistics of these patterns must also be made public.
A good example of these issues was reported on 20 March 2009 in the Guardian:
"The [Metropolitian Police] commissioner has today admitted that his officers subjected
Babar Ahmad to grave abuse tantamount to torture during his arrest," Ahmad's solicitor,
Fiona Murphy, said outside the court. During the hearing, it emerged that the Met had
lost "a number of large mail sacks" containing details of other similar allegations against
the officers who assaulted Ahmad. "The horrifying nature and volume of complaints
against these officers should have provoked an effective response from the Metropolitan
police and the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) long ago," she said.
"Instead, it has fallen to Babar Ahmad to bring these proceedings to achieve public
recognition of the wrong that was done to him." She said other crucial documents
relating to the case were also lost. They included all the officers' contemporaneous
notebooks and the taped recording of an interview with the senior officer in the case.
Murphy added: "The papers will be referred to the director of public prosecutions for
urgent consideration of criminal charges against the officers concerned and for an
investigation as to whether events surrounding the mislaid mail sacks constitute evidence
of a conspiracy to pervert the course of justice." During his arrest, Ahmad was punched,
kicked and throttled, the court heard. Officers stamped on the 34-year-old's feet and
repeatedly punched him in the head before he was forced into the Muslim prayer position
and they shouted: "Where is your God now? Pray to him." After a sustained attack, he
was forced into the back of a police van, where he was again beaten and punched before
being put in a "life threatening" neck hold and told: "You will remember this day for the
rest of your life." At one stage, one of the officers grabbed his testicles and he was also
deliberately wrenched by his handcuffs – a technique known to cause intense pain.
An IPCC investigation in 2007 ended with no action being taken against any officer.” 326

Recommendations:
9. The victim should have access to the complaint histories of police when preparing
their case against police officers.

6.7 Involvement of the Victim in the investigative process

324

For examples of similar fact evidence found admissible see Vaitos (1981) 4 ACR 238
and Harris v DPP [1952] AC 694.
325
Evidence Act 2008 (Victoria) s 97.
326
http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/mar/20/met-police-officers-accused-assaults
93

Provision of information is a critical part of fulfilling the obligation on the State to
involve the victim in the investigation. However, it alone is not sufficient.
The protection of complainant interests requires their thorough involvement in the
complaint process. It also requires that complaint bodies are “complainant oriented” 327 .
When the Police Ombudsman in Northern Ireland investigate complaints, they generally
collect more evidence than the police who may be investigating a related matter such as
the complainant’s criminality. They say they have much better access to witnesses than
police because their attitude and attire increase the public’s willingness to talk to them 328 .
As well as increasing the thoroughness of the investigation, the complainant centred
approach of PONI increases the victim’s willingness to be involved in the process.
10. Civilian investigators should treat complainants with the same care as all victims of
alleged crime should be treated. It must be understood that their experience could have
been highly traumatic and that it may be hard to discuss. Particular care must be taken
with interviewing young people, people from non-English speaking backgrounds, people
from religious, ethnic minorities, indigenous people, people with disabilities, transgendered people, sex workers. At all times advocates (like a lawyer) and support
persons (such as youth workers) should be permitted to be in attendance.
6.7.1 Participation in the Investigation
In order to participate in the investigation, the victim must also be given the opportunity
to respond to provisional findings and make recommendations for additional courses of
inquiry. The models that most enable victim participation in the process, will involve a
public hearings where the victim is permitted to cross-examine the police on their
evidence. (See for example in Manitoba Canada and Washington DC, USA).
11.

Complainants should be given full access to preliminary findings and evidence in
order to make submissions prior to the finalisation of a complaint.

12.

Complainants should be kept up to date throughout the period of the investigation
and be permitted make suggestions about additional lines of enquiry.

13.

There should be adjudicative hearings to determine complaints.

In each of these levels of participation, it is essential that the victim have access to
representation. Complaints of police misconduct are frequently made by those not well
placed to ensure their needs are met in the process or to realistically fund a solicitor.
Concerns with the Manitoba process, raised by the LERA staff is that the Agency does
not have a role in adjudicative hearings and that as complainants are rarely if ever
327
328

Interview with Graham Smith, Manchester University December 2008.
Conversations with staff on 28 November 2008
94

represented, the process does not adequately protect their interests. On the other hand,
police in these proceedings are represented by some of the most experienced counsel in
Winnipeg – paid for by their union 329 . These one-sided contests are stacked up against
the complainant. In many cases, complainants don’t show 330 . In contrast Washington
DC’s Office of Police Complaints provides lawyers to complainants for free. These
experiences reveal that it is essential that victims are provided with State funded lawyers.
Furthermore, to level the playing field, these lawyers should be paid at equivalent rates to
those paid by police unions.
6.7.2 Legal Aid
In Hugh Jordan v The United Kingdom, [2001] ECHR 327 the European Court of Human
Rights stated that “The inquest was flawed by the delays, limited scope of the enquiry, a
lack of legal aid for relatives, lack of access to documents and witness statement…” 331 .
In cases of deaths in custody, family members are entitled to “a sufficient measure of
participation in the investigation….and…an appropriate forum for securing the public
accountability of the State and its agents for the alleged actions and omissions leading to
the death…” 332 Furthermore, the effective participation of the family requires they be
provided with legal aid funding 333 .
Because the right to an effective investigation also extends to victims of torture, cruel,
inhuman and degrading treatment (ill-treatment), legal aid for victims in these cases is
also necessary.
14.

Complainants should be provided with a lawyer paid for by the State and at the
rates equivalent to that paid to lawyers acting for the police.

6.7.3 Cross-examination of evidence
Where an investigation results in two very different versions of the facts, proper
resolution of the complaint requires a public hearing where the complainant is
represented and can cross-examination the police evidence 334 . One of the reasons for the
higher success rate of civil litigation to complaint processes, is that the

329

Communication with LERA staff and Jeff Giddin in October 2008.
See LERA website for examples.
331
Paragraph 97.
332
Bubbins v The United Kingdom, [2005] ECHR 159 (17 March 2005), para 156
333
Bubbins v The United Kingdom, [2005] ECHR 159 (17 March 2005) para 121. Khan,
R (on the application of) v Secretary of State for Health [2003] EWCA Civ 1129 (10
October 2003) http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2003/1129.html
334
Manitoba, Canada and Washington DC USA use public hearings and allow crossexamination by the complainant.
330

95

plaintiff/complainant is a party to the proceedings and can cross-examine police
officers 335 .
In the UK there is uncertainty about whether a victim has the right to cross-examine
police in a public inquiry where no death has occurred 336 . There is currently no right of
cross-examination in the UK outside inquests. In contrast the victim has a right to crossexamine evidence in complaint adjudication in Washington DC and Manitoba Canada.
In Victoria where a public inquiry is held by the OPI, witnesses have a limited
opportunity to cross-examine other witnesses. This has in practice however, only been
used by police witnesses 337 . There is no emphasis on the role of the victim in OPI
proceedings.
In a UK decision concerning the involvement of victim in an inquiry who had been
seriously injured through an attempted suicide in custody, the Court found that the
victim’s representatives “must be entitled to see the written evidence, to be present during
evidence and to make appropriate submissions, including submissions as to what lines of
enquiry should be adopted, what questions asked and indeed who would should be
permitted to ask witnesses questions about what.” 338
The critical reason that victims must have a high level of involvement in the process is
that their complaint is about the break down of the State’s adherence to the rule of law.
The allegation is that the state’s agents may have committed a violation of their rights. In
order to overcome their fears that collusion with this violation has occurred at all levels
of the state’s investigation process, their standing, ability to cross-examine and make
submissions is essential to ensure the protection of their interests in the investigation and
inquiry.
The concern of collusion at all levels of the State’s law enforcement and investigation
processes in human rights violations is a very real one. The role of the Bush and Major
administrations in authorising torture at Guantanamo, Bagram, Abu Grahib and beyond is
being established by investigative journalists, 339 through Freedom of Information
requests 340 and judicial inquiries. The role of the Courts and prosecutors in leading and
accepting evidence obtained under torture in Chicago during the 1980s has been well
335

Civil litigation is frequently successful after a complaint has been found
unsubstantiated by a complaint body. Graham Smith 2003 “Actions for Damages Against
the Police and the Attitudes of Claimants” Policing and Society 2003, Vol 13, No. 4 pp
413-422
336

JL, R (On The Application of) v Secretary of State For Justice [2008] UKHL 68 (26
November 2008)

337

Conversation with Victoria’s Special Investigations Monitor in February 2009.
D, R( on the application of) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2006]
EWCA Civ 143 (28 February 2006) at paragraph 42.
339
Williams Kristian, 2006 “American Methods, Torture and the Logic of Domination”
South End Press.
340
http://www.aclu.org/safefree/torture/torturefoia.html
338

96

documented 341 . The police immunity from discipline and prosecution in Northern
Ireland during “the Troubles” is a further example 342 .
Genuinely ensuring the complainant can protect their interests during an investigation
requires state funded legal aid and full standing in all investigative processes and
proceedings 343 .
15.

The complainant should have full standing in all complaint processes and should
be able to call witnesses, require that witnesses be called, cross-examine witness
and make submissions.

6.8 Proceeding with complaints that have been withdrawn
It is the case that some complainants do not wish their complaints to be investigated. In
these cases, the state cannot force the complainant to proceed. The person who makes
the decision about how the complaint should proceed should be the complainant. Care
must be taken that a complaint has not been withdrawn as a result of intimidation or
because they have not been provided with legal representation. The process must
empower the complainants to make choices about what they want to happen, not force
them to withdraw or mediate.
Some complainants do not want a complaint investigated, but wish the allegation to be
drawn to the attention of police management. If this is what the complainant wishes then
this is an appropriate option for the processing of the complaint 344 .
Similarly, if the complainant seeks compensation, the State must ensure legal assistance
is available to them to pursue this course of action.
16.

Complainants should be able to choose not to have their complaint investigated.
However this decision should not be because they have not been adequately
resourced or have been intimidated.

6.9 Recommendations
1.

Views about the adequacy of the complaint body should be obtained from
complainants and solicitors and improvements made in line with suggestions.

341

Peoples Law Office et al, 2007, “A report on the failure of special prosecutors
Edward Egan and Robert Boyle to fairly investigate police torture in Chicago” (available
at www.peopleslawoffice.com)
342
Rolston, Bill 2000 “Unfinished business, state killings and the quest for truth” for
example see p102, 312
343
Interviews with Pivot Law Society, Cameron Ward and BCCLA in Vancouver.
344
Conversations with Graham Smith, Manchester University in December 2008.
97

2.

Complainants must be permitted to provide evidence through an advocate if they
so wish. Complaint bodies should concentrate on the allegations against police
rather than any prior criminality alleged against the victim.

3.

Complaint bodies must provide outreach and support for people in vulnerable
groups such as sex workers, drug users, homeless people, women, young people,
muslim, refugee and migrant communities, prisoners and queer communities
(including multilingual support).

4.

Civilian investigators must attend prisons, police stations, holding cells,
immigration detention centres/ border areas and rural communities where police
work and provide contact numbers and record complaints in these facilities and
regions. Civilian investigators must be active in pursuing evidence and must be
mobile.

5.

Information must be available in multiple languages and by podcast/radio
broadcasts and talks must be given to communities who would not otherwise
access this information.

6.

Complainants need to be protected once they have lodged a complaint through
the provision of special visas, removal from places where they are being harassed
(including in prisons) to safe places, legislation making it an offence to victimise
a complainant and other forms of protections provided to whistle blowers.

7.

Charges laid after a complaint is made must be scrutinised for possible police
misconduct in and of themselves.

8.

Complainants should be entitled to full and frank reasons for the decision on their
complaint as well as a full copy of the investigation report and the evidence on
which the decision was made. The release of this information should be subject
only to the harm test, which concerns protection of the identity of vulnerable
witnesses. The harm test should not concern the protection of the agency that
makes the decision. Transparency in decision-making is the hallmark of
accountable decision-making. No generalised Public Interest Immunity should be
attached to complaint documents.

9.

The victim should have access to the complaint histories of police when preparing
their case against police officers.

10.

Civilian investigators should treat complainants with the same care as all victims
of alleged crime should be treated. It must be understood that their experience
could have been highly traumatic and that it may be hard to discuss. Particular
care must be taken with interviewing young people, people from non-English
speaking backgrounds, people from religious, ethnic minorities, indigenous
people, people with disabilities, trans-gendered people, sex workers. At all times

98

advocates (like a lawyer) and support persons (such as youth workers) should be
permitted to be in attendance.
11.

Complainants should be given full access to preliminary findings and evidence in
order to make submissions prior to the finalisation of a complaint.

12.

Complainants should be kept up to date throughout the period of the investigation
and be permitted make suggestions about additional lines of enquiry.

13.

There should be adjudicative hearings to determine complaints.

14.

Complainants should be provided with a lawyer paid for by the State and at the
rates equivalent to that paid to lawyers acting for the police.

15.

The complainant should have full standing in all complaint processes and should
be able to call witnesses, require that witnesses be called, cross-examine witness
and make submissions.

16.

Complainants should be able to choose not to have their complaint investigated.
However this decision should not be because they have not been adequate
resourced or have been intimidated.

99

Chapter 7

Complaints Against Police in Victoria
This is a lengthy chapter and has been divided into two parts. Part A examines the
corruption focus of the Office of Police Integrity (“the OPI”) and whether it is in
compliance with the OPI’s legislatively imposed objective to ensure Victoria Police
complies with human rights. Part B provides a case study of recent complaints in
Flemington.

PART A – Corruption and human rights
7.1 Introduction
Victoria’s independent police watchdog, the Office of Police Integrity has a primary
focus on corruption. Corruption is generally defined by activities such as police
accepting bribes, covering-up for each other, lying on legal documents, stealing and
dealing in drugs. The shutter scandal – which involved police accepting money from
companies in exchange for calling them to crime scenes to secure damaged property is a
example of wide-spread corruption that effected 10% of Victoria police members 345 .
While the OPI definition of corruption is broad 346 , most examples of what is generally
seen as corruption do not involve human rights abuses. Human rights abuses include
deaths and life-threatening injuries in police custody, torture and ill-treatment, racial and
other forms of discrimination and abuse. The humiliating and degrading strip-search of
463 people in front of each other at the Tasty Night Club in 1994 is a well known
example of a human rights abuse in Victoria 347 .
A focus on a narrow definition of corruption ignores these abuses.
The investigation of human rights abuses must be a core concern to a police complaint
body. This focus is necessitated through the Victorian Charter of Human Rights 2006,
the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights and the United Nations
Convention Against Torture. Ensuring the Victoria Police comply with human rights is
also a key object of the Director of Police Integrity under the Police Integrity Act 2008.

345

Operation Bart – 1998 Victorian Ombudsman Report
http://www.ombudsman.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Operation_Bart__allegations_against_Police_relating_to_the_shutter_allocation_system_-_final.pdf
346
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/OPI_Fact_Sheet__Misconduct_and_Corruption.pdf
347
Jude McCulloch 2001, “Blue Army, Paramilitary Policing in Australia” Melbourne
University Press, at p 88.
100

Section 8(1)(d) of the Police Integrity Act 2008 reads as follows:
8. Objects, functions and powers of Director
(1) The objects of the Director are(a) to ensure that the highest ethical and professional standards are
maintained in Victoria Police; and
(b) to ensure that police corruption and serious misconduct are detected,
investigated and prevented; and
(c) to educate Victoria Police and the general community regarding police
corruption and serious misconduct, including the effect of police
corruption and serious misconduct; and
(d) to ensure that members of Victoria Police have regard to the human
rights set out in the Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities.

Under the current model, the Director’s object of ensuring Victoria Police have regard to
human rights, receives lip-service rather than any on-going investigative commitment 348 .
For example 3% of complaints made by the public are investigated by the OPI 349 .
The pattern of ignoring human rights abuses while concentrating on a narrow definition
of corruption is evident across police integrity commissions in Australia 350 . Investigation
of human rights abuses are routinely dismissed and deprioritised. The institutional denial
of violence forms part of an “authoritarian consensus” across accountability structures
and police agencies 351 . Violence against those defined as criminal or deviant is
trivialised, while procedural irregularities gain attention.
Case Study from the Koori Complaints Final Report 2006-2008 352
In June 2003, two complaints were made arising from the same incident: one alleged
assault by police to obtain a confession by “bashing” between interview tapes and a
separate allegation of releasing confidential information (criminal history) made by a
348

The OPI’s Investigation into torture conducted by the Armed Offenders Squad is one
of a small handful of exceptions to this general rule. This investigation was carried out
thoroughly and effectively. Similar areas where torture allegations are made have not
been met with the same investigative commitment, nor are individual complaints
investigated to this standard.
349
This is the figure from OPI 2008 Annual Report at page 46
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/OPI_Annual_Report_2008.pdf
350
The NSW Ombudsman refers complaints of serious misconduct to the NSW Police to
investigate. The Qld CMC refers the majority of complaints to the Qld Police to deal
with. The Commonwealth Ombudsman refers all complaints to the AFP.
351
Penny Green and Tony Ward, “State Crime, Governments, Violence and Corruption”
p80.
352
Indigenous Justice Unit, p 35.
101

family member. The assault was classified as a management issue, not an offence,
referred to the local police to resolve, not investigate. However the release of
confidential information was considered serious misconduct and allocated to an ESD
investigation who undertook an exhaustive investigation.
The OPI, like the Police Ombudsman of Northern Ireland (“PONI”) receives funding that
is equivalent to about 1% of the Police annual budget 353 . PONI dedicates the
overwhelming majority of its staff to the investigation of public human rights complaints.
In contrast about 5% of the OPI staff are dedicated to public complaints. Public
complaint investigation is the core-function of PONI. The OPI’s focus drastically deprioritises investigations of public complaints. This failure leaves the Victoria public
without effective protection of their human rights.
While attention to corruption is important, a civilian complaint agency, must place the
investigation of human rights abuses at the top of its agenda to comply with Australia’s
international obligations and the Charter.
Two solutions will be considered here. The OPI will investigate complaints if it is in the
public interest for it to do so. One solution is for the OPI to define “public interest”
investigations as those involving human rights abuses. It currently only defines
corruption as “public interest.” This shift in interpretation is supported by the objects of
the Director and the Charter.
Alternatively the Victorian Government could fund a new independent civilian agency
that can focus on the investigation of complaints relating to human rights abuses.
There are some good reasons for preferring this second option. The OPI and Victoria
Police conduct joint operations 354 , the OPI has the capacity to use seconded police355 and
it uses of former Victoria Police members 356 . Furthermore, reports on the 3 March 2009
in the Age indicate that a close “three amigos” relationship exists between the OPI deputy
director, the Chief Commissioner and the head of the Ethical Standards Department 357 .
These factors expose the OPI to regulatory capture 358 .
William MacDonald an investigative analyst from the Office of the Police Complaint
Commissioner in Vancouver, notes the need for complaint bodies to be independent not
only from police association links, but also the chain of command in order to retain true
353

Figures taken from the Victoria Police Annual Report 2007-2008 and OPI Annual
Report 2008.
354
See for example http://news.ninemsn.com.au/national/796439/uranium-drugs-seizedin-victorian-raids
355
See s19 of the Police Integrity Act 2008.
http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/pia2008193/s19.html
356
Many of its staff are former Victoria Police members.
357
http://www.theage.com.au/national/simon-says-20090302-8mfs.html?page=-1
358
See Chapter 3 for an analysis of regulatory capture.
102

impartiality in their oversight functions 359 .
One of the criticisms made by the Police Association in Victoria is that the OPI
investigates on behalf of the chain of command 360 . It is certainly true is there is little
transparency about exactly how and when the OPI will use its "public interest"
investigation powers.
In light of these pressures, I recommend the establishment of an Independent
Investigation Commission into Complaints Against the Police (and perhaps authorised
transport officers, prisons, private security guards and detention centres) to focus on
human rights investigations and comply with human rights standards from inception.

7.2 The Current Complaint Scheme
In Victoria, complaints against police can be made to the Police Conduct Unit within the
Ethical Standards Department (“ESD”), to Police Stations or to the Office of Police
Integrity (“OPI”). The ESD is an internal police department. Within the overall hierarchy
of command, it sits under an Assistant Commissioner who reports to the Chief
Commissioner for Police. The OPI is a separate statutory body that reports directly to
Parliament.
If a complaint is made to the OPI, there are three possible outcomes built into the
legislative framework. If the OPI decides that the complaint is frivolous and does not
warrant investigation or if it is made 12 months after the incident and the OPI decides
there is no valid reason for the delay, the OPI can dismiss the complaint 361 .
If the complaint is against the Chief Commissioner or an assistant commissioner the OPI
must investigate. If the complaint concerns practises and procedures that need revision or
the OPI decide it is in the “public interest” for it to investigate it can also investigate.
All other complaints must be forwarded to the Victoria Police for investigation.
When the Victoria Police receive a complaint from the OPI, the ESD will classify it and
either investigate it, or send it to the regional offices for resolution or in some cases
359

Communication with the author in October 2008.
http://www.theage.com.au/national/nixon-duped-by-corrupt-exofficer-says-opi20080626-2xi0.html?page=-1 http://www.theage.com.au/national/new-rules-aim-toweed-out-crooked-police-20080604-2lvz.html?page=-1 “Sen-Sgt Mullett also read out a
motion noting that the association had complained to the OPI about allegations Mr
Overland leaked confidential material. That motion claimed the OPI had shown an
appalling double standard by not using its coercive powers to seek answers on that issue.”
http://www.melbournecrime.bizhosting.com/ashby.lalor.linnell.htm
360

361

http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/pia2008193/s40.html

103

investigation. Matters that involve corruption or serious misconduct, if they are correctly
classified 362 , are investigated by ESD.
Between 80-90% of complaints are managed through investigation or alternative dispute
resolution by police in regional offices 363 . The remaining 10% of complaints involving
“serious misconduct” or corruption are investigated by the Ethical Standards Department.
Overall 30-40% of all complaints will be investigated. 364
The OPI will review complaints in the serious misconduct and corruption bracket, and
will provide occasional audits of the remaining 80-90% of complaints 365 . The OPI does
not provide information to or invite comment from the complainant prior to completing a
review. 366

The Focus of the OPI is corruption 367
On 24 September 2008 the lawyers and advocates from legal centres and other agencies
met with staff from the Office of Police Integrity.
During this meeting, the OPI made it clear that its intention was not to investigate or even
regularly review public complaints. While they encourage the public to forward
complaints to the OPI for their own information, they forward these complaints on to
Victoria Police.
An OPI staff member set out their position. They have three complaint handlers and four
complaint reviewers. There are 130 people who work at the OPI.
She stated as follows:
"Our role is an anti-corruption agency. The Ombudsman’s role may have been taking
complaints from the public, but the OPI role is quite different. We have to focus on our
anti-corruption agenda. We are now an anti-corruption unit 368 . We did 1000 reviews of
362

The Koori Complaints Report notes that a large number of complaints are incorrectly
classified to a lower level of seriousness.
363
Improving Victorian Policing Services through effective complaint handling – OPI
2008, p 11. Communication with the OPI on 24 September 2008.
364
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/OPI_Annual_Report_2008.pdf p31.
365
Koori Complaints Report p 12.
366
Koori Complaints Report p 12.
367
The information in this text box was recorded in notes I took during the meeting and
wrote up straight afterwards. The words used convey the effect of the words used at the
meeting as recorded in my notes and recollected a few hours after the meeting.
368
Also see the OPI 2008 Annual Report p 5.
104

complaints in 2007. We can't do this on an individual one on one basis anymore. We
can only do audits of the system. We can't do reviews when members of the public are
annoyed. Complaints need to be a core priority of the police. We are working on making
supervisors accountable for the troops on the street. We are handing it back to them. We
are concerned with leadership practice. We are into cultural change. There needs to be
local ownership of complaints. We are not a complaint investigation body. The police
are. The new complaint model sends complaints out to the regions.”
During the meeting Frank Guivarra from the Victorian Aboriginal Legal Service noted
that Aboriginal community has no faith in police investigating police.
The OPI staff said, “Assaults that are criminal will come back to us for review."
They noted that blaming OPI or ESD for failures in investigation is a waste of time: “We
are not doing investigations. We deal with public interest matters and problems with
practice and procedure. This means corruption. We won't investigate conduct. We have a
problem that people are not coming forward to us.”
Simone Elias, a solicitor from the Aboriginal Family Violence Prevention Legal Service
asked “What about people who get victimised when they complain to police?”
OPI staff said "We can only protect complainants to a minimal extent.”
A staff member said, “I accept the system does not work on an individual level.
However this is not our problem. We need to look at the big picture.”
“We are very keen on the Management intervention model. (MIM) We have found
through polling of the public that we are increasing the public's faith in the integrity of
the police. Changing public perception is our purpose. Our model comes from the
model used by the Australian Federal Police and every other jurisdiction in Australia.”
Q: What evidence was that the management intervention model had reduced the level of
assaults on the public?
A: It has reduced the number of complaints being made.
Q: Do you have any other way of gauging the success of their model?
A: We conducted an independent telephone poll of the broader public 369 . But that
complaint reduction is the test of the system.
369

In the OPI’s 2008 report on complaint handling, the OPI conducted a review of
complainants and police members who had their complaints managed through the
Management Intervention Model. The review indicates that 72% of complainants who
responded to the questionnaire found the process unsatisfactory with 50% saying it was a
“waste of time”.
105

Q: Has the new model had increased the substantiation rates of complaints.
A: We don’t know.
They said they used to explain the detail of the investigation in their letters. They now
see this as the role of Victoria Police so are no longer providing information to
complainants about the investigation. I said that when we ask VicPol for information
about the investigation, they tell us to obtain the investigation information through a
Freedom of Information Request.
They agreed this was problematic, as an FOI request would not produce the investigation
results.
They said the new investigation model places the responsibility on line managers.
They said they would hold line managers to account for failings. I asked a staff member
how the OPI would do this. She said through auditing the timeliness of investigations. I
asked about the quality of investigations. She said timeliness is their gauge.
We asked why the Flemington complaints [A group of complaints that raised systemic
concerns about racist epithets and physical assaults by police against a refugee
community in the Flemington region] weren't seen as public interest. They said that they
had three staff complaints [internal police complaints] that they were dealing with, and
that this had priority.
In summary, they said they were wiping their hands of the complaint handling issues.

The communication of the OPI staff to Community Lawyers and others is worth a close
examination in light of the issues raised in earlier chapters of this report. I identify 9
issues worthy of discussion:

7.3 Critique of OPI position
7.3.1 Number of staff dedicated to complaints
Complaints are a key source of information about the integrity of a police agency.
However they can be counter productive to individuals who complain. Unless barriers to
complaining are removed, complaints will reduce further. Failure to independently
investigate police complaints is a key barrier for people in deciding to complain. The
OPI has dedicated 7 of its 130 staff that is 5.4% to this critical area of public concern.
106

7.3.2 Failure to investigate complaints
This means there is no independent investigation of human rights abuses in Victoria. As
a result Victoria fails to comply with human rights requirements 370 .
7.3.3 Audits and classification of complaints
Audits of timeliness alone fails to address issues such as attitudes to complainants,
adequacy, independence, capacity to detect and punish human rights abuses, collusion
and failure to apply to the law.
In the Flemington complaints, by African and Afghani communities in the Flemington
area, the overwhelming majority of complaints involved allegations of criminal assault.
Injuries sustained as a result of these allegations included broken teeth, cuts, bruising,
scaring, ongoing and permanent back pain, arm pains, black eyes, severe headaches and
eye injuries. All of these were investigated by regional police officers. If criminal
matters are to be investigated by ESD and not by police in the region, these cases have
been inappropriately handled by the OPI’s current standards. 371
The Koori Complaint Report 2006-2008, an investigation by the Indigenous Issues Unit
of the Department of Justice found that almost 40% of Koori complaints over a 15 year
period related to assaults. Injuries arising from these assaults included “permanent brain
damage, broken cheekbones, severe facial injuries, cuts, dislocations, abrasions and soft
tissue injuries including eye injuries.” 372 Assaults are a criminal offence. If complaints
involving assaults are being dealt with through alternative dispute resolution in the
regions, then criminal offences by police officers are not being investigated. The current
process de-criminalises criminal behaviour by police.
The Koori Complaint Report notes that assaults are frequently wrongly characterized as
minor misconduct. “Serious misconduct” is an offence punishable by imprisonment.
Offences punishable by imprisonment are also disciplinary offences where police are
liable to be dismissed. As a result assault complaints should all be investigated by ESD
under the current complaint classification process. The report notes that since 2004, no
assault complaints by Koori people had been classified correctly. 373 Indeed, it is notable
that many of the assaults identified in the report constitute torture 374 .
7.3.4. Use public telephone polling to gauge success
370

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/hrcs95.htm Para 21 of the concluding
observations on Australia, Human Rights Committee 3 April 2009.
371
A Similar conclusion was drawn in the Koori Complaints Report at page 22 where
they found that 50% of complaints about assault were being handled by line managers.
372
Koori Complaints Report p 18.
373
Page 34.
374
Page 35.
107

Random phone polls and complaint reduction are not good gauges of the effectiveness of
complaint processes. Firstly, the average Victorian is not aware of the extent of the
problem of human rights abuses by police and is not a good gauge as to whether MIM is
working.
In questioning a similar survey by the Independent Police Complaints Commission (“the
IPCC”) in the UK, Mr Mitchell of the House of Common’s public accounts committee
put to an IPCC representative:
Mr Mitchell: You have done two surveys of the general public and they seem to be slightly daft
because you have asked people who have not necessarily got any knowledge of what you are about
whether they approve of it. That is rather like the famous American survey in the 1950s which got 56%
of the population to say that they approved of the Metallic Minerals Act when there was no such Act! It
is a daft survey, is it not, to ask people who do not know anything about it what they think of it? 375

Secondly, complaint reduction can indicate a problem has been solved, but is more likely
to indicate that people have stopped complaining. Complainants in both indigenous
communities and newly arrived, migrant, working class 376 and other vulnerable
communities have openly expressed their distrust of police investigating their
complaints 377 . This is why they are not making complaints to the OPI. To use reduction
in complaints to indicate the success of the complaint system or to claim a reduction in
levels of police abuse is a highly unsatisfactory guide to success. Increased
substantiation rates may be a better guide as well as surveys of solicitors, advocacy
groups and complainants.
7.3.5. Failure on an individual level
An acceptance that the process does not work on an individual level, is an acceptance that
impunity exists for police engaged in human rights abuses. The concluding observations
of the UN’s Committee Against Torture 2008 instructed Australia to ensure human rights
abuses are investigated, detected and punished 378 . The process must work on an
individual level. Resources must be put into video and telephone recording of police.
Individual complaints must be investigated with human rights standards in mind and by
an independent body. The Victorian Government must immediately resource the
investigations of human rights abuses to make the process work on an individual level.
On 26 February 2009, the Director of the OPI noted that is too expensive to prosecute
375

House of Commons Public Accounts Committee IPCC Inquiry Report 9 March 2009
p 24.
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200809/cmselect/cmpubacc/335/335.pdf
376
See the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre’s submissions to the
Inquest of Jedd Houghton.
377
See 2008 Victorian Equal Opportunity Commission Report “Rights of Passage” at
page 36. http://www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/pdf/rights_of_passage.pdf
378
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/docs/co/CAT-C-AUS-CO1.pdf
108

police for minor matters: they fight hard and engage top lawyers 379 . However it is not just
in minor matters where the police escape prosecution. The vast majority of police found
through civil proceedings to have engaged in serious criminal human rights abuses are
never prosecuted either 380 . Thus in reality both minor and serious criminality by police is
simply not prosecuted.
On the other hand, the public are regularly prosecuted for offensive language, public
drunkenness, begging and stealing $2 chocolate bars. Most people charged with these
offences use publicly funded lawyers who are too stretched to provide top quality
services. In contrast the State puts large resources in prosecuting the public and through
its agreement with the Police Association, defending police officers 381 . This disparity in
resourcing is a major cause of police impunity.
Until police offenders are prosecuted for all criminal conduct, they are above the law.
Criminal penalties are intended to operate in several ways that are relevant to human
rights protections:
™
™
™
™

Send a message that such behaviour is unacceptable.
Act as a specific and general deterrence against future behaviour.
Protect the community from the offender
Enable rehabilitation of the offender.

Failure to prosecute police officers who have engaged in criminal offences undermines
any potential deterrent effect of the law.
Section 8 of the Victorian Charter states that every person is equal before the law.
It is clear however, that police are not even subject to the law.
The Committee Against Torture noted, “Since the failure of the State to exercise due
diligence to intervene to stop, sanction and provide remedies to victims of torture
facilitates and enables non-State actors to commit acts impermissible under the
Convention with impunity, the State’s indifference or inaction provides a form of
encouragement and/or defacto permission.”382
379

Communication between the author and the Director Michael Strong in February
2009.
380
For example none of the Police officers involved in the assault on Corinna Hovarth in
1997 have been disciplined or prosecuted despite strong findings of misconduct by a
County Court Judge against the police involved. See Communication to the Human
Rights Committee by Corinna Horvath dated 19 August 2008, Flemington & Kensington
Community Legal Centre.
381
http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/bracks-secret-deal-with-police-union-onlegal-aid/2007/02/19/1171733684682.html
382
General Comment Number 2 CAT/C/GC/2/CRP.1/Rev.4 23 November 2007
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cat/docs/CAT.C.GC.2.CRP.1.Rev.4_en.pdf
109

A failure to discipline or punish State actors, such as the police, is even more so a form of
encouragement, defacto permission and deliberate indifference.
7.3.6. The public interest test
The OPI states that it will investigate a matter under its public interest category where it
relates to serious corruption. This interpretation of “public interest” ignores human rights
abuses. It is a serious concern that Victoria’s only independent complaint investigators
ignore the high public interest and human rights requirement that deaths, serious injuries
and allegations of torture and ill-treatment be independently, adequately and thoroughly
investigated and that police found to be in violation of human rights are disciplined and
punished for abuses.
7.3.7. The responsibility for investigating complaints
The theory that police should investigate complaints is prevalent in policing circles and
integrity commissions across Australia and widely disputed by complainants, academics,
inquiry findings and human rights jurisprudence 383 .
In the OPI’s 2008 Annual Report, the Director notes that complaint handling by police
under the Management Intervention Model is consistent with the “modernisation of
Victoria Police and OPI recommendations.” 384 An independent complaint body
investigates complaints against the police in Northern Ireland, Winnipeg, Washington
and New York. It makes no sense to argue that police handling of complaints is form of
modernisation. Police traditionally handle complaints against them. The Management
Intervention Model replaces what was formerly called Public Incident Resolution
Process 385 . All these processes involve police investigating or otherwise dealing with
complaints. The OPI’s own report in 2008 into police handling of complaints reveals
serious and systematic problems with its functioning 386 .
In Victoria, a legal centre lawyer watched video footage of a group of police beating his
Sudanese client. According to the lawyer who watched the footage at the police station,
the repeated beating by the police was brutal, severe and unnecessary. Subsequently
police lost the footage of this incident. The lawyer’s client was then charged with
assaulting a police officer. 387

383

See Chapter 3.
OPI Annual Report 2008 page 32
385
Page 13 of OPI Report 2008:
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/Improving_Victorian_policing_services_through_e
ffective_complaint_handling_31.pdf
386
See foot note above. Also see http://news.smh.com.au/national/opi-slams-policecomplaints-process-20080731-3nrx.html
387
Report from a Community Legal Centre in Victoria.
384

110

It is argued that removing complaint investigation from police gives a green light to
police to ignore their ethical obligations. However police do not need to investigate
complaints against them in order to uphold human rights and ethical duties. Ethical
duties include reporting complaints to an independent body, completing use of force
forms, complying with police manuals, legal standards and human rights, attending
training, passing integrity tests and reporting the misconduct of others 388 . Increasing
local accountability that is- getting managers to test and scrutinise police as well as
identify and implement training needs and recommend changes, does not require local
investigation of public complaints. It must be remembered that even “modern” police
forces are still the primary cause of significant numbers of human rights abuses and are
not like another workforce. Thus strategies that might be appropriate in a civilian
workplace are out of place in managing police misconduct.
The OPI uses serving officers to conduct undercover operations in police stations. These
are forms of integrity testing. Integrity testing could and should be part of the functions
of the Victoria Police 389 enhanced by civilian oversight. It is critical to realize that
integrity testing is not a complaint investigation function.
I contend that the roles of complaint investigation and integrity testing have been
reversed in Victoria. Integrity testing requires police involvement, with civilian
oversight. However complaint investigation requires civilians.
It is significant to note that police in Northern Ireland are reported to be performing better
to human rights standards as a result of a fully independent complaint investigation
process. Indeed, the independent complaint investigation by PONI is credited as being
part of this improvement 390 .
At the same time as the OPI is pushing for regional management of complaints, it is
reducing its scrutiny of these investigations. It will no longer conduct reviews of each of
these matters and is “wiping its hands of complaints.” 391 The victims in this process are
individual complainants and the public at large.
In its Annual report the OPI note that the most serious complaints will be reviewed by the
OPI. However the detection and punishment of human rights abuses depends on the
quality and adequacy of the investigation process in itself. Review of these matters is
simply not enough to satisfy human rights requirements. “Supervision [of the police

388

See Prenzler, Tim 2009 Police Corruption: Preventing Misconduct and Maintaining
Integrity, CRC Press.
389
See a good description of stings and integrity tests in Tim 2009 Police Corruption:
Preventing Misconduct and Maintaining Integrity, CRC Press.
390
Graham Ellison 2007, “A Blue Print for Democratic Policing Anywhere in the
World?” Police Quarterly 2007, 10: 243.
391
See Text box above.
111

investigation] by another authority, however independent, has been found not to be a
sufficient safeguard for the independence of the investigation.” 392
In deciding whether allegations should be investigated or proceed through the MIM, the
OPI applies the following test: If the conduct alleged would lead to the dismissal of the
police officer, it should be investigated. If not, the complaint should managed through
dispute resolution by police 393 .
A problem with this test is that there are no clear guidelines about what warrants
dismissal. Police disciplinary results are not on the public record in Victoria so we
cannot compare misconduct with disciplinary results 394 . However in jurisdictions with
higher levels of transparency, excessive use of force by police rarely results in dismissal.
Where substantiated, excessive force in these locations has resulted in warnings, a brief
suspension or more usually, no discipline at all. 395
If Victoria Police is not dismissing police who assault members of the public, and they
will not investigate complaints that don’t lead to dismissal, then police will never be
investigated for excessive force allegations under the current framework. According to
the UN Human Rights Committee concluding observation on Australia dated 3 April
2009, all excessive force allegations must be independently investigated 396 .
7.3.8. Feedback from solicitors
The OPI states in its annual report how important critical feedback is in improving its
operation. 397 The OPI recently invited solicitors to comment on its new website.
However in terms of its decision making about whether to investigate, there is no
evidence that concerns raised by complainants and their advocates have been listened to.
It is also worth noting that appeals concerning OPI decisions to investigate to the
Supreme Court are limited if not totally restricted under the new Police Integrity Act
2008 398 .
7.3.9. Information Provision to Complainants (transparency)
When complainants request information about investigations from the OPI they are
392

Ramsahai v The Netherlands [2007] ECHR 393, (15 May 2007) para 337.
Communication with the Director of Police Integrity in February 2009.
394
This information is currently being sort under an FOI application.
395
See for example in 2004 in New York in 57.7% of cases where excessive use of force
had been substantiated, the New York Police Department did not discipline the officer
involved at all see page 53 Mission Failure, Civilian Review of Policing in New York
City by the New York Civil Liberties Union.
396
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/hrcs95.htm Para 21 of the concluding
observations on Australia, Human Rights Committee 3 April 2009.
397
OPI 2008 Annual Report p31.
398
http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/pia2008193/s109.html
393

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referred to the Victoria Police. When complainants request information from the Victoria
Police they are referred the Freedom of Information Unit. The FOI Unit, often refuses to
provide information about investigation reports saying these documents are internal
working documents. Complainants are left with no real information about the
investigation, the evidence it obtained or the reasons a decision was made. This lack of
transparency in the process does nothing to dispel any concerns by complainants that it
has been anything other than a cover-up. Failure to provide information means the
complainant has no capacity to scrutinise the investigation or its result, to participate in it
to protect their interests, or to appeal the basis for the decision. As discussed in Chapter
7, these are further breaches of human rights standards.
Hala Attwa a solicitor from Youthlaw contrasted the Police Complaint system with the
way the Telecommunication Industry Ombudsman (the “TIO”) operates. She noted that
the TIO provides copies of communications from the telecommunication company to
complainants and invites their comment as part of the ongoing process of
investigation 399 . The Police Complaint system in Victoria offers no opportunity for
complainants to submit comments on the evidence gathered in the investigation. This
concern was also raised repeatedly in the Koori Complaints Final Report 2006-2008.
In the next Part of this Chapter, I will use the Flemington complaints submitted during
2006-2007 to provide some examples of failures in the current complaint system.

PART B – A study of the Flemington Complaints
7.4 Background
Reports of police brutality, excessive use of force and human rights abuses are not new in
Victoria 400 . Community Legal Centres throughout Victoria have received, since their
inception in the early 1980s, a constant stream of reports about excessive use of force and
other human rights violations. In response to the ongoing reports, the Police Issues
Working Group of the Federation of Community Legal Centres formed in 1983 to work
collectively on the human tragedy these reports represent 401 .
Along with other centres, police accountability has been a central concern of the
Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre since its inception in 1980.
The Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre draws clients from four housing
estates - North Melbourne, Ascot Vale, Flemington and Kensington. Over 12 thousand
public housing tenants currently live in these estates, a great proportion of whom are
refugees or migrants.
399

Interview with Youthlaw in February 2009.
“Past Patterns Future Directions” OPI Report tabled February 2007.
401
The first minutes of the Police Issues Working Group in 1983 detailed a CLC client
experience of police mistreatment: Liz Curran 2007, Making the Legal System More
Responsive to Community, Report on Community Legal Centres in Victoria.
400

113

Between 1987-1989 eleven people were shot dead by police in Victoria. The families of
four of those killed lived or had close connections to the Flemington & Kensington area.
In response to the killings, the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre
commenced a community based campaign that saw it working closely with the families
of the four deceased to support them through the coronial inquests that followed the
deaths and to expose abuse and systemic failures in police actions and procedures 402 .
In submissions to the Inquest of Gary Abdullah, who was shot by police in Victoria on 9
April 1989, counsel for Abdullah’s family critiqued the internal investigation into his
death. Mr Abdullah had been fatally shot in his flat by a bullet to the back of his head.
Evidence before the Coroner was strongly suggestive of a deliberate and well-planned
execution. Counsel for the family noted:
“It is an alarming thought that considering the magnitude and significance of the [Internal
Investigations Department (“IID”)] investigation, Inspector Basham showed his report to
Detective Avon [one of the two police present at the shooting] for approval. It is even
more alarming that he edited it to accord with what Avon said on 14 April 1989. This
reinforces our submissions that IID’s function was not to investigate but to justify.” 403

During 1980s, some complainants sought justice from police assaults through the
complaint processes. Until 1986 when the Police Complaint Authority (the “PCA”)
became operational, the investigation of these complaints was conducted by an internal
police investigation unit and oversighted by the Ombudsman. Ian Freckelton, in the
course of his role in the PCA, analysed a large number of complaint investigations during
the 1980s. His comments reveal a familiar pattern of investigations by police of
complaints in other jurisdictions.
“Little effort was made to ask probing questions of police against whom allegations had
been made. Their word was accepted at face value. Often there was no record of
interview with questions and answers. Police officers were simply allowed to make a
statement after having the full details of the complaint against them set out. Sometimes
they were shown the statement of another member and simply asked if they had anything
to add.” 404

Police investigators were found to assist police they were investigating to improve their
case/escape liability;

402

The families of Mark Militan, Graeme Jensen and Jedd Houghton and the Flemington
& Kensington Community Legal Centre 1992, Police Shootings in Victoria 1987-1989
You deserve to know the truth, Fitzroy Legal Centre Press.
403
Submissions to the Inquest of Gary Abdullah by counsel for Mr Abdullah’s family
(Dyson Hore-Lacy) at page 133-124.
404
Ian Freckelton, “Shooting the Messenger” in “Complaints against the Police, The
Trend to External Review” edited by Andrew Goldsmith, 1991 at page 75.
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…there were occasions on which the officers most directly the subject of the
complaint were interviewed last, by which time their colleagues had had the
opportunity to explain in detail to them the direction which the investigation was
taking. If they were not by then able to fabricate a plausible, exculpatory version
of events, they did not deserve to be in the police force because of lack of
intelligence! 405
Police were found to waste time interviewing irrelevant witnesses;
Time played into the hands of police malefactors. Memories faded, documents
could be doctored, stories could be concocted, and alibis cemented. The hierarchy
in the Internal Investigations Department would not acknowledge this. Instead,
they stressed the importance of following procedures and interviewing all
witnesses, however tangentially relevant (or irrelevant) their contribution to the
investigation manifestly was 406 .
Police investigators focus was on discrediting the complainant:
It was discovered that the police internal unit in Victoria, which at that stage
numbered some seventy people, lacked any real investigating energy, the initial
attitude to the complainant was one on of suspicion and readiness to disbelieve.
This meant that immediate attention was devoted to means of discrediting the
complainant. 407
The Police Complaints Authority was disbanded in 1988 and the oversight of complaint
investigation was returned to the Ombudsman. Complaint investigations continued to be
conducted by an internal police unit.
Sam Biondo, then of the Fitzroy Legal Service writes:
“During [the 1990s] Victoria has achieved an ignominious national reputation of use of
violence. The ‘Force’ has been criticised for its excessive use of both deadly and nondeadly force. Aside from the considerable criticism it has received as regards the large
and disproportionate number of police shootings which have occurred in Victoria, it has
also come under increased public scrutiny following a serious of events which entailed
the excessive use of non-deadly force. Such events have included mass strip searches, the
use of long arm batons and accusations of police brutality” 408 .

405

Ibid.
Ian Freckelton, “Shooting the Messenger” in “Complaints against the Police, The
Trend to External Review” edited by Andrew Goldsmith, 1991 at page 75.
407
Ian Freckelton, “Shooting the Messenger” in “Complaints against the Police, The
Trend to External Review” edited by Andrew Goldsmith, 1991 at page 73.
408
Sam Biondo, “Police Brutality in Victoria: Invisible Victims of State Power”
February 1997 Masters Thesis.
406

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Biondo’s work documents the prevalence of police violence and abuse across Victoria in
the early 1990s.
Also in the 1990s a significant number of complaints were made concerning a disturbing
pattern of sexual assaults of women by police in regional Victoria 409 . At least eight
police from the Maryborough police station were specifically referred to in the
complaints. Complaints included police picking up 16 year old girls from the street and
driving them to the bush to sexually assault them, entering the homes of women and
raping them while on duty, the rape of one woman in her home by three armed men,
allegedly police, police tampering with running sheets to cover up activities, engaging in
threats and bartering sex in engage for speeding fines. The investigation into these
complaints resulted in two police being dismissed from the force. Others were fined for
their conduct.
Police investigators were troubled by the fact that complainants were reluctant to speak to
them. In one case they interviewed a woman under a criminal caution for perjury.
Astonishingly the 1997 Ombudsman report into the investigation indicated little
understanding of the concerns facing complainants who are required to provide
statements to police investigators about police sexual assault, or that giving a statement
under a criminal caution leads to concerns about the orientation of the investigation.
Instead, praise was given to the investigators “in the face of a total lack of co-operation
from the women involved.” Furthermore an investigator’s decision to drop disciplinary
charges solely on the basis that the DPP was not proceeding with criminal charges was
endorsed. The Ombudsman claimed that the standards of proof in both criminal and
disciplinary proceedings were effectively equivalent. Most worrying about the
Ombudsman’s report was its total lack of concern for complainant’s needs and its failure
to make recommendations that ensure the victims of police sexual assault are central to a
complaint process. It is clear from this report that the women had completely lost faith in
the investigation process available and that a fully independent civilian and complainant
oriented investigation was necessary to uncover the full scale of human rights abuses
being perpetrated against them and to protect their interests. Indeed, the Ombudsman’s
Report and the human rights abuses of police described demands a full public inquiry
capable of protecting the interests of the victims, uncovering the scale of that abuse and
"identifying the root causes of the culture of abuse that existed." 410
Police abuses in Victoria continued into the 2000411 and again investigation by police has
been negatively critiqued. The Koori Complaints Project 2006-2008 analysed the

409

“The Maryborough Police Investigation” Report of the Victorian Ombudsman,
November 1997.
410
AM & Ors, R (on the application of) v Secretary of State for the Home Department &
Ors [2009] EWCA Civ 219 (17 March 2009) paragraph 43.
411
See for example Jude McCulloch 2001, “Blue Army” and S11 Complaint to the
Victoria Ombudsman by the Federation of Community Legal Centres.
116

investigation by police into 13 years of Koori complaints in Victoria until 2006. This
report paints a grim tale of poor quality investigation.
McCulloch and Palmer interviewed a number of lawyers about their perception of the
complaint process for a report released in 2005. Comments from lawyers included:
We’ve tried to be really creative in how we deal with problems with the police, and
we’ve tried all sort of different things….The complaints system is so completely
inadequate and completely lacking in any transparency and accountability and it’s the
complete frustration that we have with that that leads us to looking at other options
including civil litigation.” 412
I’m not a great believer in the complaints system anymore in spite having participated in
it. I don’t think that over the last two decades it has yielded much that is effective in
making police more accountable or in changing police culture.” 413
I have never known an ethical standards complaint to be upheld in this area that I can
think of….the formal complaint mechanisms are useless…..the ombudsman is useless…It
[civil litigation] is the only way you can ever get any recourse to justice. 414

The case of Corinna Horvath provides a further example of the disturbing failure in
Victoria’s complaint systems. In 2001, the County Court found that Ms Horvath and her
household had been subject to “…a disgraceful and outrageous display of police force in
private house”, charactered by “…excessive and unnecessary violence wrought out of
unmeritorious motives of ill will.” 415 As a result of the unlawful police raid, Ms Horvath
suffered a fractured nose, facial injuries, bruising, scratches, a chipped tooth,
psychological injuries and was hospitalised for five days. Despite the Court’s finding, no
police have been disciplined or criminally charged for their illegal activities 416 .

7.5 Recent Complaints
7.5.1 Introduction
Since October 2005, the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre has
received over 50 reports of human rights abuses against African and Afghani Australians
in the Flemington and surrounding regions.
Police behaviour reported to the legal centre includes assaults requiring hospitalization of
412

McCulloch & Palmer 2005 “Civil Litigation against Australian Police between 19942002” Report to the Criminology Research Council p 90.
413
Ibid at p 91
414
Ibid.
415
Horvath & Ors v Christensen & Ors, Judge Williams, County Court of Victoria, 21
February 2001.
416
Communication to the UN Human Rights Committee by Corinna Horvath on 19
August 2008, Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre.
117

victims, punitive beatings of handcuffed or otherwise restrained people, unlawful
imprisonment, acts of torture and brutality within police stations, excessive use of force,
unlawful searches, threats of sexual violence, unjustified use of capsicum spray, strip
searches conducted after such threats are made, searches in unjustified and humiliating
circumstances, racist and sexist comments, thefts of money and mobile phones, loss of
vehicles, harassment, degrading and humiliating conduct and ill-treatment against racial
and religious minorities. In some of the reports, children as young as 10 have been
assaulted and mothers sprayed with capsicum spray.
People have reported being told by police to “get back to Africa,” “go home”, “we won’t
stop till you are locked up”, you are a “terrorist”, a “monkey” and your Qu’ran is “shit”.
Reported and observed effects on individuals and witnesses to the violence have included
intense paranoia, fear, refusal to leave the house, helplessness, loss of weight, dropping
out of school, long term injuries, loss of sight, long term pain, scaring and deep distress at
being in Australia, distrust of institutions. In some cases people have left Victoria and
Australia rather than continue facing the degree of harassment they receive in Flemington
at the hands of police. Some people have ongoing medical needs as a result of police
misconduct that they cannot afford to fix.
In the words of a 16 year old Somali young person: "In my experience the police are
racist. They are racist to black people. They think we are all gangsters. We are not
gangsters. We are normal people. They should treat us like normal people. Since this
incident [an allegation of severe beating by police] I haven't been sleeping properly. I've
been paranoid. I've been hating cops. I don't want want to associate with police. I don't
want anything to do with police." 417
7.5.2 Police Complaints
In early 2006 through the local legal centre and in many cases with the assistance of
Moonee Valley Youth Services, victims of police misconduct started lodging complaints
with the Office of Police Integrity.
By December 2007, the number of complaints lodged was over 19.
In each complaint lodged through the legal centre we noted the racialised nature of the
complaint, the severity of the reported conduct of the police, the vulnerability of the
victim and the concern we had that the victim and their family would be adversely
affected by putting in a complaint. We requested that the Office of Police Integrity
investigate the complaint.
Under section 86N of the then Police Regulations Act 1958 and section 40 of the Police
Integrity Act 2008, the OPI had the option to investigate complaints indicating systemic
practice failures and public interest matters. Rather than adopt this course the Office of
417

Report to the FKCLC in 2007.
118

Police Integrity referred the complaints down to the Ethical Standards Department (ESD).
Despite the fact that most of the complaints involved assaults, ESD referred the
complaints to Victoria Police members based in regional police stations.
The majority of the complaints initially lodged with the OPI were investigated by a police
officer in Region 3 from Broadmeadows. Region 3 is the policing region in which the
Flemington and Moonee Ponds Police Stations are located. As a result there is no
hierarchical separation between the investigator and the police being investigated418 .
In one example we had to request a new investigator twice after the complaint was
allocated on two occasions to police officers from the same station as the allegation. This
complaint involved the beating of a young person by a group of police 419 .
7.5.3 Ethical Health Check
Along side the initial investigation into some of individual complaints, in 2006 Victoria
Police, with OPI approval, conducted an “Ethical Health Check” of the Flemington
Police Station. Inspector Mark Doney conducted this review.
The review involved interviewing police about the culture at the Flemington Police
Station and in particular police attitudes towards young people from African
backgrounds. As far a the Legal Centre is aware, none of the complainants themselves
were interviewed as part of this review.
Before this review occurred, two police moved out of the Flemington Police Station. One
was moved, firstly to Moonee Ponds and then Boxhill. This officer had been placed in
charge of “Operation Molto” an operation specifically targeting young African
Australians from the horn of African. This officer had a long complaint history prior to
being put in this position and there were widespread complaints of him driving around
and harassing young people and taking their mobile phones from them to “check”
whether they were stolen. This practice is unlawful. He was also accused by one person
of beating him to obtain information (torture) in the police station.
A Leading Senior Constable who later became the Flemington Station’s Multicultural
Liaison Officer reports the period until the previously described police officer left as
“like a war zone”. Many young people describe being assaulted by police during this
period. The Leading Senior Constable stated that African Australians were referred to by
police as “Skinnies”. This term was used by American “peacekeepers” in the movie
drama “Black Hawk Down” which contains racist depictions of Somalis as lawless

418

Hierarchical separation is an international law requirement for human rights abuse
investigations: Ogur v. Turkey 20 May 1999 ECHR Para 91
419
Complaint made to the OPI in April 2007.
119

aggressors 420 .
The then head of the Flemington Police Station (uniform division) was moved to the city.
Also in charge of policing in Flemington is the Manager of Criminal Investigation Unit.
No steps appear to have been taken to deal with his managerial responsibility for what
was experienced on the streets as a police culture of violence, misconduct and racism.
The police officer, who was moved to Boxhill has subsequently been promoted, despite
his lengthy complaint history 421 .
Inspector Doney concluded his review of the Flemington Police Station in about July
2006. Following unsuccessful informal requests for a copy of his report, Doney’s report
became the subject of an FOI application heard in VCAT during July 2007. VCAT
upheld the police assertion that the police who “ratted” would be at risk if the report was
released and would be unlikely to speak out again. The Legal Centre argued that it was
in the public interest for the community to know the truth about what was happening at
the Station, that the Senior Sergeant had already seen the report and that the report
contained no material identifying the police who spoke out.
In his decision, VCAT’s Deputy President Macnamara said:
“I accept that if it were demonstrated that the processes surrounding the Office of
Police Integrity were not functioning adequately, there might be something to be
said for the public interest favouring the release of the Doney report as it were to
fill the vacuum or make up the deficiency. The delay in the disposition of the
bundle of complaints to the OPI is somewhat disquieting.” 422
Around the time of this decision, Victoria Police appointed another police officer from
Region 3, (Investigator 2) to assist the previous Region 3 Police Officer (Investigator 1)
with the investigation of some of the individual complaints.
The Doney report is not an adequate substitute for the kind of public inquiry that is
needed into the policing in Flemington. It was not open to public scrutiny, independent
of the overall police hierarchy, able to reach conclusions on the lawfulness of the police
conduct or involving of the victims in order that they be able to protect their interests.
All of these requirements are necessary to meet the human rights standards set out in this
report.
7.5.4 Raising Issues Directly with the Police

420

For more information, see Razack, 2004, “Dark Threats and White Knights. The
Somalia Affair, Peacekeeping, and the New Imperialism.”
421
Communication by senior police to the author in 2006.
422
Flemington Kensington Community Legal Centre v Victoria Police (General) [2007]
VCAT 1237 (13 July 2007)
120

As well as making formal complaints, we tried to raise issues with local police. By way
of background to the following conversation, the Victoria Police Manual makes it a
requirement that Use of Force forms are filled in at the end of every shift where force has
been used against a member of public. Force includes the use of handcuffs. As
handcuffs are used in the vast majority of arrests one would expect use of force forms to
filled in on a daily basis 423 .
In a conversation with the author a senior police officer in region 3 said as follows 424
(senior police officer indented):
We have one senior sergeant and 17 detectives and 4 Detective Sergeants. We
used to be housed in [ ], we would all like to housed together but we are not. We
operate reactive and proactive strategies. Such as targeted drug operations or
follow up on patterns of theft.
We work in plain clothes, no uniforms. If a matter needs expertise then it will
involve the CIU. We have authority through our rank, but generally leave issues
to each area. Sometime we do operations with the uniform police to make up the
numbers.
Police in unmarked cars are not always from our branch, they could be coming in
from different regions.
We are into appropriate customer service. We aim to give appropriate service.
Do you check up on use of force forms?
I haven't sighted one of those forms in years.
How do you ensure police use their powers accountably?
We get held to account in court. At the end of the day accountability is in court.
There is also a complaint system.
I am not aware of any complaints against CIB. If anything happens, I'd know.
How do you check?
I get verbal reports from members, then I read their statements. I haven't seen any
use of force forms.
423

Use of force forms are not used in up to 70% of cases according to the OPI report
2007 Annual Report.
424
Conversation on 14 March 2008 with the author, notes recorded during the
conversation and written up immediately afterwards. The words used reflect the notes
taken and are to the effect of what was communicated.
121

We haven't had one complaint. I don't want to hear about poor police service. I
wouldn't want to know that there is misconduct happening. I haven't heard a
single problem in the last 12 months. I am entitled to believe we have acted
professionally.
Do you look at interview rooms [while police are with suspects]?
Its so boring, I cook cakes to give to suspects.
How do you ensure appropriate force is being used?
It’s all about subjective judgment.
What kind of training do you get on the use of force?
We get two days on defence tactics twice a year.
I have a group of mature and family oriented detectives. I am not aware of these
issues. We had a meeting on statistics and our stats are fine.
We have heard 35 reports in two years. We have made 19 formal complaints.
I haven't heard anything.
How do you ensure the Operational safety procedures are being followed?
We don't have these issues out here.
What are you doing about the Charter of Human Rights? You must ensure that people
are treated with respect and dignity for the person.
We take our guidance from the department
When someone is custody we have to take care, we are vulnerable.
I haven't heard one complaint.
We'll what about on Friday,
Well our guys say he was resisting.
And our guy says police assaulted him. What are you going to do about it?
Well it comes down to evidence.

122

We haven't heard a complaint.
I am making one right now.
Well you've made it to [my boss], so we'll see what he does.
What are you going to do about it?
Well what are the allegations?
Our client was punched while handcuffed.
Well it comes down to veracity.
So if its your word against ours nothing can be done?
So what are you going to do to ensure this does not happen again?
Until we have hard evidence, we are not going to do anything.
So If I say to you we have 35 reports in the passed two years what are you doing to
ensure this doesn't happen again.
Well it will get sorted out in the courts.

It is worth noting, that many of the concerns raised by people in the Flemington area
concern the CIU. For example in one report made to the Legal Centre, but not referred to
the OPI, Detectives in an unmarked car drove slowly passed a group of black teenagers
and told them to “Get back to Africa.” (February 2007) The young people made a report
to the Moonee Ponds police station, but received no further word 425 .
Many assaults and attempts to victimize and silence young complainants have been
reported to have been perpetrated by CIU members. One detective, has been reported by
many young people to drive passed them giving them “the finger.”
The complaint discussed with this officer involved a complaint where one of this
officer’s “Family oriented detectives” was reported to have threatened to “fuck [our
client] up the arse.”
This response to this series of questions is remarkable for a number of reasons:
a) The Management Intervention Model is not being applied.
b) Who ever has been investigating has not appeared to have informed CIU management
425

Reported by clients of the legal centre in February 2007.
123

about the complaints made by clients of the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal
Centre. Nor does it appear police are being questioned about incidents.
b) Unless a court finds an officer has committed misconduct, this officer is not going to
do anything.
c) The officer appears to have no interest in taking a proactive approach to preventing
police misconduct.
d) He has taken no steps to create a culture of accountability and responsibility.
e) He fails to understand the Police Safety First Principles and police policy around use
of force.
It is worrying to note that there is move to increase police access to weapons 426 . If basic
accountability mechanisms like use of force forms, are not being completed or
supervised, how is the public to trust accountability in the widespread introduction of
potentially lethal weapons such as tasers? 427
7.5.5 Protections for Victims
In our complaint letters to the OPI and on instructions from our clients, we made it clear
that we were to be the contact point between our clients and the investigators.
During 2006 and 2007, complaint investigators met with many complainants, family
members and witnesses at the Legal Centre. Because of the trust we had built up with
our clients, and in reliance on this trust, our clients and their families were willing to give
statements to the investigator. Some times we facilitated contact on week-ends in order
to assist the investigator meet his deadlines. Sometimes we would go to collect our
clients from their homes.
The process was highly unpleasant for the victims, many told us afterwards they felt like
the criminal and that it was clear that he (the police investigator) didn’t believe what they
were saying. We witnessed the investigator changing the language of the victim in order
to minimise the complaint. “Dragged” became “Escorted”, Racist abuse become “a
discussion about issues to do with race.”
On one occasion, the investigator went to a young person’s work place and took him
away in order to question him. The experience was akin to being arrested.
7.5.6 Obtaining Undertakings

426

http://www.theage.com.au/national/we-will-look-at-tasers-200903028mge.html?page=-1
427

The Critical Incident Response Team and the Special Operations Group currently use
tasers inVictoria. http://www.police.vic.gov.au/content.asp?Document_ID=13689,
http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,,24825685-2862,00.html

124

Because of people’s concerns that the investigator was a police officer and their concerns
that speaking to him might lead to them being charged or otherwise disadvantaged we
sought undertakings from ESD and the OPI about the role of the investigator.
In a meeting at the OPI office with the OPI complaint handler, an ESD officer and a
police investigator investigating 13 of these complaints, a series of undertakings were
made and then reduced to writing in a letter dated 23 June 2006:
One the undertakings stated the following:
The Ethical Standards investigation into these complaints is quarantined from
any prosecution process involving the complainants except where it appears a
complainant may have committed perjury or contempt.
Undertaking six states:
In the event it appears to the investigating officer during the course of prosecution
proceedings involving a complainant that a person may have committed a
contempt or perjury the investigating officer will raise the matter directly with the
presiding magistrate, not the prosecutor.
7.5.7 Undertakings in Action
In one hearing involving the prosecution of a complainant, the investigators engaged in
discussion with the prosecution over the evidence of a defence witness. After much
discussion between them, the prosecutor raised a concern with the defence team that a
defence witness was giving evidence in the witness stand that was different to the
evidence in his ESD statement. For the prosecutor to know this, he would have been
briefed by the ESD, an action specifically breaching of the undertaking which required
ESD’s investigator to independently inform the Magistrate. The prosecutor was then
given the witness’s ESD statement to enable the witness to be cross-examined on his
evidence.
This had the effect that the ESD investigation information was used to assist the
prosecution’s case.
Perjury is a criminal offence and if ESD wished to charge the young person with perjury
after the incident, this would have been appropriate. Instead the information was used to
attempt to undermine the complaint and add information to assist the prosecution. No
charge of contempt or perjury was laid against the young witness after the incident. It is
worth asking what the purpose of the provision is. If it is to prevent perjury, then
charging a person with perjury is appropriate.
The provision in the undertaking to notify the magistrate of perjury by witnesses (and the
VPM 210-4) works in practice to undermine complainants, not to protect the integrity of

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the police investigation processes. It became clear that the police complaint investigators
and the prosecution were working together.
It is also important to note that during subpoena proceedings before the substantive case
was heard, we were informed that, well over a year after the original complaint was
submitted, accused Police had not made statements to police investigators 428 . This meant
that the only people who could be subject to investigator claims of perjury and contempt
were the complainants and their witnesses 429 not the police. This raises the question of
who in fact is the subject of the police complaint investigations.
7.5.8 Problems in the Investigation Process
7.5.8.1 Treatment of individuals
Some police complaint investigators have exhibited extreme suspicion of victim’s stories
– In one case where a young person alleged that police stole his mother’s car, the
investigator stated: “the car has not been stolen, I know the way Somali families work,
someone will be holding on to it, this is just a false claim”…..“the complaint has a history
of lodging complaints, this is a good indication that this is another false complaint”……
“the excessive force complaint is just a vehicle for him to get his property back.” 430
On advice from counsel, and on instructions from clients on some occasions we provide
our client’s instructions to police investigators rather than facilitate direct contact
between the investigators and the client. On some occasions, police investigators, with
the approval of OPI have discontinued the complaint where this has occurred.
7.5.8.2 Harassment by investigators
The legal centre is frequently telephoned by people saying, “ESD have been banging on
people’s doors, everyone is terrified.” Police complaint investigators “banging on
people’s doors” replicates the experience that the complainants originally had.
To have investigators then knocking on doors after people are complaining about police
raids is very disturbing. Especially when a client has requested they not be contacted.
One client came up to the Legal Centre after an investigator had been knocking to say his
family were so scared, they didn’t want the investigator coming to the door 431 .
We wrote to the OPI and ESD asking them again to contact complainants through our
legal centre to prevent re-traumatisation 432 .
428

We had subpoenaed those statements and were told they didn’t exist.
We complained about this to the OPI and they invited us to contact ESD. ESD said
that it was standard practice.
430
Investigator to the author in December 2007.
431
November 2007.
432
November 2007
429

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The investigators continued to refuse to co-operate with this request 433 .
7.5.8.3 Getting people to sign withdrawal of complaint forms
In another case, after repeated harassment by the police investigator, and without
communicating with the Legal Centre, who had made the complaint on the family’s
behalf, a police investigator obtained a withdrawal of her son’s complaint from the
complainant’s mother. This mother speaks Somali and requests interpreters for complex
communication in English. Her son and indeed the whole family were so terrified by the
incident that led to the initial complaint that he, with his family’s support, left to go to
Perth shortly after. He had complained to the Legal Centre on the understanding that he
and his family would only be contacted through the Legal Centre.
In obtaining the mother’s withdrawal of her son’s complaint without any contact with the
legal centre the investigator acted against the express wishes of the complainant and in
circumstances where the withdrawal must be viewed as highly suspect.
Rather than showing any concern about the investigator’s action to withdraw the
complaint, and the real possibility that she had been intimidated into withdrawing the
complaints, in reviewing this complaint the OPI found that the mother’s withdrawal of
her son’s complaint, was consistent with and supported the police version of events.
7.5.8.4 Police charging complainants
In six complaints made to the OPI, police subsequently charged the complainant with
police related charges. Charges laid against complainants included use threatening
words, resist police, hinder police and assault police. In many of these cases charges
were laid after the police investigator had taken a statement from the complainant.
In all cases, charges were laid against complainants 3 to 12 months after the complaint
was made. The delay is unreasonable. Unlike other crimes, offences against police
officers are known entirely by the police at the time of the arrest and can be laid
immediately. A delay of 3 to 12 months is raises a reasonable inference that charges
have been fabricated to cover the police misconduct.
Having experienced this pattern repeatedly, we have asked police not to investigate until
after charges have been laid and the criminal case concluded. This could cause a loss of
evidence capture, but it needs to be balanced against the risks to the complainant that the
investigation will actually assist prosecution and also lead to a charge.
7.5.8.5 Filing late Use of Force Forms

433

Most recent report of investigator harassment was in February 2008.
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As noted earlier, Victoria Police Manual requires Use of Force forms to be filled in at the
end of any shift during which force was used 434 .
Reportable force includes:
Handcuffing, restraint holds, blows with batons, choke holds and the use of O/C spray.
All our clients report handcuffing. Many report other forms of force. In one case where
we subpoenaed use of force forms, it was clear they were been completed at the time of
charging, many months after the incident.
In many other cases where complainants have been charged with assault police type
charges, no use of force forms have been completed. Force used against and by police is
reportable 435 .
The failure to complete paperwork about the use of force is problematic in terms of the
risks that evidence will be fabricated after a complaint has been submitted, but it also
means that police managers are not able to monitor and analyse when and to what extent
police are using force.
Victoria Police policy emphasizes that the “success of an operation will be judged by the
extent to which force is minimized.” 436 Failure to fill in use-of-force forms means that
the police are denying themselves any possibility of monitoring the success of their
operations using the criterion they have set themselves.
7.5.8.6 Two Statements
In one case where a young person was charged with assault police following his
complaint three months earlier to the OPI, it became apparent in the hearing that that a
police officer had made two statements in relation to the matter 437 . In the first statement
the officer’s description of client’s behaviour was fairly minimal. In the second, our
client’s alleged resistance had been “ramped up” and a basis for an assault police charge
had been added. Our guess was that the statements represented the officer’s pre and post
awareness of the complaint. Under cross-examination by Jane Dixon SC for the
complainant, the officer denied this, but could not offer any explanation for the existence
of the two statements. The charges against our client were dismissed by the County
Court Judge who found our client’s arrest had been unlawful. Despite this decision by a
County Court judge the OPI agreed with the police investigator that our client’s

434

VPM 101-4
The OPI 2007 Annual Report notes that police fail to complete use of force forms in
up to 70% of cases (page 41)
http://www.opi.vic.gov.au/documents/OPI_Annual_Report_2006-2007_online.pdf
436
VPM 101-1.
437
County Court Hearing on 15, 16 November 2007 Judge Murphy.
435

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allegation of unlawful arrest was unfounded 438 . We have requested a review of this
decision. A complaint was also lodged about the two statements to the OPI who then
referred the complaint to the ESD.

7.5.9 Involvement in the Prosecution of Complainants
7.5.9.1 Attempts to induce complainants to plead guilty to charges
In one case where police had charged a person with hinder police over six months after
he had complained of being assaulted by police, our client alleged that a police
investigator, through another police officer who was neither engaged in prosecuting our
client or the investigation of his complaint, attempted to induce him to plead guilty to the
charge of hinder police in exchange for a payment of some thousands of dollars.
If the investigator had attempted to influence the prosecution in this way, it would
constitute an out right breach of the undertaking that he is to remain separate from the
prosecution of the complainant. Had our client accepted the inducement, the police
conduct would not have been exposed in a court in the way it was. (Police charges were
dismissed and the Magistrate disbelieved the police evidence).
A complaint about this was made to the OPI. Unlike other complaints the OPI decided to
investigate this complaint itself. The OPI determined that while conversations had
occurred had between the Investigator 1, Leading Senior Constable A (who was not
involved in the prosecution of our client or the investigation of his complaint), and the
complainant, the complaint was unsubstantiated. Yet these are the facts in the OPI
response on 7 November 2007:
• Leading Senior Constable A states that on 1 June 2007 Investigator 1 spoke to him
about our client accepting a diversion (pleading guilty) for the hinder police
charges.
• Investigator 1 does not acknowledge this. (Indeed it does not appear he was asked
a direct question on this point).
• Investigator 1 admits he spoke to A about our client accepting an ex-gratia payment
from the police.
• A acknowledges he spoke to our client on 1 June 2007 about both a payment and
pleading guilty.
• A neither denies nor agrees the two issues were linked as an inducement. (It does
not appear he was asked this critical question.)

438

Letter from the OPI dated 25 February 2009.
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• Our client states that the issues were linked and that the money was offered to
induce a plea of guilt.
The account given by police witness A tend to support our client’s allegation that
Investigator 1 was engaged in an attempt to induce our client to plead guilty to the charge
of hinder police.
Critical questions appear to have been missed in the questioning of both Investigator 1
and A by the OPI.
The questions asked of the police witnesses as reported to us in an OPI's letter of 7
November 2007 avoided the key issue at stake. The questioning process permitted the
cover up of the alleged misconduct.
Key questions that have not been asked include:
• What was A's purpose in telephoning our client to speak to him about pleading
guilty?
• What was A's purpose in raising the issue of money?
• What did A understand were the implications of what he was doing?
• Did, as a result of Investigator 1’s call, A offer our client money if he chose to plea
guilt?
• What was Investigator 1’s purpose in making this call to A?
• Did Investigator 1 speak to A about our client pleading guilty?
• Why did A choose to ring our client on the same day as the call from Investigator
1?
• Why does he deny he is ringing on behalf of Investigator 1? On whose behalf is he
ringing? What is his interest in the topic?
• Why did Investigator 1 make a call to A about an ex-gratia payment despite the
advice not to mention anything from Assistant Commissioner L?
• What was Investigator 1 doing involving himself in a prosecution process against
the undertakings and Victoria Police Manual guidelines?

Rather than noting the absence of these critical questions, and on the basis of the
material available to her, the OPI decision maker concluded that: “there has been some
degree of confusion in the conversation between Investigator 1 and Leading Senior
Constable A and then Leading Senior Constable A and [our client]”….and that…
“neither Leading Senior Constable A or Investigator 1 have, in anyway acted
inappropriately.”
The OPI labels the conversation’s inconsistencies the result of “confusion”. The accounts
in fact weigh in our client’s favour and yet a conclusion is reached that exonerates
Investigator 1 and A.
If there had been no strings attached, why wouldn’t our client have accepted the money
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that was offered?
Our client's version of events is the only one that makes sense of and gives meaning to
the existing evidence provided by A and Investigator 1 and yet it too is dismissed as
confusion.
There is no suggestion that our client lacks in credibility and yet the decision appears to
dismiss his account. The decision privileges a curious, non-sensical, and side stepping
official explanation against a logical civilian account 439 .
In this case, had the complainant been able to cross-examine the police witnesses, and the
matter heard by an independent judicial body/disciplinary tribunal, a substantiated
finding against investigator 1 may have been obtained.

7.5.9.2 Coaching police witnesses to improve their evidence
During the hearing of a charge against a complainant, complaint investigator (2) was
overheard by a solicitor in the area outside the hearing room to strongly advise the police
officer who the complainant had alleged had assaulted him to change his evidence to
improve his credibility. When the conversation occurred, police officer, X had not yet
finished giving evidence in the witness stand.
X changed his evidence in Court in line with the suggestions from investigator 2 who was
investigating the police complaint 440 .
This is extraordinary for a number of reasons. Firstly it is clear that the police
investigator has utterly failed in his assigned duty to independently investigate not assist
X: his actions are designed to undermine the complainant and exonerate the police.
Secondly, it is a contempt of court for anyone to tell a witness to change their evidence,
let alone in this particular situation. This is a perversion of the course of justice. The fact
that it is an attempt by a police complaint investigator is utter extraordinary and
undermines the entire complaint handling process.
We asked for this officer to be removed from his position pending the investigation into
our complaint. He was not removed from duties.
Following his investigation, Investigator 2 came to the conclusion that our client had not
been assaulted. The OPI accepted this police officer’s conclusion. The OPI did not seem
to have any concerns that the decision maker had been alleged to have engaged in
misconduct (couching a police witness) himself.

439

For further examples of this see Carlton, Bree 2007, Imprisoning Resistance, Sydney
Institute of Criminology Series p 195.
440
See the complaint to the OPI dated 14 October 2007.
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Our allegations suggest that the complaint investigator was not impartial decision maker.
On 25 June 2008 we wrote to the Director of the OPI requesting he conduct a public
hearing into Investigator 2’s involvement in this case, the allegations against Investigator
2 and the finding that the complaint was unsubstantiated, (other than a failure to provide
prompt medical attention).
Shortly afterwards we found out that the complaint about the police investigator
attempting to pervert the course of justice by coaching the police witness had been
overlooked by the OPI and remained “in their draw” for 6 months. It was subsequently
sent to the Ethical Standards Department who sent it to a police officer who works at the
same station as Investigator 2 to conciliate. At this stage it appears that the complaint
will be found unsubstantiated, despite clear evidence that suggests misconduct.
It has been reported to the Legal Centre that Investigator 2 told a young witness who had
given evidence against police in a case he was monitoring, “you shouldn’t have given
evidence.” This was very intimidating to the young person.
These examples indicate that police are inappropriate investigators of human rights
abuses. Their loyalties lie with the police organization and with the police they are
investigating. They work to undermine complaints and do not hold the agency or
individual police to account. They themselves engage in misconduct in behaving in these
ways.
7.5.10 Problems with the OPI oversight
7.5.10.1 Interest in supporting the efforts of the police
The Legal Centre wrote to the OPI complaining about Investigator 2 couching a police
witness. The OPI responded to this complaint on 5 November 2007 noting:
“Finally, I note that the number of complaints coming from the Flemington area has
significantly decreased since you originally bought your concerns to our attention
in 2006. I consider that Victoria Police have taken a number of positive steps to
improve their relationship with the local community you both serve since that time.
In my view it is in the public interest for their ongoing efforts to be acknowledged
and supported.”
There are three points to make about this paragraph. Firstly, an absence of complaints is
not an indicator of an absence of incidents of police misconduct. The Legal Centre
continues to receive a large number of complaints. Complaints to the OPI have not made
due to clients increasing skepticism about the effectiveness of the complaint process and
its ability to achieve individual or systemic justice. At the same time, the individual
victims are increasingly aware of the real risks involved in lodging a complaint in
inducing the laying charges or other forms of victimization.
Secondly, the issue of whether the number of complaints has decreased is not a relevant

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response to a complaint letter to the OPI.
The third point to make is that this paragraph contains an expression of support for police
by a complaint handling manager. Her role should not be to acknowledge and support
police, but rather to ensure allegations of police misconduct are effectively and
thoroughly investigated. This letter is a formal response to a complaint letter detailing
allegations of misconduct by police investigators. This comment leads to an inference
that in the OPI’s complaint handler views our clients’ complaints as a nuisance,
negatively impacting on the good public image of the police she is working to foster.
7.5.10.2 Lower standard of investigation for external verses internal complaints
There have been no public hearings conducted into our client’s complaints. To our
knowledge, there have been no telephone intercepts used against the police complained
against. Indeed there appears to be hostility towards complainants. We invited the OPI
to address our clients and answer their questions at a gathering in December 2006. They
declined to do so. The approach of the OPI has been to dismiss and minimize our client’s
concerns.
It appears to us that in relation to the Flemington complaints 441 the OPI complaint
handler is functioning to support Victoria Police and its internal complaint handling
systems despite our concerns that they have led to the charging of our clients and the
assistance of prosecution proceedings against complainants.
It is noteworthy that complaints by police members do appear to gain a rigorous and
sympathetic response from the OPI. See for example the 2007 Kit Walker investigation
and the OPI public hearings in late 2007 and 2008. No police accused of misconduct by
our clients have been cross-examined through public hearings by the OPI. Police accused
in the OPI's public hearings underwent vigorous cross-examination 442 .
Public hearings are the only forum currently available to fully explore and examine
complaints. They are an essential feature of any functional complaint system and should
be routinely used in all complaints where serious allegations of ill-treatment, assault and
excessive force are made.
Funding must be available to ensure public hearings are available in each of these cases.
2.5.10.3 Systemic Bias
An intimate and dependent relationship exists between the OPI and ESD. This

441

Similar to other investigations into complaints by people external to the organisation,
a good example is the Murray Inquiry into the Jika Jika Fire in Pentridge Prison in 1987:
Carlton, Bree 2007 Imprisoning Resistance, Sydney Institute of Criminology.
442
Records available on the OPI website.
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relationship has been noted in many of the OPI’s reports 443 . Due to its focus on
corruption, the OPI is largely (though not totally) dependent on ESD to investigate police
complaints. It is contended that this dependency undermines the OPI's ability to
scrutinize and hold ESD officers to account and increases the risk of it adopting rather
than resisting Victorian Police culture.
It is contended that by having to maintain a close and dependent relationship with ESD,
the OPI will tend to adopt and support official explanations that re-enforce rather than
undermine negative aspects of police culture.
7.5.10.4 Failure to independently assess ESD files
One of the roles of the OPI is to review ESD files. 444 It appears from our experience that
the OPI review is superficial at best. In one case we requested from the OPI reasons for
is decision to accept the ESD recommendations. It replied: The investigation of the
complaint was conducted by the Ethical Standards Department (ESD) and any decisions
recommendations or results are the product of investigation and deliberation by ESD not
the Director of the OPI.” 445 Because it hadn’t made a decision, the OPI refused to supply
us with reasons.
If the OPI has not made a decision in relation to the matter, it is abdicating its role as an
independent review forum. Surely in order to assess the adequacy of the ESD
investigation the OPI needs to read ESD’s interviews with Police, look through the LEAP
database, ring the complainant’s representative to clarify issues, look at D24 tapes, assess
policy manuals and case law.
In this particular case, the police officer who was complained against was the Acting
Sergeant who was removed from the Flemington Police Station in 2006. This officer is
the subject of a very large number of complaints. The claims against him in this case
were severe and included, amongst other allegations serious assault, ill-treatment and
death threats while assaulting our client within a police station and during interrogation
(this is torture). His continued employment and in fact promotion within Victoria Police
all point to a serious failure in the capacity of police to investigate effectively and the
need for the OPI to thoroughly monitor this particular investigation.
We note that our clients have not receive a letter from the ESD explaining the delays
beyond 3 months of the date of their complaint and giving anticipated dates of
finalisation. This is required under the VPM 210-4 6.4.3. This very simple failure in the
ESD process has not been commented on by OPI either in its letters of “unsubstantiated”
findings to our clients.

443

See for example p 17 & 18 of the OPIs 2007 Annual Report.
See page 35 of the OPI Annual report 2006-2007.
445
See a letter from the OPI dated 15 February 2008.
444

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Surely the OPI’s consideration of these issues are “deliberations”. If the OPI is not
deliberating, then it is not exercising its review function.
7.5.11 Oversight of the OPI – the Special Investigators Monitor and the Victorian
Ombudsman
At present, the Special Investigators Monitor, an independent statutory agency, is only
able to review complaints about coercive questioning by the OPI in OPI hearings. It can
not receive complaints about whether an OPI decision to refuse to investigate a complaint
is sound nor examine the other functions performed by the OPI, such as reviewing
Ethical Standards Department or police investigations.
In all but one of our cases, the OPI has refused to investigate complaints against police
investigators and complaints that raise allegations of serious human rights abuses such as
ill-treatment, torture and unprovoked assaults.
Complaints about the OPI decision whether or not to investigate can be made to the
Ombudsman, however the Ombudsman until recently was the Director of the OPI and
was the Director at the time these decisions were made. As a result there is a conflict of
interest in complaining to him about these decisions.
Appeals to the Supreme Court are seriously hampered by an extremely restrictive
legislative regime.
There are no effective appeal mechanisms from the OPI in Victoria in relation to
decisions whether or not to investigate complaints.

7.6 Conclusion
The pattern and scale of reports to the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal
Centre of police inflicted human rights abuses against African and Afghani Australians
indicates dangerous, institutional and systemic failures. Furthermore the failure of the
complaint system to result in the discipline or punishment any police involved in these
abuses calls for a total overhaul of the complaint systems in Victoria.
The history of complaints against police in Victoria reveals that the recent concerns
raised by clients of the Flemington & Kensington Community Legal Centre are not
unusual or isolated. Across Victoria, and over a considerable period of time, reports,
organizations and individuals have criticized Victoria’s system of police investigating the
police. Recent international scrutiny of Australian police complaint systems re-enforces
these on-going and widespread concerns.

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Chapter 8

Recommendations For Victoria
There are many measures needed to eliminate the ill-treatment by state authorities of
ordinary people. For example, Professors Richard Harding and Neil Morgan from the
Centre for Law and Public Policy in Western Australia, in a 2008 report to the Australian
Human Rights Commission recommend the introduction of National Prevention
Mechanisms (NPMs) across Australia to ensure Australia’s compliance with the Optional
Protocol to the Conventional Against Torture. NPMs concern the independent
monitoring of places where people are retained in state custody. 446
The Office of Police Integrity’s current strategy for reducing police misconduct involves
assisting the police to guard against corruption through integrity testing and cultural
change.
The independent investigation of complaints of human rights violations is a fundamental
and essential addition to these strategies. At present there is no effective and
independent investigation of complaints against police in Victoria. The Office of Police
Integrity refers complaints to the Victoria Police. In contrast, the effective investigation
of public complaints requires investigation that is fully independent of police.
I recommend the introduction of an Independent Investigation Commission into
Complaints Against the Police created from inception on the principles arising from
human rights standards and the experience of similar bodies in overseas jurisdictions.
Ideally the Commission would investigate complaints against all organisations exercising
policing and detention roles. For example Victoria Police, Corrections Victoria, Security
guards, Authorised Public Transport Officers, organisations in charge of security for
transport or detention facilities and locked facilities at mental health institutions and
hospitals.
A good model is the Police Ombudsman of Northern Ireland. Its one draw back is that it
does not conduct public hearings when it adjudicates complaints. On the other hand, the
Office of Police Complaints in Washington DC uses hearings to adjudicate complaints.
In these hearings, the complainant is represented at the cost of the state. The Law
Enforcement Review Agency takes this a step further and makes disciplinary orders at
these hearings. A combination of the best features of these three bodies would provide a
good model for the Independent Complaint Investigation Commission in Victoria.

446

Harding & Morgan 2008, “Implementing the Optional Protocol to the Convention
Against Torture: Options for Australia.” Report to the Australian Human Rights
Commission.
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Measuring success
How do we measure the success of the system? I have identified nine ways that could be
used to measure how the complaint system is working:
1. Analyse comparative substantiation rates between jurisdictions.
I have not discussed comparative substantiation rates in this report. This is partly
because of the different methods that organizations use to measure substantiation rates. It
is also because this report has focussed on qualitative standards rather than quantitative
measures.
2. Seek the views of community legal centres, Aboriginal justice centres, legal
practitioners and community based advocates about whether they are receiving less
reports of abuse.
This is an important tool in monitoring whether the complaint body is being accessed as
well as patterns and improvements in police practices.
3. Analyse whether deaths in custody are falling.
A person dies in custody every 4.5 days in Australia. This is a critical measure of
people’s safety within police and prison custody and should be featured in public reports
as a measure of police practises.
4. Analyse whether complaint substantiations match the results of civil litigation.
This is a central guide to whether a complaint system is effective. While ever the
complaint system does not substantiate complaints that are later proven in litigation,
serious questions about its efficacy arise. (see appendix 2 – civil litigation as a police
accountability measure).
5. Measure whether substantiation matches the dismissal by Magistrates of charges
relating to assault, resist and hinder police and a finding that evidence was
improperly obtained.
Where a court excludes evidence on the basis that it has been obtained improperly, the
complaint body should have come to the same conclusion as the Magistrate. If no
complaint has been made, the complaint body should act on its own motion to refer the
incident to a police disciplinary process.
Where a Magistrate has dismissed a charge laid against a person who has complained
against a police officer, the complaint body should check their own conclusions against
those of the Magistrate. If their investigation has been adequate, it should match
Magistrate’s court decisions.

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Complaint bodies should measure their effectiveness by these outcomes.
6. Measure the use of, engagement with and satisfaction of complainants and legal
practitioners in the complaint process.
Questionnaires to practitioners and complainants/families are a good indication of the
effectiveness of the complaint process. Suggestions and feedback from these
questionnaires should be used to improve the complaint system.
7. Analyse whether police with complaint histories significantly greater than
average are being dismissed from the police agency.
Where police officers attract a number of complaints, a failure to substantiate complaints
is an indication that the complaint system is failing to protect the public.
8. Analyse substantiation rates from groups of officers who receive a
disproportionate number of complaints.
Patterns of unsubstantiated complaints from groups of officers indicate that the complaint
system is not working effectively.
9. Measure consistency in prosecution, discipline, civil litigation, inquest findings
and complaint substantiation rates.
There should be consistency across each system of accountability. Substantiated
complaints should result in disciplinary and criminal proceedings where appropriate.
Civil litigation findings should also be matched by disciplinary and criminal proceedings.
Inquest finding that cast doubts on police conduct should also be examined to ensure the
complaint process has come to similar conclusions.
Each of these measures should be publicly reported on at least an annual basis.

Conclusion
Until the investigation of complaints is prioritised and complies with human rights
standards, human rights remain rhetorical and Victorians will remain a serious risk of
abuse by police.
It is submitted that adherence to the recommendations in executive summary of this
report will enable Victoria to meet the requirements of international human rights
obligations and the Victorian Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006.
This will require a re-orientation in the current direction of complaint investigation in

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Victoria. Costs can be somewhat off-set by reallocation from the resources currently
provided to ESD and the Victoria Police for complaint investigation.
Further observations that will lead to improved complaint investigation and adjudication
comes through comparing complaint investigation to civil proceedings. These
observations are included in Appendix 2 of this report.
A recommendation arising from this comparison is:
There should be established a Police Complaint Civil and Disciplinary
Proceedings List at the Magistrates or County Court.
Magistrates or Judges hearing these matters must be provided with the power to:
a) judicially determine complaints on the balance of probabilities,
b) award compensation to victims and
c) make prosecutorial recommendations to the DPP,
d) demote and dismiss police from employment, (including police who refuse to
testify 447 ,) and
e) recommend policy and procedural changes within Victoria Police.

447

Police must give evidence under compulsion through this process, but their evidence
should not be admissible in criminal proceedings
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Appendix 1 organizations and individuals studied/interviewed during
this Fellowship.
California US
Kijani Obalaye Tafari, Ella Baker Centre for Human Rights Oakland California
John Buriss – Attorney California
Andrea Prichett, Berkley Copwatch
Rashidah Grinage - Pueblo
Tryon Woods- Sonoma State University
Vancouver BC Canada
Murray Mollard - BC Civil Liberties Association
Douglas King – Pivot Law Society
William MacDonald, Office of the Police Complaint Commissioner
Cameron Ward – Attorney
Lorraine Blommaert - Commission for Public Complaints against the RCMP

Winnipeg, Manitoba Canada
MacIntyre, Robert Winnipeg Police Advisory Board
Kendra Ballingall -Winnipeg Copwatch
Elizabeth Comack University of Manitoba
George Wright Commissioner, LERA Manitoba
Max Churley LERA Investigator
Jerry Woods – Manitoba Human Rights Commission Chairperson
Patricia Knipe – Communications Director – Manitoba Human Rights Commission
Maria Kucher Attorney
Jeff Gindin Attorney
Nahanni Fontaine Director of Justice for the Southern Chief’s Association
Daniel Manning- Attorney
Allan Wise – Community Development Worker
Leslie Spillet - Executive Director Ka Ni Kanichihk Inc.

Chicago
Joey Mogul – Peoples Law Office
Flint Taylor – Peoples Law Office
Jan Susler- Peoples Law Office
Craig Futterman – University of Chicago
Locke Bowman – Northwestern University
Tracy Siska – Chicago Justice Project
Gerald Frazier- Program Director Citizens Alert
Washington DC
Mara Verheyden-Hillard, Attorney
Kasha Taylor Investigation Officer Office of Police Complaints

140

New York US
Andrea Ritchie – Attorney, Incite!
King Downing- American Civil Liberties Union
Robert Perry - New York Civil Liberties Union
The Coney Island Avenue Project
New York members of the National Lawyers Guild
New York Civilian Review Board
Lawyers for the Public Interest
Malcolm X Grassroots Association
Northern Ireland
Police Ombudsman of Northern Ireland
Families for Justice
UK
Campaign Against Criminalising Communities
Medical Justice UK
Yasmin Khan - Justice for Jean, Inquest
Liberty
Imran Khan – Imran Khan & Associates
Raju Bhatt – Bhatt Murphy
Rapporteur on Police Complaints for the European Commission for Human Rights
Graham Smith,
Australia
Jude McCulloch –Professor, Monash University
Associate Professor Colleen Lewis
Professor Tim Prenzler
Dale Mills – Human Rights Monitors Sydney
Amanda Young – Koori Complaints Project, Department of Justice
Special Investigations Monitor – David Jones
Victorian Ombudsman – George Brower
Director of the Office of Police Integrity- Michael Strong
Fitzroy Legal Centre
Mental Health Legal Centre
Moreland Legal Centre
Sunshine Youth Legal Centre
YouthLaw
Conferences Attended:
Critical Resistance Conference: Oakland California
National Lawyers Guild Conference: Detroit US
National Association of Civilian Review of Law Enforcement, Cincinatti 2008.

141

Appendix 2 – Civil Litigation as a Police Accountability Mechanism

Civil litigation as a police accountability mechanism
In Australia and throughout the world, police are rarely prosecuted or disciplined for
torturing, killing, assaulting or ill-treating members of the public 448 . In contrast, civil
litigation against the police results in findings of police misconduct in significant
numbers of cases 449 . While civil litigation offers only a partial solution to the endemic
problem of police human rights abuse, its ability to find against police where other
accountability mechanisms fail justifies expanding its availability to victims of police
abuses. It also warrants its close analysis as a tool to improve state accountability
mechanisms.
This article examines the following questions:
1. What forms of accountability are needed when police abuse human rights?
2. Why does civil litigation achieve results in favour of complainants when State
controlled systems that handle complaints against police do not?
3. Why is civil litigation more available in the USA and the UK than Australia and
Canada?
4. How can civil litigation be made more accessible in Australia?
5. What lessons from the successes achieved through civil litigation can be drawn to
increase the discipline rates of police who abuse rights in Australia?

1. What forms of accountability are needed?
The Committee Against Torture, which oversights the Convention Against Torture and
Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, requires State Parties to
ensure effective measures are taken to “prevent, investigate, prosecute and punish”
perpetrators of ill-treatment 450 .
448

See for example McCulloch & Palmer 2005 – Report to the Criminology Research
Council, “Civil Litigation by citizens Against Australian Police between 1994 and 2002”,
Human Rights Watch 1998 “Shielded from Justice, Police Brutality and Accountability in
the United States.” British Columbia Civil Liberties Association Press Release dated
30/09/08 Deaths in Custody Investigation needs reform, “Torture in Chicago” 2008
Report by Peoples Law Office et al. Conversations with Imran Khan and Raju Bhatt in
the UK 2008.
449
Ibid.
450
See for example its General Comment No 2. 23 November 2007
142

In its concluding observations concerning Australia in 2008, at paragraph 27, the
Committee noted:
“The Committee is concerned over allegations against law enforcement personnel
in respect of acts of torture or cruel, inhumane or degrading treatment or
punishment and notes a lack of investigations and prosecutions. The State Party
should ensure that all allegations of actions of torture or cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment or punishment committed by law enforcement officials, and
in particular any deaths in detention, are investigated promptly, independently and
impartially and – if necessary – prosecuted and sanctioned. Furthermore, the
State party should also ensure the right of victims of police misconduct to obtain
redress and fair and adequate compensation.” 451
Similarly, Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (the
“IPCCR”), to which Australia is also a Party, requires states to ensure that victims of
rights violations achieve an effective and enforceable remedy for that abuse.
In its Concluding Observations on Australia, on 3 April 2009, the Human Rights
Committee noted:
“21. The Committee expresses concern at reports of excessive use of force by law enforcement
officials against groups, such as indigenous people, racial minorities, persons with disabilities, as
well as young people; and regrets that the investigations of allegations of police misconduct
are carried out by the police itself. The Committee is concerned by reports of the excessive use
of the electro-muscular disruption devices (EMDs) “TASERs” by police forces in certain
Australian states and territories. (articles 6 and 7). The State party should take firm measures to
eradicate all forms of excessive use of force by law enforcement officials. It should in particular:
a) establish a mechanism to carry out independent investigations of complaints concerning
excessive use of force by law enforcement officials; b) initiate proceedings against alleged
perpetrators; c) increase its efforts to provide training to law enforcement officers with regard to
excessive use of force, as well as on the principle of proportionality when using force; d) ensure
that restraint devices, including TASERs, are only used in situations where greater or lethal force
would otherwise have been justified; e) bring its legislative provisions and policies for the use of
force into line with the United Nations Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law
Enforcement Officials; and e) provide adequate reparation to the victims.” 452

Police are the principle agents of human rights abuses and torture 453 . It is thus imperative
that States ensure that police violators are:
a) Prosecuted;
451

Concluding observations of the Committee Against Torture 15 May 2008 Australia
Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee 3 April 2009 Australia,
para 21. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/hrcs95.htm
453
Penny Green & Tony Ward 2004,“State Crime, Governments, Violence and
Corruption” Pluto Press, p 124.
452

143

b) Disciplined
And that:
c) Compensation is paid to the victim 454
Furthermore, victims are entitled to assurances that the State has learnt the lessons that
led to the abuse and has reduced the likelihood of further abuses 455 .

2. Why civil litigation succeeds where complaint investigations fail
Traditionally compensation for police abuses has been paid as a result of the victim
taking civil proceedings against police. In the UK police misconduct litigation finds for
the plaintiff in 40% of cases, while complaint substantiation rates are 4%. 456 A reason for
this discrepancy provided by police complaint bodies is that only complaints with good
evidence get litigated.
However, the fact that many complaints determined as “unfounded” or “unsubstantiated”
by complaint mechanisms are subsequently found for the plaintiff in litigation through
the courts 457 reveals alternative explanations are needed.
A second explanation given by police for the difference in findings is that the processes
have (a) different standards of proof and (b) are working towards different outcomes 458 .
It is correct that criminal proceedings against police operate at a higher standard of proof
than civil litigation. However, it is now clearly established in Australia 459 , Canada 460
and the UK 461 that the standard of proof at both disciplinary hearings and civil hearings is
“the balance of probabilities”. In the US the standard is the “preponderance of the
evidence.” 462
454

It is the State, as the party to human rights covernants that holds the obligation to
compensate people for human rights abuses.
455
R (Amin) v Secretary of the State for the Home Department [2003] UKHL 51
paragraph 31.
456
Conversation with Graham Smith, Manchester University, UK 2008.
457
See McCulloch & Palmer ibid, Graham Smith 2003 “Actions for Damages Against the
Police and the Attitudes of Claimants” Policing and Society 2003, Vol 13, No. 4 pp 413422, Clifford Zimmerman and G.Flint Taylor, “The Interrelationship of Police
Disciplinary Decisions and Police Misconduct Litigation” Police Misconduct and Civil
Rights Law Report May-June 1994, conversations in 2008 with Pivot Law Society,
Vancouver Canada, Joey Mogel, Flint Taylor, Craig Futterman, Chicago USA, Raju
Bhatt and Imran Khan UK, Dyson Hore-Lacy SC, Melbourne Australia.
458
See for example Police interview in McCulloch & Palmer at page 98.
459
See OPI 2007 “A Fairer Disciplinary System”, Victoria, Australia at page 36.
460
F.H. v. McDougall, 2008 SCC 53
461
Interview with Graham Smith 2008.
462
Mission Failure, New York Civil Liberties Association, 2006.
144

It has been noted that because disciplinary hearings result in adverse findings against the
police, the balance of probabilities is harder to meet in these forums 463 . In Briginshaw v
Briginshaw 60 CLR 336 (30 June 1938) the High Court of Australia established that there
is no third standard. It did however find that a serious allegation, required quality
evidence to meet the standard of proof. That is where the allegations are serious, a civil
court must, in the same way as disciplinary tribunals, be satisfied that the evidence is
sufficient to support a balance of probabilities test. Briginshaw also states that the
consequences of a finding must be considered in reaching a conclusion about whether the
evidence meets the standard.
The consequences of a disciplinary finding could be a suspension, a dismissal, retraining,
a probationary period, or a delay in promotion. The consequences of civil proceedings
may be a monetary debt. Frequently civil courts award “punitive (or exemplary)
damages” against police. Damage awards thus both compensate the victim and provide a
form of punishment to police perpetrators. Consequences in civil proceedings are
therefore no less serious for defendants. For this reason, the quality of evidence required
in both forums will be similar.
A third difference raised by police is that negligence claims are easier to demonstrate
than disciplinary offences. In Victoria, the definition of a disciplinary offence includes
where a police officer:
“(c) engages in conduct that is likely to bring the force into disrepute or
diminish public confidence in it; or
(e) is guilty of disgraceful or improper conduct (whether in his or her
official capacity or otherwise); or
(f) is negligent or careless in the discharge of his or her duty;”

464

Given that an act of negligence is defined as a disciplinary offence, the tests applied by
Civil Courts in negligence proceedings will the same as that applied through disciplinary
processes 465 .
A fifth reason given by police for the better results achieved by civil litigation is that
Judges are more inclined to believe the plaintiff than the police. 466 The grounds for this
assertion are not made out. In criminal cases judges accept and believe police evidence
against civilians on a daily basis 467 .
463

Ian Freckelton 2009 interview.
Section 69 of the Police Regulations Act 1958
465
Other torts such as intentional battery would fall under the definition of disgraceful
and improper conduct making the issues to consider similar in both forums.
466
See McCulloch & Palmer at page 97
467
This article indicates that juries are more likely to believe police.
464

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/earl-ofari-hutchinson/federal-probes-no-antidot_b_35752.html?view=print

145

The real reasons for discrepancies start to become apparent when one focuses on the
decision makers in the complaint system: the police themselves. It is the lack of
independence of these decision-makers that is part of the reason why police complaint
systems rarely find for the complainant.
Civil litigation achieves results for a number of reasons:
1. The victim is a party
Civil litigation is driven by the victim and the victim has full standing and representation.
The victim chooses who will give evidence and on what basis to cross-examine
witnesses. The victim determines what lines of enquiry to pursue and what kind of
evidence must be discovered.
2. The independence of the decision-maker
The decision maker is usually a judge or jury. If the jury selection has been adequate, the
jury, like the judge will be impartial.
3. The evidence can be tested
Until a person is cross-examined on their evidence, it is difficult to come to a view on
their credibility. Cross-examination in court permits a better assessment of credibility
than a decision on pre-prepared and potentially fraudulent evidence.
4. The process is transparent
Hearings and interlocutory proceedings occur in open court and according to regulation
and law. Both parties are involved at each stage. The media and public may attend.
5. Full-disclosure of documents
While this ideal is not always reached, the disclosure of documents in civil proceedings is
certainly much better than anything the complainant receives through the police
complaint process. It is important to realise that police lawyers will have access to the
full complaint investigation material as soon as a suit is lodged 468 . Failure to disclose all
of this material to the plaintiff results in inequalities between the parties.
6. The decision is legally reasoned and open to full review and scrutiny.
Decisions by Judges in civil proceeding must be legally reasoned, address the facts and
be available in full to both parties and the public. Decisions can be appealed.

468

McCulloch & Palmer at page 100.
146

Combined, these qualities make up the reasons why civil litigation processes are more
likely to reach findings of fact against police than police complaint processes.

3. The availability of civil litigation in the US and UK
In the US, the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (the Klu Klux Klan Act) (now provision 42 USC
section 1983) establishes a mechanism to sue a person acting under colour of law custom
or practice who deprives a person of any right or privilege secured by the US
Constitution or any other law. Actions are brought in the Federal Courts. The US
Constitution contains rights such as the right to life 469 , freedom from unlawful search and
seizure 470 and freedom from torture and ill-treatment 471 .
In 1961, Monroe v Pape 365 US 167, section 1983 applied section 1983 to police acting
under apparent or purported authority of law, custom or practice. This application
opened the way for police misconduct litigation.
Under section 1983 successful plaintiffs can receive damages for pain and suffering,
injuries and lost wages. Punitive damages are frequently awarded and in addition,
attorney and witness fees can also be recovered.
If a police officer is successful in defeating the litigation, his or her legal fees are only
recoverable from the plaintiff if a court finds the plaintiff’s case is frivolous,
unreasonable or without foundation: Christianberg Garment Co. v. EEOC, 434 U.S. 4012
(1978). This means that unsuccessful plaintiffs in the US are not liable to pay costs
provided their claim is reasonable.
The provision for attorney fees in damage claims also means that lawyers can recover
their costs in taking action against the police. Obviously if the plaintiff losses, lawyers
will not recover their costs. This is a risk the lawyers must take in accepting these cases.
In the US, as in Australia, cities (or states), on whose behalf police act, are not
automatically vicariously liable for damage awards. Without vicarious liability, damage
awards are “paper victories” for plaintiffs. A series of US cases (Monell litigation)
demonstrated that cities can be liable for police misconduct and many cities now offer
indemnity certificates to prevent exposing themselves through discovery under Monell
actions and to satisfy police associations. The existence of vicarious liability remains
however, greatly variable across US jurisdictions.
A Monell claim can be brought where the perpetrator of a rights violation is a police
officer who has received previous complaints. The claim is made by demonstrating that
the State/City’s police disciplinary system has failed, leaving the public, and the plaintiff
in particular, vulnerable to rights abuse. It is foreseeable that a police officer who has
469

14th Amendment
4th Amendment,
471 th
8 Amendment.
470

147

previously violated the rights of a person will do so again unless dismissed or otherwise
re-trained and effectively supervised. Failure to ensure the disciplinary process acts to
prevent foreseeable abuses, renders the State/City directly liable for the abuse suffered by
a plaintiff. 472
Monell type claims are worth exploring in the UK, Canada and Australia.
As a result of Monroe v Pape, there now exists a body of lawyers across the US with
substantial skill and expertise in police misconduct litigation 473 . However, Police
misconduct cases are not highly profitable and many of these lawyers, despite their
expertise, operate on extremely tight budgets.
The existence of a remedy against human rights abuses in the US has lead to some
extremely significant decisions about police misconduct. For example, civil litigation
uncovered the links between the police, Klu Klux Klan and Nazi groups in the 1985
Greensboro litigation, it brought to public attention the relationship between police, the
FBI and Cointelpro in conducting an unlawful shooting of Black Panther leaders in the
Fred Hampton case 474 . In 1983, civil litigation assisted in uncovering the existence of
“street files” – files held by police, never shown to defence lawyers, that contained
exculpatory evidence that could assist individuals police were prosecuting. Civil
litigation was essential in uncovering the systemic torture of over 100 African Americans
to obtain false confessions in the Burge cases in Chicago 475 . It has been used to uncover
the failure of police command to control and dismiss police using their police weapons
against their wives 476 and has been critical in uncovering systemic and entrenched
failures in police disciplinary systems (the Monell litigation) 477 . Civil suits have also
resulted in settlements agreements (consent decrees) in which cities and police
departments agreed to the establishment of civilian bodies that receive police
complaints 478 .
While civil rights litigation has been very effective in bringing to public attention some
profound examples police misconduct and the State’s complicity in this misconduct, this

472

Futterman, Craig 2008, The Use of Statistical Evidence to Address Police Supervisory
and Disciplinary Practices: The Chicago Police Department’s Broken System, DePaul
Journal for Social Justice, Vol 1 Number 2.
473
The National Lawyers Guild has a National Police Accountability Project which
supports the work of these lawyers.
474
Hampton v. Hanrahan 446 U.S. 754 (1980)
475
Wilson v. City of Chicago 6 F.3d 1233 (1993)
476
Czajkowski v. City of Chicago 810 F.Supp. 1428 (N.D. Ill.) (1992)
477
See for example Means v. City of Chicago 535 F. Supp. 168 (N.D. Ill. 1982) These
cases mention in this paragraph were all conducted by Chicago attorneys from the
People’s Law Office.
478
See for example the 2003 Cincinatti Consent Decree
148

avenue is largely inaccessible to the vast majority of US victims of police misconduct 479 .
The high risk and long trial times provide little commercial imperative for lawyers to take
on police misconduct cases. As a result civil rights cases in the US represent a fraction of
the problem.
Despite these drawbacks, civil rights litigation is a far more accessible option to victims
in the US than Australia and Canada.
Civil Litigation in the UK
Since in the mid 1980s, UK civil litigation against the police has been funded by through
legal aid assistance schemes. Prior to this, civil actions against the police were only
available to those who could pay rendering them inaccessible to the vast majority of
victims 480 . From the 1980s civil litigation began exposing the failures of the complaint
systems as plaintiffs found success where complaint mechanisms failed 481 .
Plaintiff lawyers and the people and families they represent used civil cases to revealed
the prevalence of police brutality and its disproportionate impact on people from working
class backgrounds and on racial, cultural and religious minorities 482 . They also exposed
the systemic biases towards police in State run police accountability measures. They
forced the State to be more transparent with investigation results 483 , and found means,
through creative use of defamation laws, to ensure that even when cases settled, police
misconduct could be exposed through the media. 484 For example, Bahar Ahmed a
Muslim man who was tortured by the Metropolitan police in London in 2003, received
£60,000 in a civil settlement with the police admitting their actions. Following an
investigation by the Independent Police Complaint Commission, no police were
disciplined. This settlement, the police human rights abuse and the failure of the police
complaint process was reported in the media 485 .
The advent of the UK Human Rights Act 1998, the 1999 Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, and
cases such as R (Amin) v Secretary of the State for the Home Department [2003] UKHL
51 has shifted the UK legal system towards a focus on the rights of victims and families.
Appeal avenues from domestic judicial review, litigation and inquest findings (also with
lawyers now funded by legal aid) to the European Court of Human Rights has placed
479

Ella Baker Centre for Human Rights interview with Tayfanye Om, and interview with
King Downing from the ACLU in New York.
480
Interview with Raju Bhatt, 2 December 2008.
481
Graham Smith, 2003 “Actions for Damages Against the Police and the attitudes of
claimants” Police and Society, 2003, Vol 13, No 4 pp 413-422.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/mar/18/babar-ahmed-met-police/print
482
Ibid.
483

R v Chief Constable of the West Midlands, ex p. Wiley [1994] UKHL 8 (14 July 1994)

484

Interview with Raji Bhatt, 2 December 2008
Metropolitan police pays Muslim man £60,000 damages over 'serious attack' | Politics
| guardian.co.uk

485

149

some enforceable legal pressure on the UK Government to improve investigation of
police, prison, immigration and military abuses, improve police practices and increase the
role of the victim and families in investigations 486 . Civil litigation is currently being used
to uncover the UK Government’s role in the abuse, interrogation and detention without
trial of Moazzam Begg and Tarek Dergoul at Guantanamo Bay 487 .
Section 88 of the Police Act 1996 makes the Chief Constable liable for all wrongs
committed by police in the performance or purported performance of their duties. 488
Under UK law, damages can be awarded against police “for tortious conduct deserving
punishment, deterrence or disapproval and involving oppressive arbitrary or
unconstitutional action by the servants of government.” 489
These avenues for redress and improving the legal and investigation systems were made
possible through the availability of Legal Aid to victims and the intense lobbying of
families, advocacy agencies and grassroots organizations.
As small number of specialist legal practises now exist to assist the victims of police,
prison, immigration, intelligence and military abuses 490 . As in the US, these practices
exist on extremely tight budgets.
The high damage awards in the US and legal aid in the UK enables victims of police
abuse to seek justice where other mechanisms fail. In Canada, civil litigation is seriously
underused as an accountability measure 491 . The absence of legal aid makes these actions
rare and dependent on the wealth of the victim or finding pro-bono support 492 . In
Vancouver, the Pivot Legal Society has been assisting victims to bring their own cases
through the lower courts 493 . However as police are represented by experienced defence
counsel the imbalance in these proceedings is substantial 494 .

4. Increasing the availability of civil litigation in Australia

486

Interview with Imran Khan on 9 December 2008. See a critique the Human Rights
Act’s role in relation to control orders at K. Ewing and J. Tham, 'The continuing futility
of the Human Rights Act' (2008) Winter 2008 /Public Law/ 668-693
487
http://www.christiankhan.co.uk/ViewNews.asp?NewsID=142
488
Bill Dixon and Graham Smith “Laying Down the Law: the Police, the Courts and
Legal Accountability” International Journal of the Sociology of Law 1998 26, at 428.
489
Ibid.
490
See for example, Birnberg Pierce, Bhatt Murphy, Christian Khan, Imran Khan and
Associates, Inquest, Liberty.
491
Interview with Attorney Daniel Manning, Winnipeg 23 October 2008.
492
Ibid.
493
See Pivot Legal Society Booklet “How to Sue the Police”.
494
See a successful case Willie v. The City of Vancouver 2007 BCPC 0245
150

As is Canada, civil litigation in Australia is an under-utilised mechanism for police
accountability. Some reasons for its under-utilisation in Victoria are as follows:
1. Plaintiffs risk adverse costs awards when they sue police;
2. The Chief Commissioner or State of Victoria is not liable for police who, in bad faith,
abuse members of the public 495 ;
3. Where police negligently rather than intentionally injure a member of the public the
plaintiff’s injury must be permanent and reach a threshold in order to be able to sue 496 ;
4. There is a limitation period of three years on taking civil action 497 ;
5. There is extremely limited or no legal aid for plaintiffs 498 ;
6. The community legal sector is under-resourced to run the number of cases needed for
these cases to have an accountability impact on police.
7. Some private law firms who previously specialised in taking action for victims of
police misconduct are now acting exclusively for the Police Association which is well
resourced and can guarantee high fees for high value of work. 499
8. Police are represented by lawyers either paid directly by the State of Victoria or by the
Police Association.
9. Cases are lengthy, are high risk and legal firms driven by profit motives have no
incentive to take cases on 500 .
10. Damage awards are much lower than the US or UK (for example $15,000 was
awarded as both compensatory and exemplary damages for a false imprisonment case in
1998 501 .) In Victoria courts will award the winning party their costs, however generally
this amount is only about 68% of the actual legal costs of the plaintiff. 502
As a result of these barriers, the victims of human rights abuses by police officers do not
have realistic access to redress and compensation in Victoria. The few cases that are run
rely on the generosity of pro-bono counsel who often work for years without receiving a
cent. 503
The vast majority of cases, even those with strong evidence, do not see the inside of a
court-room. This means that Australia is not meeting its international law obligations to
adequately compensate the abuse.

495

Enever v The King (1906) 3 CLR 969, the effect of which is only partially ameliorated
by section 123 of the current Police Regulations Act 1958.
496
Wrongs Act 1958 Part VBA
497
Limitation of Actions Act 1958 section 5.
498
Legal Aid Grant Handbook Chapter 2 page 25. Legal aid may be granted to assess
merits and settle disputes.
499
There are two well known firms in this category in Victoria.
500
Discussions with firms specifically and generally about this issue
501
Sadler v Madigan, Court of Appeal, Victoria, 1 October 1998.
502
Colbran et al, 1998 “Civil Procedure, Commentary and Materials,” p864, 865.
503
Hovarth v Christensen & Ors, County Court of Victoria 23 February 2001.
151

To remedy this situation, and drawing on the lessons from both the US and the UK,
legislative amendments and the reallocation of resources is necessary.
Legislative Amendments
1. No costs awarded against unsuccessful plaintiffs unless their case is frivolous,
unreasonable or without foundation.
2. The Police Regulations Act 1958 must be amended to make the State vicariously liable
for all damages awarded against police officers acting within the performance or
purported performance of their duty. The State is responsible for ensure compensation is
paid under the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights 504 .
3. The Wrongs Act 1958 must be amended to remove injury thresholds for victims of
human rights abuses.
4. The Limitation of Actions Act 1958 must be amended to increase the limitation period
for victims of human rights abuses.
Resource allocation
There are two solutions to funding civil action against police. It is perhaps a combination
of both that will provide the most realistic options.
Solution 1
a) Legal Aid must be available for lawyers and counsel acting for victims of human rights
abuses. Furthermore rates must provide for the use of experienced and senior counsel.
b) The State must fund the provision of police litigation practises within community legal
centres and Aboriginal legal aid services across the State and in particular in areas where
complaints against police are made or raised with advocates, for example in Mildura,
Swan Hill, Lakes Entrance, Moreland, Warrnambool, Sunshine, Flemington, Dandenong,
Fitzroy, St Kilda, West Hiedleburg and Collingwood.
Solution 2 (legislative amendment)
In cases involving human rights abuses, Courts should award costs that cover the full
legal bill of the plaintiff. This will encourage private practises to undertake work on
behalf of victims of police abuses.

504

General Comment No. 31 [80] Nature of the General Legal Obligation Imposed on
States Parties to the Covenant : . 26/05/2004.CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13. (General
Comments)
152

The UK has adopted the first solution with the result that solicitor and counsel fees are
paid through legal aid rather than cost awards against the police 505 .

5. Using the lessons of civil litigation to improve complaint
handling
There are 6 features earlier identified that make civil litigation better able to come to a
finding of fact against police officers than complaint systems.
To improve complaint systems against the police, these features should be adopted by
complaint investigation bodies.
Firstly, victims must be parties to the complaint process. Secondly, decision makers must
be independent of both police and the victim. Thirdly, evidence obtained via the
investigation process must be tested through cross-examination. Fourthly the process
must be transparent and subject to victim and public scrutiny. Fifthy, the victim should
be entitled to full disclosure of all documents generated through the investigation process.
Sixthly, police complaint decisions must be fully reasoned and set out all the facts and
law that applies and these decisions must be judicially reviewable.
It is noteworthy that the adoption of these characteristics by the complaint system will
increase the State’s compliance with its human rights obligations to provide an effective
investigation into complaints against police.
The Rapporteur for Police Complaints to the European Commission on Human Rights
has identified five guiding principles for police complaint systems to comply with human
rights 506 . These are:

1. “Independence: there should be organizational and functional independence; that
is by non-police investigators according to established principles of independence
and impartiality;
2. Adequacy: the investigation should be capable of gathering evidence to determine
whether the behaviour complained of was unlawful [whether the force used was
justified 507 ] and to identify and punish those responsible;

505

Interview with Raju Bhatt 2 December 2008.
Graham Smith, (2008) “European Commissioner for Human Rights Police Complaints
Initiative” – 172 JPN 399, pp 1,2. Opinion of the Commissioner for Human Rights
Concerning Independent and Effective Determination of Complaints Against the Police,
12 March 2009.
507
Jordan v The United Kingdom [2001] ECHR 327 (4 May 2001) para 107.
506

153

3. Promptness: a speedy response and expeditiousness is crucial for maintaining
trust and confidence in the rule of law and in order to dispel any fear or collusion
in any attempt to conceal misconduct;
4. Public scrutiny: accountability is served by open and transparent procedures and
decision-making at every stage of the determination of a complaint against police;
5. Victim involvement: in order to safeguard his or her legitimate interests the victim
is entitled to participate in the process.” 508

A model system
Rather than duplicate processes, it is submitted that a more cost effective solution would
be to combine the public hearing functions of complaint determination and civil litigation
into one proceeding.
A solution would be the establishment of Police Complaint Civil and Disciplinary
Proceedings List at the Magistrates or County Court.
Magistrates or Judges hearing these matters could be provided with the power to:
a) judicially determine complaints on the balance of probabilities,
b) award compensation to victims and
c) make prosecutorial recommendations to the DPP,
d) demote and dismiss police from employment, (including police who refuse to
testify 509 ,) and
e) recommend policy and procedural changes within Victoria Police.
It is submitted that the Courts are logically placed to run such hearings and less likely
than other forums to be the subject of bias claims. Furthermore, decisions by a
Magistrate can be appealed in the normal process, enabling judicial and or merits review
of decisions.
An initial forensic investigation, including the separation and interview of police
witnesses should be conducted by independent civilian investigators.
Investigators may then act as counsel assisting at the hearing. Alternatively, the matter
could be run, like civil proceedings, with the victim bearing the evidentiary burden 510 .
508

Graham Smith, (2008) “European Commissioner for Human Rights Police Complaints
Initiative” – 172 JPN 399, pp 1,2.
509
Police must give evidence under compulsion through this process, but their evidence
should not be admissible in criminal proceedings
510
The Law Enforcement Review Agency in Manitoba, Canada, operates similarly to this
process.
154

However it is the State that bears the obligation to discipline and prosecute police
perpetrators of human rights abuses 511 .
Evidence collected by the independent investigators should be available to all parties.
The Court’s power to subpoena evidence and discovery processes, will provide further
important mechanism to obtain evidence at the hearing.
A vital consideration in making this model successful will be the provision of quality
legal assistance to victims and their full standing at hearings through State funding.
Failure to provide such assistance will render the process ineffective. By using legal
advocacy rather than a pure investigative model, the rights and interests of people who
have suffered police abuse becomes a central rather than peripheral concern.
Conclusion
This article has explored the use and benefits of civil litigation, concluding that it is a
better accountability mechanism that existing police complaint systems. As a result it
must be more accessible to ordinary people. I have made some suggestions as to how
this may be achieved.
The success of the civil litigation system also offers potential lessons for police complaint
systems. To improve their outcomes, qualities such as victim involvement, transparency,
testing of evidence, independent decision-making, disclosure of information, and legally
reasoned and appealable decisions must be built into their operation.

511

See JL, R (On the Application of) v Secretary of State For Justice [2008] UKHL 68
(26 November 2008) para 35.
155

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